American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research 3 (1): 1-6, 2008 ISSN 1818-6785 IDOSI Publications, 2008

Effect of Termite Infestation on the Farming System Characteristics of an Endemic Area in the Guinea Savanna Region of Nigeria
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J.C. Obi and 1A.O. Ogunkunle and 2N. T. Meludu

Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Department of Extension and Rural Sociology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract: Termite infestation is an important factor in the livelihood of the dwellers of savanna region of Nigeria. It demands appropriate attention in the characterisation of the dominant farming system of the area. This study evaluated the effect of termite infestation on some crop types and the constraints it imposes on their farming system. The study was conducted in Mokwa and Kontagora Local Government Areas (LGA) of Niger State in the Guinea savanna of Nigeria and the instruments used were questionnaires and in-depth interview. Structured questionnaires were administered on 251 farmers using stratified random sampling technique, to assess the extent of termite infestation and its effect on arable crop production in the area. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse their responses. About 93.2% of the respondents were full-time farmers 74.0% did not exceed primary level education. Approximately 91.6% of the farmers have less than five (5) plots of land and 95.8% of the respondents have plots measuring less than five (5) hectares out of which 54.6% measured less than one (1) hectare. The farmers that produce for sales and consumption, consumption and sale alone were 85.1, 7.8 and 6.1% respectively. The only outlet for these is the rural market. The major source of labour available for the farmers is from the family. Termitaria were present in 75.0% of the farms. Termite infestation was highest in the farms during cropping season and increased with crop-type in the order maize>millet>guinea corn>cassava. All the farmers operate low-input, grain-based and rain-fed farming system. Termite infestation is a major production and livelihood constraint in the area, destroying crops both in the field and in the store and attack lingno-cellulotic components of their livelihood. Key words: Termite infestation % Farming system % Guinea savanna % Livelihood constraint INTRODUCTION A farming system is a population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar resource base, enterprise pattern, household livelihood and constraints and for which similar developmental strategies and interventions would be appropriate [1]. The resources available to farm families include land, water and common properties (pond, grazing land and forest). To these basic natural resources could be added climate and biodiversity. These individual farm systems are characterized with structurally complex parts but with existent interrelationship between various components. The integral part of these could be broadly grouped into prevailing biophysical and socioeconomic components. Peculiarity of individual farm systems notwithstanding, these component parts converge at the inherent prevailing circumstances of the available natural resources. Therefore, variations in the characteristics of individual farm systems arise from variations in resource endowment and family circumstances that constitute the socioeconomic and human element of the system. Peculiarity of the study area is the high density of termite infestation whose effect could be grouped into agronomic, economic, social, environmental and psychological. The agronomic influence includes the role of termite as pest [2-4] and soil modifiers [5, 6]. The economic aspect involves the destructive tendencies of the insect. This involves the overall destructive tendencies of the insect that includes feeding or destruction of lingno-cellulotic materials ranging from wood, furniture, books, clothes, etc. [7]. Termites were reported to dominate soil macrofauna in the savanna region [6, 8], but of particular interest is its concentration in Niger State in the guinea savanna region of Nigeria [9, 10].

Corresponding Author: Dr. J. C. Obi, Department of Soil Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria

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The effects of termites as a result of high intensity of infestation has become an important factor in the characterisation of the dominant farming system in the study area as it affects their productivity and livelihood. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of termite infestation on the crop types, the constraints imposed on the farming system as a result of the infestation and document the demographic characteristics of the farm families. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research questions C C C What are the demographic characteristics of the respondents (farmers)? What proportion of the farmers has termite infestation in their farms? Do the high-density of termite mounds that characterize the area constitute major constraints to crop production? Are there some advantages derived from planting on termite-infested area? Are there some termite control management techniques (indigenous / modern) in this area?

C C Site description: Giant termite mounds are common features of the rural landscape of Niger State. These mounds are particularly numerous in the areas between Mokwa, Bida and Kontagora [10]. The occurrence covers Mokwa, Lavun, Gbako, Bida and Agaie, Kontagora, Magama and Wushishi local government areas of Niger State, measuring approximately 51,756.96 sq. km. It is located between latitudes 830' N and 1100' N and longitudes 430' E and 630' E. Niger state has about the largest land area in Nigeria, occupying about 9% (about 76,000 sq. km.) of Nigerias total land area. The study was limited to Mokwa and Kontagora local government areas of the state. These two local government areas are typical of the characteristics of the study region i.e. concentration of agricultural activities, preponderance of termites and mounds, relatively low population density (less than 33 people per square kilometre [10]) and relatively at the middle (geographically) of the region of high concentration of termite infestation (Kebbi, Niger and Kogi states). Questionnaire administration: This process was aimed at assessing the distribution, extent of spread, problems and constraints imposed by termite infestation on the locality. Discussions were held with the Chief and Assistant Chief Extension Officer of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mokwa LGA and with the Zonal and Assistant Zonal Extension Officer of the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), Kontagora LGA. The aim was to get the overall assessment of the incidence of termites (severity and density), their effects on crop production and livelihood and to validate the instrument. The questionnaire was administered on the local farmers in the study area. The questions cover personal details, farmland details, crop production, conceived production constraints and effects and role of governmental and non-governmental organizations in combating problems associated with termite infestation. The questions raised and hypothesis generated were as follows: 2

In an attempt to answer these questions, the following hypotheses were formulated. Hypotheses C C Termite infestation of agricultural lands is a major constraint to crop production. Farm fields are small, fragmented and far from homestead as a result of high-density termite mounds. Many farm fields have been abandoned as a result of termite infestation. Indigenous knowledge has not been successful in the management of termite-infested soils. Demographic characteristics significantly affect the productivity of the study area.

C C C

Target population, sample size and procedure: The target population comprised farmers in the infested area (farm families). Stratified random sampling procedure was adopted. Each local government was divided into 75 units based on discussion with the extension agents in both Mokwa and Kontagora Local Government Areas (LGA) and 2 respondents were randomly sampled per unit. The questionnaire was administered with the aid of the Village Extension Agents (VEA). Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Mokwa LGA and Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) of Kontagora LGA confirmed the abundance of termites, mounds and their menace in the area in particular and Niger State in general. They reported that termite activities constitute major constraints to the farmers, both in the field and in the store as they destroy all cellulolignotic materials within reach. The questions in the instrument were discussed with the extension agents and clarifications made in-order to ensure uniformity and accuracy in the documentation of responses. As part of the questionnaire design, the head

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of each sample farm family was interviewed. The questionnaire contained open and close-ended questions, which were administered directly and informally. The responses were coded and subjected to descriptive statistics. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Characteristics and distribution of the farmers: Out of a total of 300 farmers interviewed, 49 responses were discarded as a result of poor documentation. Thus, 251 responses from 158 villages, comprising of 147 farmers from 87 villages in Mokwa and 104 farmers from 71 villages in Kontagora Local Government Areas (LGAs) were used for the study. The demographic characteristics of the farmers in the study area are shown in Table 1. It was observed that everyone in the villages was either a full time or part time farmer. Only 17 farmers (i.e. 6.8% of the respondents) were civil servants (i.e. part time farmers). Thus, the dominant occupation was farming. As the target respondents were heads of farm families, 87.9% were males within the age range of 25 to 55 years. About 38.9% have been on this occupation for more than 20 years while 27.5% have been on the occupation for between 6 and 10 years. The remaining 33.6% of the respondents represented those that have either practiced for less than 6 years or between 20 and 11 years. The distribution of family sizes were 1-5 (30.8%), 6-10 (39.2%) and 10-15 (19.4%). In terms of level of education, 74.0% of

the respondents did not go beyond primary school. The results indicated that 43.0% of the respondents did not go to school at all, 16.3% had informal education, while 14.7% attended primary school. About 91.6% of the respondents had less than 5 plots of farmlands that were generally far from home (78.9%). Also, about 54.6 and 41.2% (i.e. total of 95.8%) of the farms were less than 1 hectare and between 1 and 5 hectares respectively. The respondents reported that their production was generally for sales and consumption (86.1%), while the remaining 7.8 and 6.1% of the respondents produced for consumption and sale alone respectively. Spread of termite mounds: It was observed that about 75% of the respondents had termite mounds in their farms, but larger proportion of 84.4% was found in Kontagora compared to Mokwa where approximately 65.6% of the farm had termitaria. The farmers reported that they experienced different types of constraints from the infestation depending on the crop produced. They did not derive any benefit from the infestation (86.0%), nor do they know when the mounds first appeared on their farms (75.7%). The entire respondents reported that apart from farmland infestation that was prominent with the presence of termite mounds, attack on other aspects of livelihood (i.e. celulo-lignotic material including buildings, clothing, books and papers, wood and woody material, furniture etc.) is a common occurrence.

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the farmers (respondents) in the study area Characteristics/respondents (%) Age (years) Sex Major occupation Years of practice (Years) Family size Level of education Number of farmland (farms) Size of farmland (hectare) Type of production 15-25 6.6 Male 87.9 Farming 93.2 1-5 9.7 1-5 30.8 None 43.5 1-5 91.6 <1 54.6 Home consumption 7.8 26-35 34.8 Female 12.1 Civil servant 6.8 6-10 27.5 6-10 39.2 Informal 16.5 6-10 6.8 1-5 41.2 Sales 6.1 11-15 15 11-15 19.4 Primary 14.9 11-15 0.4 6-10 2.5 Sale and consumption 86.1 16-20 8.9 16-20 4.6 Secondary 10.1 16-20 0.8 11-25 0 21-25 15.4 21-25 2.1 Tertiary 14.9 >21 0.4 26-30 0.4 >30 1.3 >25 23.5 >25 3.8 36-45 36.1 46-55 15.2 >55 7.4

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Table 2: Percentage of farmers engaged in production of the common crops in Kontagora and Mokwa local government areas % ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Crop Maize (Zea mays L.) Cowpea (Vignea unguiculata) Groundnut(Arachis hypogea) Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Amaranthus caudatus Melon (Cirullus colocynthis) Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) Soybeans (Glycine max) Guinea corn (Sorghum biclor) Yam (Dioscorea spp.) Okra (Albemulchus esculentus) Millet (Pennisetum glaucum) Rice (Oriza sativa) Sugar (Saccharum officinarum) Garden egg (Solanum melongena) Mokwa and Kontagora (n = 251) 82.5 63.3 49.4 9.6 10.4 8.4 29.1 21.9 0.8 2.8 75.3 44.2 3.6 31.9 14.7 0.4 0.8 Kontagora (n = 104) 89.4 69.2 51.0 2.9 3.8 1.9 3.8 4.8 0.0 2.9 63.4 4.8 5.8 27.9 10.6 0.0 1.0 Mokwa (n = 147) 77.6 59.2 48.3 14.3 15.1 12.9 46.9 34.0 1.4 2.7 83.7 72.1 2.0 34.7 17.7 0.7 0.0

They noticed that intensity of infestation increased during the rainy season (after planting and before harvest) and decreased (during the dry season) after harvest as previously reported by Umeh and Ivbijaro [4]. The farmers reported that incidence of termite was highest in maize, millet and guinea corn and cassava farms in decreasing intensity. The dominant farming system in the study area: The proportion of farmers that produce the different types of crops (cereals and legumes) in the study area (Table 2) indicates that the cereals include maize, guinea corn and millet cultivated by about 82.5, 75.3 and 31.9% of the farmers respectively. Comparing the proportion of the farmers that grow maize in the two LGAs indicates cultivation of maize in Kontagora (89.4%) is more than that in Mokwa (77.6%), while for guinea corn, Mokwa (83.7%) is more than Kontagora (63.4%). The difference in the population that produce maize was negligible. Legumes grown in the area include cowpea, groundnut and melon with approximately 63.3, 49.4 and 29.1% of the farmers respectively. Approximately, 44.2 and 21.9% grow yam and cassava respectively, but larger proportion of the yam growers was found in Mokwa with about 72.1% compared to 4.8% in Kontagora. Also about 34.0% of Mokwa farmers cultivate cassava compared to 4.8% in Kontagora. Less than 10.5% of the farmers grow pepper, tomato, amaranthus, sweet potato, soybean, okra, sugar 4

cane and garden egg as accompanying crops except rice with approximately 14.7% producers. The major sources of farm labour were hired and family effort and that their yields were relatively low because of low input system and low fertility status of the soils. The quantity of land cultivated and area of each plot were relatively low. Large quantities of products were lost as a result of poor storage facilities that were normally local or traditional. The products were normally sold to the middlemen at a relatively low rate at the remote or rural markets. Therefore, the farming system could be described as a low input, low output grain based rain fed, southern guinea savanna farming system. It could be classified as rain fed farming system in savanna area of low resources. Major constraints to crop production in termite infested areas: The factors enumerated as constraints to crop production included lack of credit facilities, scarcity of fertilizer, unavailability of tractors, incidence of termite and striga, insect and pest infestation, lack of good and improved seeds, unavailability or high cost of labour, unavailability of assistance from government, unavailability of chemicals, poor storage and market facilities. The effect of termites is more profound as they attack the crops in the field and in the store and also destroy most of the farmers personal belongings. These constraints have led to highly reduced area of arable land and number of farms cultivated per farmer. Consequently,

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the resultant loss or low crop yield, increased production cost and discouragement. The farmers combat these problems through acquisition of loans especially from moneylenders at exorbitant interest rates, use of insecticides, trapping and scaring of animals, use of family and personal labour and input generation and seeking of advice from the village extension agents. The major crops grown were maize, millet, cowpea, groundnut and guinea corn. These crops have been reported to be highly suitable for savanna ecology [11]. Other crops grown in the area in relatively small quantities include pepper, tomato, amaranthus, melon, cassava, sweet potato, soybeans, yam, okro, sorghum, rice, sugar cane and garden egg. These crops are grown mainly as intercrops and the combinations vary based on the farmers preference. Kang [12] reported that traditional cropping systems vary in Sub-Saharan Africa and have developed in response to the prevailing soil and climatic conditions, socio-economic and ethnological preferences. Investment capital and inputs are acquired mainly through family effort and borrowing from moneylenders, while labourers are hired to complement family effort. The problem associated with loans from moneylenders is that the interest rates are normally to high to be repaid compared with the benefits associated, with the prevailing farming system and thus the farmers remain poor and helpless. Few plots of land are cultivated per farmer. The area of each plot is relatively small and the fertility status of the soils generally low. These result in relatively low outputs (yield). Large quantities of the products are lost as a result of poor storage facilities that are normally local or traditional, while some parts are consumed at home. However, the remaining parts are normally sold to middlemen at relatively low rates in remote or rural market situations. Therefore, the farming system could be described as a low-input, low-output, grain based rain fed farming system in area of low resources [1]. The perceived treat of termite infestation creates some psychological fear of possible attack on either the farm produce or household properties. These generally affect the overall livelihood of the farmers and dwellers of the study area. APPENDIX 1 List of villages in Mokwa and Kontagora area of Niger state Mokwa: Mokwa, Wodata, Kudu, Rabba, Emi Tsiyaukpa, Tako, Efu goro, Yafu, Emi Tswako, Emi Tsadu, Emi Naibi, Efu Ndejiko, Gungun gero, Gbajibo, Emi Mangbo, Katanba guta, Dukuma, Efu abebe, Jaagi, Lafiagi, Kpaki, Mowo,

Labozhi, Ndayako, Kodan, Edugi, Muwo, Wabi, Takuma, Kpaki, Kodan, Bokani, Tika, Gungegi, Tapu, Emi tifin, Bokani Tapu, Emi Tako, Dagha, Ezhi, Kimbo, Emi Zhistu, Emi Gbanta, Emi Lakota, Emi Koso, Emi Dingigba, Emi Ndamukunta, Emi Basanta, Emi Janfulugi, Turrah, emi Liman, Emi Tako, Emi Shabako, Emi Tssuanka, Tutabo, Ebigi, Tunga Hausa, Kpategi, Ekosa Muwo, Lafiagi Ebigi, Tunga ruwa, Koma Bonmi, Tsafa, Tatabu, Takuma, Afuwagi, Ibba, Ndeshi, Lufu, Ntakogi, Efu Ndatwankwa, Gudugi, Efu Liman, Koshaba, Emi Gozanzhi, Emi Twachizhi, Efu Twayen, Tyabo, Dankogi, Kosoko, Nkupa, Bokota, Nakupa, Tunga Numa. Kontagora: Kontagora, Rafin Gora, Masaa, Auna, Bussa, Kakihum, Kisi, Tunga Waye, Wuwa, Tunga Bako, Shagwa, Tungan Mongora, Ragadan, Mommo, Maretu, Farin Shinge, Kaufin Waya, Kulho, Kura, Subu, Angwa Arewa, Babban Rami Hayi, Masuli, Tungan Wawa, Utachu, Gwagwade, Bangi, Kekin Lan, Sahoma, Ujau, Sanjir, Jamaare, Rijau, Tunga Rini, Darga, Nakacheri, Tunga Anini, Dukku, Uganda, Kwangwara, Gawuri, Malela, Dongon Fadama, Shambo, Umngwam Zagi, Gado Mera, Narung, Lioji, New Bussa, kainji, Tungan Gari, Tungan Kawo, Salka South, Salka East, Salka North, Salka West, Nassarawa, Tungan Jika, Beri, Kaboji, Madobiya, Karamin Rami, Ragada, Kuumbashi, Magutu Dan baba, Maigoge, Kamfin Bobi, Shadadi,Indago, Shirigberia, Gwette. REFERENCES 1. 2. FAO, 2001. Farming system and poverty: Improving farmers livelihoods in a changing world. FAO Rome. Saxena, R.C., 1989. Insecticides from the neem. In: Insecticides of Plant Origin. Amadon, J.T., B.J.R. Philoge'ne and P. Morand (Eds.). ACS Symposium Series No. 387. Washington, DC, Am. Chem. Soc., pp: 110-135. Logan, J.M.W., R.H. Cowie and T.G. Wood, 1990. Termite (Isoptera) control in agriculture and forestry by non chemical methods: A Review. Bull. Entomol. Res., 80: 309-330. Umeh, V.C. and M.F. Ivbijaro, 1999. Effects of termite damage to maize of seed extracts of Azadirachta indica and piper guineense in farmers fields. J. Agric. Sci., 133: 403-407. Jouquet, P., D. Tessier and M. Lepage, 2004. The soil structural stability of termite net: role of clays in Macrotermes bellicosus (Isoptera, Macrotermitinae) mound soils. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 40: 23-29.

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