Teaching with Technology: A More Meaningful Learning Experience Starts with Two Simple Questions

By: Amber Dailey, PhD, B. Jean Mandernach, PhD, and Emily Donnelli in Effective Teaching Strategies

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We are bombarded with information about online course supplements and the newest interactive multimedia components, all touted as the best approach to engage todays learners in the online environment. Dedicated practitioners puzzle over how, when, and where to incorporate multimedia within their online courses and further agonize over the potential effects of choosing not to do so. In this article, we propose that the real multimedia dilemma lies not in how, when, or where multimedia should be incorporated into online courses, but the crux of the matter lies determining why and what. A paradigm shift to focus on the intentional and meaningful inclusion of multimedia should be considered, particularly given the thrust and pressure for faculty to include multimedia innovations throughout their courses. Multimedia provides a plethora of tools to supplement online text, including graphics, audio, music, video, animation, and/or simulation. Given so many choices, the questions return to why and whatWhy am I including multimedia in my online course? And what type of multimedia should I include to create a meaningful learning experience? Theoretically, multimedia that is content relevant and pedagogically intentional facilitates student learning through maximization of cognitive learning strategies. If our goal is to enhance student learning, we should carefully select multimedia supplements that target difficult course concepts to make learning more meaningful, reduce demands on working memory, and encode concepts via dual avenues. Fortunately, many textbook publishers produce a range of multimedia supplements geared exclusively toward these ends, supplements that can be selectively integrated into the course structure. There is another critical reason for considering the dedicated inclusion of multimedia within your online classroomstudent engagement. Student engagement rests upon students willingness, need, desire, and compulsion to participate in, and be successful in, the learning process (Bomia, Beluzo, Demeester, Elander, Johnson & Sheldon, 1997, p. 294). Therefore, students with high engagement show increased interest and enthusiasm for the course, which, in turn, impacts retention, learning, and satisfaction. Research at the collegiate level reveals five components essential for student engagement: academic challenge, active/collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, enriching education experiences, and a supportive learning environment (Kenny, Kenny & Dumont, 1995). Multimedia content allows instructors to address these components by facilitating active learning, personalizing student-faculty connections, and enriching learning experiences. Going beyond simple consideration of commercially produced multimedia, online instructors may benefit from the creation and inclusion of instructorgenerated multimedia supplements. The personalization principle (Clark & Mayer, 2002) highlights that conversational tone and/or a personalized learning agent enhances learning due to the activation of social conventions to listen and respond meaningfully. Thus, multimedia featuring the course instructor discussing concepts, has the potential to simultaneously enhance both learning and student engagement. While commercially produced multimedia is an ideal option to target student learning, online instructors should also consider creating their own multimedia supplements to help personalize the online classroom and enhance student engagement. Whether as simple as a short webcam video or brief audio clip or as complex as an

interactive, Flash-based tutorial with narrated PowerPoint, software exists to help even the most technologically challenged online instructor create personalized multimedia components with relative ease. Because incorporating multimedia can quickly demonstrate that our courses address the expectations of next generation learning/learners, we are tempted to jump to questions of how, when, and where, instead of first asking ourselves questions of why and what. When we let technical questions pre-empt pedagogical ones, we are left with dazzling multimedia applications that lack a grounding in course learning outcomes. Questions of why and what compel us to enter pedagogical discussions of multimedia, to consider how multimedia inclusion can clarify difficult course concepts; reduce demands on and expectations for rote memory; and promote deep, meaningful, and lasting learning by helping learners encode concepts via multiple avenues. Moreover, these pedagogical discussions provoke us to evaluate the extent to which targeted use of multimedia can motivate students enthusiastic participation in our courses. These questions of why are a necessary first step in determining what, if any, multimedia to include in your online courses and, following, how that integration can be facilitated successfully. References Bomia, L., Beluzo, L., Demeester, D., Elander, K., Johnson, M. & Sheldon, B. (1997). The impact of teaching strategies on intrinsic motivation. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. Clark, R.C. & Mayer, R.E. (2002). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kenny, G., Kenny, D. & Dumont, R. (1995). Mission and place: Strengthening learning and community through campus design. Oryx/Greenwood. Amber Dailey is the director of the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at Park University. B. Jean Mandernach is an associate professor of psychology at Park University. Emily Donnelli is an assistant professor of English and assistant director of the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at Park University. Funding for research related to the development of this article was provided by an Oregon State University Distance Education Research and Development Grant.

New technologies that facilitate meaningful learning experiences

Dr Judith Good, Reader in Informatics, has been invited to present her research on designing innovative technology for learners atTEDx Brighton 2011. She is particularly interested in designing systems that can be appropriated by learners, and which can help them shape their learning experiences in meaningful ways. She says: "Learning may allow us to acquire new facts about the world, but these facts are often soon forgotten. The best learning changes the way we look at the world, and at ourselves. Although many of us cannot remember the myriad facts we were taught in secondary school, almost everyone can bring to mind a 'meaningful learning experience' which shaped us and sticks with us to this day. Such experiences can empower us as learners, and also change the ways in which we relate to others, making us more willing to entertain new perspectives, and to see crucial issues in new ways. In short, if we want learning to have a real impact, then we need to consider not just the cognitive aspects of learning, but also the emotional ones." In her talk, she looks at the ways in which new technologies can be used to facilitate these meaningful learning experiences and bring about real change. She draws examples from a wide variety of contexts, for example, teaching young people to create their own commercial quality video games, helping children with autism spectrum conditions to interact with virtual characters, designing a simulation to teach learners about the relentless pressures under which small scale farmers in Africa must operate, and using tangible technologies to allow learners to communicate their emotional experiences to their teachers.

Next Steps for Creating Meaningful Learning Experiences By Denyse Doerries, Ph.D.

By this time in the school year teachers have a more complete, in-depth picture of what their students know and what they can do with that knowledge. This brings an acute awareness of learners differences and may lead teachers to ask, what next? In his book, Visible Learning, John Hattie (2009) suggests that in order to move students to the next steps of learning, teachers must match student needs with learning experiences. To accomplish this, teachers must know how their students think and what they know and then use this information to create meaningful experiences to advance students learning. Hattie (2009) recommends that teachers look for evidence of learning, or lack thereof, and intervene with meaningful targeted instruction. Discovering what your students know and how they think is an important component of designing and selecting effective instructional strategies. Teachers need a rich arsenal of teaching strategies to be able to provide multiple opportunities and flexible alternatives to help students learn (Hattie, 2009). The articles in this issue of T/TAC Link Lines present strategies to help teachers find out what students know and are learning, and suggestions for matching this knowledge with effective instructional interventions. In diverse classrooms, it takes multiple perspectives, including the students, to obtain the information needed to create effective learning experiences. The article The Planning Meeting Process: An excerpt from the Considerations Packet, Co-Planning for Student Success on collaborative planning, or co-planning, is about teachers coming together to plan for instruction in diverse classrooms, including students with disabilities. It supports co-teachers by outlining a process for creating a shared perspective around student needs in order to plan effective instruction. Having multiple perspectives on student learning helps to make the instructional match. The two-part series Standards-Based IEP Goal Writing: Instructional Strategy Selection and "Writing StandardsBased IEP Goals" provides examples of seven critical questions teachers can employ in writing the PLoP, setting goals, and selecting appropriate reading strategies to reach the goals. The process requires thoughtful consideration of intersecting factors that will lead to sound decisions and, ultimately, to effective instruction. The article Teaching and Learning: Selecting the Right Math Strategy employs questions to create the appropriate instructional match to foster students progress in math. This article illustrates how a students incorrect response to a math problem can be used to discover what the student knows and can do with what she knows. A students perspective is provided in Students Voices: Zacks Story. Understanding how students think and perceive their learning environment is pivotal to student success. Zack, a student with Aspergers Syndrome, discusses what he would like teachers to know about how he processed information and how that knowledge can help educators assist students like him. A link to another students story is provided to enhance this section on student stories (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/18/us/autistic-and-seeking-a-place-in-an-adult-world.html). Additional resources to enhance teachers instructional strategies may be found in the following two articles,Featured Applications: Reading Applications Across the Components of Reading and Assistive

Technology that Supports Students with Disabilities in the Least Restrictive Environment, which highlight the use of technology to enhance learning experiences in general education classrooms. Both articles provide inexpensive, easily-accessed technologies that can be employed in reading, writing, and study skills. Teachers who are willing to search for information from students about their learning needs will find that asking the right questions can provide the feedback necessary to make the best learning match (Hattie, 2009). You may be astounded by your students responses! Be prepared to be surprised! References Hattie, J., (2009). Visible learning. London and New York, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.

Teaching and learning: how do educators engage infants, toddlers and young children in meaningful learning experiences?
Effective teaching
Effective teaching is at the heart of high quality early childhood provision. In high quality services, teaching practices are respectful of what children bring to their learning. Educators view children as competent learners, foster their independence and perseverance, and expect them to make considered choices and decisions. They promote childrens learning by encouraging them to investigate and solve problems. Educators listen to childrens ideas and extend their thinking. They use appropriate strategies to foster interaction through modelling and positive feedback. Young children are engaged in sustained conversations and given time to think and to formulate their responses. They are encouraged to engage in debate and negotiation with educators and peers. Educators are aware of each child, their preferences and dispositions. They know how to engage them in learning that is meaningful to them. An example of high quality from an individual services ERO report. An inquiry approach uses childrens questions to identify possibilities for extending childrens learning. Educators identify these questions through summaries of observations and meetings with the children. They constantly model the language used in investigation and prompt children to consider their next steps. They also use the meetings with children to support small groups to explore different interests simultaneously. EROs national evaluation reports have highlighted the importance of effective teaching practice. The Quality of Assessment in Early Childhood Education, noted good assessment practice in a service where:

Educators were quick to respond to childrens learning by introducing new resources and extending childrens thinking through open ended questions and sustained conversations. Educators often made adjustments to the programme immediately, as well as planning for extension and development of childrens interests over time. In Success for Mori Children in Early Childhood Services, ERO reported on effective teaching strategies for Mori children.

Educators valued what children brought to their learning. They acknowledged childrens prior experiences and had high expectations for them as learners. Services embraced the concept of ako in their practice and worked from the premise that we are all learners and teachers here. Educators recognised opportunities to foster tuakana/teina relationships between older and younger children.

Provision for infants and toddlers

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In high quality services, where infants and toddlers attend, educators recognise each childs unique strengths, interests and needs. Educators working with infants and toddlers are attuned to them and guide and work alongside them as they explore and discover things about their environment. Children are encouraged to try new things and are given the space and time to solve problems themselves. Infants experience nurturing attachment relationships with primary caregivers. One-to-one interactions respond to their cues and communication attempts. Infants are immersed in a language-rich environment and spend time in a variety of positions and places, alone as well as interacting with others around them. Care routines are based on each childs individual needs and daily rhythms.

In high quality services, educators support toddlers ability to choose where to play, and encourage their independence and self management. Toddlers learn about consequences and develop problem-solving skills. They have easy access to a range of resources and play spaces that encourage choice and decision-making. Educators engage in meaningful conversations with toddlers and foster language development, communication skills and social interaction. An example of high quality from an individual services ERO report. Infants and toddlers benefit from the nurturing and respectful care provided. Teachers are very aware of the particular characteristics and preferences of the young children with whom they work. This care and attention can be seen in the ways in which teachers:

encourage children to develop independence in self care. In some services, mixed-age groupings enable toddlers to follow the lead of older children and become familiar with possibilities and expectations. Tuakana/teina relationships are fostered through mixed-age grouping. Toddlers benefit from the modelling of older peers as they work with resources and equipment.

use infants individual routines to plan their daily programme; are attentive and responsive to the needs of children and to their feelings; maintain well managed and implemented care routines to ensure that childrens needs are met; and

The Quality of Education and Care in Infant and Toddler Centre (January 2009), identified some of the features of high quality provision for infants and toddlers. Features included:

attentive and responsive teachers who developed warm and trusting relationships with children flexible, well-established routines based on individual childrens emotional and physical needs planning and assessment practice based on childrens emerging interests that made learning visible for teachers and parents teachers working collaboratively and engaging in professional discussions about childrens learning teachers using assessment information to make informed decisions about the programme strong partnerships between teachers and parents and whnau, based on mutual respect and good communication processes.

Bicultural curriculum
In high quality services, educators are committed to implementing a bicultural curriculum that acknowledges the dual cultural heritage of Aotearoa New Zealand and honours Te Tiriti o Waitangi. The concepts of whanaungatanga, manaakitanga, and aroha are evident in all aspects of service operations. Mori childrens identity is respected and teaching promotes their success. An example of high quality from an individual services ERO report. Teachers and educators are working to embed Te Ao Mori as an integral part of the programme. The pepeha wall is a strong visual feature, which displays the whakapapa of children and staff members alongside a local mythical symbol, the manaia, which has been created by a local artist and the children. Children and their whnau refer to this display and make connections with each other. Older children are encouraged to help younger children, as part of a tuakana-teina relationship. Teachers are studying to increase their understanding of te reo Mori. They use te reo Mori in some routines, and karakia to bless the food at meal times as part of the kawa of the kindergarten. The kindergarten is showing commitment to meeting the cultural aspirations of its community. EROs national evaluation reports have reported on quality in relation to the provision of a bicultural curriculum.

In Success for Mori Children in Early Childhood Services, ERO reported on findings where services had a strong bicultural focus in their curriculum. In highly focused services, practices were inclusive and respectful of Mori values and beliefs. Te reo Mori was consistently used in conversations and evident in the environment, in planning documents and in assessment records such as childrens portfolios. Some services had educators who were confident in using te reo Mori and modelled its use for others. Rituals and routines for children incorporated tikanga Mori. Mori children confidently led karakia and waiata in many of these services. Childrens ancestral connections were affirmed and their identity as Mori acknowledged.

Success for Mori Children in Early Childhood Services: Good Practice, reported good practice in a service with a strong bicultural curriculum.

Mori perspectives are woven through all that happens in the programme. Children and adults use te reo Mori comfortably and confidently as part of daily interaction. Learning stories show how the curriculum offers culturally rich learning experiences that affirm childrens identity as Mori. An integral part of the kindergarten curriculum is a virtues programme that is tightly linked to the values and beliefs expressed in the philosophy statement. The virtues are expressed in te reo Mori and in English. Children are gaining understanding of these, especially when used as Mori concepts.

Cultural diversity
In high quality services, educators recognise, acknowledge and respond to cultural diversity. Teaching practice is inclusive and takes account of all childrens strengths and interests. Educators value and celebrate the bilingual abilities of children and families who speak other languages in addition to English. An example of high quality from an individual services ERO report. Teachers are strong advocates for the right of every child to receive high quality education and care irrespective of their age, ability, gender or ethnicity. The rich cultural diversity of families attending the kindergarten is valued, celebrated and reflected in the programme, environment, routines and teaching practices.

Learning environment
An integral part of teaching and learning in early childhood services is the physical environment and the way it supports childrens learning. In high quality services, the physical learning environment is stimulating and inviting and gives children independent access to a wide range of interesting resources. Educators set up inviting play spaces and offer children choice, support and challenge. The environment is continually reviewed to ensure it is responsive to childrens interests and strengths.

An example of high quality from an individual services ERO report. The centre offers a spacious and uncluttered environment and has a good range of equipment and resources. Children are able to select resources independently and use these to support their play. Well organised play areas also provide children with the space they need for quiet, active, solitary and group play. The large outdoor area is set up in ways that provide physical challenge and encourage children to explore and discover for themselves. Teachers are committed to providing adaptable play equipment that can be used in flexible ways and that motivates children to engage in complex and sustained play.

Dr Madhumita Bhattacharya Instructional Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological University
This article describes the process of creating a Meaningful Learning Environment (MLE) by going through a three-step cycle (i.e. activity-artefact-reflection) and recording the process of learning in the form of digital portfolios. The production of quality MLE and learning through MLE is assured by following an integrated method of feedback and evaluation, consisting of self-evaluation, peer review and teacher-feedback carried out through various activities [e.g. online (synchronous and asynchronous) discussion, classroom group discussion and presentation]. The methods explained below are based on my own practical experience of designing projectbased activities for NIE students. Using Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the students create digital portfolios during the course of their studies in instructional technology; learning takes place individually and collaboratively as each student interacts with their team members and the teacher. What is Meaningful Learning? In order to effectively integrate technology into a meaningful learning experience, we must first have a clear understanding of what a meaningful learning experience is. Meaningful learning occurs when learners actively interpret their experience using internal, cognitive operations. Meaningful learning requires that teachers change their role from sage to guide. Since students learn from thinking about what they are doing, the teachers role becomes one of stimulating and supporting activities that engage learners in thinking. Teachers must also be comfortable that this thinking may transcend their own insights. Meaningful learning requires knowledge to be constructed by the learner, not transmitted from the teacher to the student (Jonassen, et al., 1999).

According to Jonassen, et al. (1999), meaningful learning is:

Active (manipulative): We interact with the environment manipulate the objects within it and observe the effects of our manipulations. Constructive and reflective: Activity is essential but insufficient for meaningful learning. We must reflect on the activity and our observations, and interpret them in order to have a meaningful learning experience. Intentional: Human behaviour is naturally goal-directed. When students actively try to achieve a learning goal that they have articulated, they think and learn more. For students to experience meaningful learning, they must be able to articulate their own learning goals and monitor their own progress. Authentic (complex and contextual): Thoughts and ideas rely on the contexts in which they occur in order to have meaning. Presenting facts that are stripped from their contextual clues divorces knowledge from reality. Learning is meaningful, better understood and more likely to transfer to new situations when it occurs by engaging with real-life, complex problems. Cooperative (collaborative and conversational): We live, work and learn in communities, naturally seeking ideas and assistance from each other, and negotiating about problems and how to solve them. It is in this context that we learn there are numerous ways to view the world and a variety of solutions to most problems. Meaningful learning, therefore, requires conversations and group experiences.

To experience meaningful learning, students need to do much more than access or seek informationthey need to know how to examine, perceive, interpret and experience information. Steps in Creating MLE In the introductory courses in the Instructional Technology for Teacher Education Programme at NIE, the trainee teachers are assigned to create an MLE using ICT. Working in groups particularly in pairs, the trainee teachers experience the process of meaningful learning

as they progress through the following steps of producing the MLE. 1. Developing an Idea Map Using Mind-mapping Tools: Each group of trainee teachers decides on a topic and brainstorms on how to include various attributes of meaningful learning in the creation of a learning environment for their students. The trainee teachers then represent their ideas in a visual format using mind-mapping tools (http://www.mindjet.com). Next, two other groups of trainee teachers review each Idea Map. The feedback is provided to the creators online using the discussion forum Blackboard delivery platform (http://www.blackboard.com). Based on the peer-review feedback received, each trainee teacher then makes changes and modifications. The trainee teachers also note down their reflections on how useful they have found these sets of activities. 2. Creating a Flowchart of Activities*: Based on their own requirements for developing a student-centred learning environment, the trainee teachers organise the information and activities that they want their students to cover by following four basic steps:

divide the content into logical units; establish a hierarchy of importance and generality; use the hierarchy to structure relationships among chunks; and analyse the functional and aesthetic success of the complete system.

Next, the trainee teachers sequence the activities using flowchart techniques such as Grid, Web, Sequence and Hierarchy. After sequencing the activities the trainees start working towards the detailed design of the individual screen for display in the form of storyboard. 3. Designing the Storyboard: A storyboard is a visual representation, or sketch, of what an interface (e.g. computer-based training, website, movie, book) is supposed to look like. The trainee teachers draft their storyboards based on the following three key considerations:

Navigation: What and where will it appear on each page? What technology will be used to implement it? Identification Info: What type of identification information (e.g. title, menu link, home link) did each page need? Content: What should be visible on a particular page?

To help them create their respective storyboards, the trainees learn the techniques and strategies of searching information on the Internet and how to evaluate these resources. Then they search the Internet for relevant data to be incorporated into the chosen topic for their respective MLE projects. 4. Creating the MLE Using PowerPoint: To actually create their respective MLEs, the trainee teachers learn and use the advanced features of the MS PowerPoint software as well as media selection for maximising learning effectiveness. When developing the MLE, the trainee teachers concentrate on three aspects:

Context: creating a real-life, complex and authentic scenario; Activities: designing activities for collaboration, sharing, decision-making and knowledge construction; and Tools: providing tools for searching, thinking, reflection and creativity.

The trainee teachers make a workstation presentation of their final artefact of their respective MLE projects. Subsequently, peer evaluation is conducted and the feedback collected is used to modify each project before final submission. Integrating the Learning of ICT in Education through Digital Portfolios As they create their respective MLEs, the trainee teachers learn to use different learning technologies. At the same time, the trainee teachers have to maintain a learning portfolio on the Web that tracks their progress through a set of learning activities [i.e. designing

and developing artefacts, taking part in online (synchronous and asynchronous) discussions, reflecting on various tasks] as they work towards completing the MLE project. The trainee teachers are evaluated based on different rubrics for different activitiesa rubric to evaluate the trainee teachers reflections on various activities was also specially created (Bhattacharya, forthcoming). For students to visualise the learning as a whole and not as bits and pieces of tasks to complete, it is vital that the students understand how the different activities that they perform are connected and integrated (Bhattacharya & Richards, 2001). Hence, the e-portfolio is used to assist the trainee teachers to better understand and articulate their learning as they developed their personal professional knowledge and skills about IT in education. This is because digital portfolios are capable of showing a more complete picture of student progress and achievement than traditional approaches to assessment. By developing digital portfolios, the trainee teachers are able to demonstrate a variety of competencies, take greater responsibility, and become skilled at self-evaluation. References

http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/brief/v5n3/