Advanced Higher Mathematics Unit 1 Notes on Curve Sketching

You will already, from H Level, be proficient at finding the coordinates of stationary points on the graphs of simple functions, and also sketching the graphs of these functions. (I hope!). In Unit 1 of Advanced Higher we develop these ideas so that we can deal with more complicated functions. In the next few sections some new ideas are introduced. Concavity f ( x ) concave up; (happy graph)

f ( x ) concave down; (sad graph)

By considering the gradients of tangents, we have, for a continuous and differentiable function:

f ( x ) concave up f ( x) is increasing f ( x) > 0.

Notice that as we move along the graph from left to right, f ( x) increases continuously through negative values, then becomes zero at the minimum turning point, and becomes increasingly more positive as we travel rightwards from the minimum turning point. This demonstrates that f ( x) is increasing, and so the derivative of f ( x) must be positive, which shows that f ( x) > 0 in the graph sketched here. There does not have to be a stationary point in the interval; I have included one here to make the arguments easier to follow. The only criterion is that f ( x) is increasing.

Also,

f ( x ) concave down f ( x) decreasing f ( x) < 0.

Notice that as we move along the graph from left to right, f ( x) decreases continuously through positive values, then becomes zero at the maximum turning point, and becomes increasingly more negative as we travel rightwards from the maximum turning point. This demonstrates that f ( x) is decreasing, and so the derivative of f ( x) must be negative, which shows that f ( x) < 0 in the graph sketched here. As before, there is no need to have a stationary point in the interval; I have included one here to make it easier (I hope!) for you to see what is going on. Thus we have, for a continuous and (twice) differentiable function: d2y > 0 Graph is concave up. dx 2 d2y < 0 Graph is concave down. dx 2

N.B. The expression twice differentiable Means that both

dy d2y and exist. dx dx 2

Points of Inflexion At a point of inflexion, concavity changes. For example:

Notice that the graph is happy on one side and sad on the other side. Notice also that at the inflexion points in the above sketches, f ( x) 0. In H Level Mathematics we consider only horizontal inflexion points, i.e. where f ( x) = 0, but, in fact, at an inflexion point, f ( x) may be positive, negative, zero, or even undefined, as the following example shows:

Example Consider y = 3 x = x 3 . It is easy to see from the sketch graph below that there is a point of inflexion at dy 1 2 3 1 = x = 2 is not defined at the origin because of the division by zero. the origin, but dx 3 3x 3 y y=3x
1

d2y But since concavity changes at a point of inflexion, we must have that changes sign at a point of dx 2 inflexion. d2y Also, at a point of inflexion, = 0, if it exists. But as we saw in the above example, there can be cases dx 2 d2y where does not exist at a point of inflexion. dx 2 Hence we have: For a point of inflexion, AND d2y = 0 (if it exists) dx 2

d2y changes sign. dx 2

Examples 1. Consider y = x 4 at the point (0,0). d2y d2y 2 at (0,0), But since does not change sign at (0,0) there is no point of = 12 x = 0 dx 2 dx 2 inflexion at this point, as can be seen from the graph below: Now y y = x4

Example 2 Consider y = x 3 at the point (0,0). d2y d2y at the point (0,0). Also, changes sign at (0,0), being negative for x < 0 and = 6 x = 0 dx 2 dx 2 positive for x > 0. Hence there is a point of inflexion at (0,0). Now y y = x3

Second Derivative Test At a MAXIMUM turning point, the curve is concave down. dy d2y = 0 and < 0, since dx dx 2

At a MINIMUM turning point, the curve is concave up.

dy d2y = 0 and > 0, since dx dx 2

So these facts give a test to determine whether a stationary point is a maximum or minimum. dy d2y When in a = 0 the test is inconclusive, and we would have to consider the behaviour of 2 dx dx neighbourhood of the stationary point to determine its nature. [i.e. use the method done in H Level last session].

To find an inflexion point we must examine for changes in the sign of The most common topic at this level over the years has been:

d2y . dx 2

Curve Sketching
Asymptotes 1 Consider the graph of y = . ( x 0). The graph, as you probably know, looks like: x y

The function is defined for all real x except x = 0. 1 0 and x 1 And as x , 0 and x Now, as x , 1 is positive. x 1 is negative. x

1 The x-axis is said to be a horizontal asymptote to the graph of y = . [i.e. the graph becomes closer and x closer to the x-axis without actually meeting it]. 1 +. x 1 And as x 0 , . x Also, as x 0+ , 1 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote to the graph of y = . x

Example 1 1 . x 1 Now we have a division by zero when x = 1, showing that the straight line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote. dy 1 = ( x 1). Using the chain rule, we get dx ( x 1) 2 dy Hence is defined for all x in the domain of this function. dx dy < 0 for all x 1. And since ( x 1) 2 > 0 for x 1, it follows that dx This shows that the graph has no stationary points, and also that the function is decreasing for all x where it is defined. Sketch the graph of y =

Now do a table of values: y= Also, as x ,

x
1 x 1

1 1 0+. And as x , 0. x 1 x 1 And note that x = 0 y = 1. Now we can sketch the graph: y

O -1

x =1 Note: With f ( x ) = 1 1 1 1 , f ( x 1) = , and so the graph of can be got from the graph of by a x x 1 x 1 x 1 unit to right].

translation of 1 unit to the right. [From H last session, remember that f ( x 1) Example 2 Find the asymptotes of y = Now

8 and sketch the curve. Do not investigate for inflexion points. x 4

2

8 8 , and hence the straight lines y = 2 and y = 2 are vertical asymptotes. x 4 ( x 2)( x + 2)
2

Table of values: y=

x
8 x2 4

Also, x y 0 and x y 0 also. Now find the stationary points:

y = 8 ( x 2 4 )

2 dy 16 x dy 16 x = 8 ( x2 4 ) 2 x = . And =0 = 0 16 x = 0 x = 0. 2 2 2 2 dx dx x 4 x 4 ( ) ( )

And x = 0 y =

8 = 2. Hence there is a stationary point at (0,2) 04

To determine the nature of the stationary point we could use the second derivative test, but here it is possibly easier to use a table of values, as in S5:

6 6 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2

x
dy dx

0 0

Slope Hence (0,2) is a minimum turning point. Now we can sketch the graph:
y 6 4 2 4 2 2 4 6 2 4 x

x = 2 Note: For the above function, f ( x) =

x=2

8 8 8 = 2 = f ( x ). , note that f ( x ) = 2 ( x) 4 x 4 x 4 Thus f ( x ) = f ( x ), showing that the function is even, and so its graph is symmetric about the y-axis. Hence we could have considered only values of x 0 and then and then reflected the resulting graph about the y-axis. Always look our for this kind of labour-saving simplification.
2

Oblique Asymptotes [Also called non-vertical asymptotes]. If the numerator of a rational function has greater degree than the denominator then we divide out, for the resulting quotient and remainder will give us information about the function. If the denominator is a simple linear polynomial such as x 5, we can use the synthetic division method of S5 to obtain the quotient and remainder. If, however, the denominator is a quadratic, then we must use long division! Examples of division of polynomials will be done in class. Example Find the equation of the oblique asymptote of y = Well do this by synthetic division: 2 1 1 0 2 2 x2 3 . x2 -3 4 1

Hence the quotient is x + 2 and the remainder is 1. x2 3 1 Thus we have x+2+ . x2 x2

Now as x ,

1 1 0 and as x , 0 also. x2 x2

x2 3 Hence when x is large (either positive or negative), is close to x + 2, and the larger x x2 x2 3 becomes, the closer becomes to x + 2. x2 x2 3 Hence for large x, the graph of y = approaches ever closer to the line y = x + 2. x2 x2 3 The straight line y = x = 2 is said to be an oblique asymptote to the graph of the function y = . x2 Exercise x2 3 and y = x + 2 on the same set of axes and observe the x2 approach of the curve towards the straight line as x becomes large in either the positive or negative direction. Using your TI83+, draw the graph of y = Notes on Curve Sketching at Advanced Higher Level (i) You will be given practice at long division in class.

(ii) (iii)

(iv) (v)

(vi)

Asymptotes are not necessarily straight lines, but at Advanced Higher Level only linear asymptotes will be examined. If time permits, Ill do an example of an asymptote which is a quadratic function. If you are doing a table of values to investigate the behaviour of f ( x), be careful about values of x where f ( x) is not defined because of division by zero, for if your table does not take into account these values you are likely to obtain wrong answers. Ill do several examples in class to show you the pitfalls here, and how to get round them. When doing the actual sketch it is best to draw the asymptotes before you draw the curve. The T.I.83+ is a useful tool for graph sketching, but you must attain competence doing the processes algebraically in order to answer the exam questions. Also, remember that the T.I.83+ does not sketch the graph in the (hopefully!) rigorous way in which we sketch the graph; it merely takes a set of points on the graph and joins them up, so that if the graph is complicated, the T.I.83+ may miss some important features of the graph. Try the function y = sin100 x and see what the T.I.83+ gives you. There might even be cases where a vertical asymptote is not recognised, and points on either side of the discontinuity might consequently be joined up, although this is much less likely with a T.I.83+ than it is with older, less sophisticated calculators. The difficulty level of some of the work in this document is, as usual, somewhat higher than that of the stuff which appears likely to come up. Questions on Curve Sketching in modern S6 papers have tended to be relatively straightforward, and heavily structured (i.e. they tell you what to do, in stages), as the following example shows. [It is adapted from a question in one of the 2001 Advanced Higher papers].

Example The function f ( x) is defined by f ( x ) = (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) x 2 3x + 3 , ( x 2). x2

Find the equations of the asymptotes. Find the coordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature. Prove that the graph of f ( x) has no points of inflexion. Sketch the graph of f ( x ). Sketch the graph of f ( x) .

Solution (a) There is a division by zero when x = 2, and so the straight line x = 2 is the vertical asymptote. For the oblique asymptote, use synthetic division: 2 1 -3 3 1 1 ( x 2). x2 And so the line with equation y = x 1 is the oblique asymptote. Hence f ( x ) x 1 + (b) f ( x) = x 1 + ( x 2 )
1

2 -1

-2 1

f ( x ) = 1 ( x 2 )

= 1

( x 2)

Also, f ( x) = 1 ( x 2 )

f ( x) = 2 ( x 2 ) 1

( x 3)

.
2

For a stationary point, f ( x ) = 0 1

( x 2)

= 0 ( x 2 ) = 1 x 2 = 1 x = 1 or 3.

And we have f (1) = 1 and f (3) = 3, showing that the stationary points are (1, 1) and (3,3). To determine the nature of the stationary points, use the second derivative test: 2 f ( x) = f (1) = 2 and f (3) = 2. 3 ( x 2) And f (1) < 0 (1, 1) is a maximum turning point. f (3) > 0 (3,3) is a minimum turning point. (c) For points of inflexion, consider f ( x) = 2

Now when x > 2, f ( x) > 0, showing that the curve is concave up for x > 2. Also, when x < 2, f ( x) < 0, showing that the curve is concave down for x < 2. But when x = 2, f ( x) is not defined (and neither is any of its derivatives). Hence there is no point of inflexion. Now we sketch the graph:
6 6 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2

( x 2)

y 6 4 2

y = x 1
x

6 2 2 4 2 4 4 2

2 2 4 6

y 6

x=2

[N.B. with brevity in mind, I have omitted to investigate the approach of the graph to its asymptotes, and we should also investigate any intersections with the x-axis and y-axis]. (e) Recall that for f ( x) 0, f ( x) = f ( x); and for f ( x) < 0, f ( x) = f ( x). Thus to obtain the graph of f ( x) , we must reflect the bits below the x-axis in the x-axis:
2 4

y = x 1 Note 1:

x=2

y = x +1

For the graph of f ( x) , I have shown the asymptotes, including the new one, y = x + 1, got by reflecting the original oblique asymptote. I dont think that this would be necessary in the exam, but do it anyway, for completeness. For inflexion points, it is common to solve the equation f ( x) = 0 and show that f ( x) changes sign at any solutions. Care has to be taken with this approach, for there may be an inflexion point where f ( x) does not exist, for example on the graph of y = 3 x at the origin, as shown earlier. I think the approach I have adopted here is best for this question.

Note 2: