Unit 1

Construction materials

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Bricks Stones Cement Mortar Sand Cement Concrete Bars Wood Plastics
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Manufacture of bricks Preparation of brick earth. Moulding of bricks Drying of bricks Burning of bricks

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Preparation of brick earth Loose soil which contains impurities, is removed for about 20 cm depth. Earth is then dug out from the ground, spread and weathering is done for a week time. The clay is then mixed with suitable ingredients by tilting the clay and ingredients up and down ina kiln. Water is added to clay to make the whole mass of clay homogeneous and plastic.
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Moulding of bricks Hand moulding: It is done in a rectangular box with open at top and bottom. Box is made up of wood or steel. Hand moulding further classified into, (a) Table moulding (b) Ground moulding (a) Table moulding Done by the experienced supervisor Bricks are moulded on the table and sent to next stage. (b) Ground Moulding Small portion is cleaned and leveled. Find sand is sprinkled over it. Mould is dipped in water and kept on the ground and the clay is pressed by hand Download this material from :
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Machine moulding: Used in mass production of bricks (huge quantity) These machines contain a rectangular opening of size equal to length and breadth of the brick. The tempered clay is placed in the machine. The tempered clay comes out as through the opening under pressure, hence it is cut to the required shape.

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Drying of bricks Bricks are staked in the yard with 8 to 10 bricks in a row. Bricks are dried for a period of 5 to 12 days. Some times bricks are dried by hot gases from kiln. But artificial drying produces warps on the bricks

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Burning of bricks It imparts hardness and strength to bricks and makes them dense and durable. Burning should be uniform, because unburnt bricks remain soft and hence cannot carry loads. Overburnt bricks become brittle and break easily. Burning of bricks done in clamp or kilns.
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Qualities of good bricks Well burnt, Sharp edges, copper coloured, free from cracks Should give a good ringing sound Bricks should not break when dropped from a height of 1m Bricks should have a low thermal conductivity The minimum crushing strength should be 3.5 N/mm2 Average weight of bricks should be 3 3.5 kg.
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Building stones are obtained from rocks Rocks are classified into igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed by cooling of the molten materials beneath the earths surface. Stones from igneous rocks are harder. Granite which is widely used in construction of building is a good example.
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Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of weathering products on existing rocks. Deposits in layers and when the load is applied along the layers these rocks easily split. Metamorphic rocks are formed in the change in character of the pre existing rocks. These rocks will also be hard, if the basic rock is igneous rock.
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Quarrying of stones It is the process of extracting stone blocks from existing rocks. In general, it is done some depth below the top surface of rock, where the effects of weathering are not found. Quarrying is done by digging, heating or wedging. In soft rocks, like lime stone and marble stones are obtained by digging, heating or wedging by hand tools. In hard and dense rocks, stones are obtained by blasting using explosives.
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Dressing of stones : Stones have irregular shape after quarrying The process of cutting the stones to a regular shape and size and the required surface finish is called dressing of stones.

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Testing of stones :

Hardness test : Stone is tested by a pen knife which will not be able to produce a scratch on a hard stone. Acid test : Stone is kept in sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid for a week time. The corners of the stones with high alkaline content turn roundish and loose particles will get deposited on its surface. Such stones are not suitable for smoky atmosphere.

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Qualities of good stones

The crushing strength of stone should be greater than 100 N/mm2 Stones must be uniform in colour. Light coloured stones resist weathering action in a better way. When the stones are used for roads, it must be hard enough to resist wear and tear. A good building stone must have specific gravity greater than 2.2

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Manufacturing of cement Cement is obtained by burning the mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials at a very high temperature. The calcined product is known as clinker A small quantity of gypsum is added to the clinker and is pulverised into very fine powder known as cement. On setting, cement resembles a variety of sand stone in found portland in England and is therefore called Portland cement.
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Types of cement Rapid Hardening cement

It is similar to port land cement. It develops strength rapidly This cement is used where high strength is required at initial stages.
This cement sets very quickly. It is due to reduction of gypsum content in normal portland cement. It is used for underwater construction.
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Quick setting cement

Types of cement Coloured cement

It contains 5 to 10 percent of pigment with normal portland cement for colouring. This is used for aesthetic purposes
The colour of cement is white It has the same properties of portland cement It is used for architectural purposes and manufacturing coloured concrete, flooring tiles etc.,
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White cement

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Types of cement Masonry cement It has great plasticity, workability and water retentivity It is used for masonry constructions in making mortars and plasters.

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Qualities of a good cement The colour should be uniform Cement should be cool when felt with hand. If a small quantity of cement is thrown in to a bucket of water, it should sink. Cement should be free from lumps. The initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes and the final setting time should be around 10 hours.
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Mortar is the term used to indicate a paste prepared by adding water to a mixture of binding material (cement or lime) and the fine aggregate.

Classification of mortar :
Bricklaying mortar: It is used for brickwork and walls. Depending upon the working conditions and the type of construction , the binding materials for the mortar is decided. Finishing mortar : These mortars include common plastering work and ornamental effects. Cement or lime is used as the binding material for ordinary plastering mortar.
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Special mortars
Fire resistant mortar : It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely crushed powder of fire bricks. The usual proportion is one part aluminous cement to two parts fire brick powders. Light weight mortar: It is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood powder, etc., Other materials could be asbestos, fibres, coir etc., This mortar is sued for sound proof and heat proof construction.
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Uses of mortar

To bind the building units such as bricks, stones, etc., into a solid mass. To carryout plastering work on the exposed surfaces of masonry. To form even and soft bedding layer for building layer. To fill up the cracks detected in the structure during maintenance process etc.,

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Classification of sand (i) Natural sand (ii) Artificial sand Natural sand It is the sand carried away by river water and quarried from river bed. Artificial sand Produced by crushing and breaking stones into different sizes of stone in a crushing plant.

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Qualities of good sand Sand should be clean, hard, durable and dry. Free from mica, chemical salts, organic and inorganic impurities and other foreign matters. Uses of sand : It is used for making mortar and concrete It is used as filling in the basement of buildings. Used as the binding material on the top of bituminuous road.

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DEFINITION : It is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed rock and water which when placed in the skeleton forms and allowed to cure becomes hard like a stone. It is used for the construction of Reinforced Cement Concrete flat roof slabs. Coloured concrete is used for ornamental finishes in buildings, pack lanes, separating lines of road surfaces. Light weight concrete is used in multi storey constructions.
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Uses of concrete:

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC): Plain concrete is very weak in tension and cannot be used in construction of roof slabs, beams etc., Because the bottom fibres of them are subjected to tensile stresses. A combination of concrete and steel is known as Reinforced Cement Concrete and widely used.
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Advantages of Reinforced Cement Concrete : It is versatile building material can be used for casting members of any shape. It has good fire resistance and weathering actions. Easy to construct RCC is tough and durable

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Steel contains carbon upto a maximum of 1.5 percent. Based on the carbon content, steel are classified into, Low carbon steel (Mild steel) with carbon content 0.25 percent. Medium carbon or medium hard steel with carbon content between 0.25 0.70 percent High carbon steel or hard steel having carbon content 0.70 1.5 percent.

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Uses of Low carbon steel (Mild steel): Low carbon or mild steel is used in structural works such as trusses, angles and plates. It is also used in RCC works as plain or twisted rods. Uses of Medium hard steel: It is used in the manufacture of rails, chisels, hammers, boiler plates etc. Uses of hard steel : It is used in earth moving or mining equipments. Used for manufacturing cutting steel

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Torsteel rods : Torsteel rods are twisted or torsioned deformed rods. Ordinary steel rods are round plain bars made of mild steel. Both plain bars and tor steel rods are used in RCC roof slabs, beams, columns.

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Wood rendered suitable for use as structural materials by sawing and cutting is called as a timber. Seasoning of timber: It is the process of reducing the moisture in the timber. Seasoning of the timber reduces timber getting decomposed or decayed. It is done by air seasoning , boiling water seasoning or kiln seasoning. Defects in timber : Timber used in construction should be free from cracks, knots, worm holes, upsets etc.
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Advantages of timber in construction : Timber is light, strong and durable. It takes shocks and impacts without rupturing. It offers a good electrical resistance. It has good sound absorption and thermal insulation characteristics.

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Uses of timber Timbers are used for manufacturing structural members such as beams, lintels and joints. It is used for manufacturing door and window frames and panels. It is used for flooring also in auditorium It is used for making partitions, paneling etc. Used for interior decoration

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Plywood is obtained by gluing three more veneers. Veneers are thin sheets of wood. The veneers are obtained as slices from different woods. The are placed in different layers in any odd number, the grains successive veneers being at right angles The layers thus arranged are pressed to form a plywood

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Advantages of plywood : Plywood are light and strong Available in different sizes. Not affected by moisture and temperature. Hence less shrinkage or expansion. Elegant appearance. Uses of plywood : Used in manufacturing the partitions. Sliding doors and cabinet doors. Ward robes and cup boards False construction
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Substances which becomes plastic on the application of heat and pressure are called plastics. Thermo plastics : Thermo plastics become soft on heating and hard on cooling. It can be melted and solidified a number of times without much change in their properties. Eg : Polyvinyl chloride, polythene, perpex Thermosetting plastics : Thremosetting plastics are moulded under heat and pressure to form objects. The product obtained possesses totally different appearance, different chemical and physical properties. Resistant to further application of heat. Eg : phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde
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Uses of plastics as a building material : Used for manufacturing door and window frames. Used for preparing insulating materials. Used for manufacturing lighting fixtures. They are used for making wall covering, floor covering. Foamed plastics are used as right slabs.

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K.V. Natarajan, Dr. M. Kantha basu, N. Venkatesan, N. Vasudevan, Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Dhanalakshmi Publications, 2011. G. Shanmugam, M.S. Palanichamy, Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill publishers, 2010.

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Prepared by A.R. Pradeep Kumar Associate Professor / Mechanical Email : dearpradeepkumar@gmail.com Website : www.arpradeep.tk

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