A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis, Means Analysis, and the Role of the Academic Department for EAP

Courses: A Case Study

Singhanat Nomnian School of Education University of Leicester, UK

Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate a course designers perceptions of needs analysis, means analysis, and the role of an academic department in a course design for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) at a tertiary level. The study was undertaken at the English Language Teaching Unit (ELTU) at a British university. Drawn from a single source of data from a semi-structured interview with the course designer called Mark, the findings of the research suggest that the course designer perceives the significance of needs analysis and means analysis in his EAP course design because they can determine goals and objectives of a course. In addition, the role of an academic department is important for course components, such as a course syllabus, materials selection and development, and classroom activities. While the focus of the study is on the perceptions of a single course designer, it is hoped that the study can potentially contribute to the effectiveness of the course for the academic success of learners.

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1. Introduction How much do we know about what a course designer thinks when one has to design a course for English for Academic Purposes (EAP)? What are the key elements that the course designer has to consider? We, language teachers, rarely ask ourselves these questions because designing courses is supposed to be the responsibility of the specialist (Johnson, 1989). In fact, it appears that teachers will increasingly be called upon to design their own courses (Yalden, 1987). Dubin and Olshtain (1986) notice that course designers tend to work on the basis of their best intuitions and basics of course designing have been paid slight attention. Graves (1996) comments that:
course development is a grounded process because it is a specific course in a given time and place with a given set of people. It is not an orderly sequence of events but rather a complex, unpredictable, and individual process. The teacher herself [himself] is the most important variable in the process. A teacher develops a course in ways that reflect her [his] experience as well as the prevailing wisdom around her [him]. The more aware a teacher is of her [his] values and priorities, the greater her [his] understanding of why certain things make sense to her [him] and the greater her [his] ability to understand and resolve the dilemmas she [he] will confront (p.2).

This paper, therefore, attempts to address the complexity, unpredictability, and individuality of the process of EAP course design in the light of investigating a course designers perceptions of the significance of needs analysis, means analysis, and the role of the academic department in planning EAP courses at an English Language Teaching Unit at a British university. Drawn from a semistructured interview schedule, the findings illustrate the triangular relationship among a course designer, a particular academic department, and international students to investigate their needs. Furthermore, it shows the relationship between the course designer and the academic department in developing EAP course components, such as, a course syllabus, materials selection and development, and classroom activities. The results of this study can potentially benefit language teachers who are responsible for designing EAP courses in terms of understanding and realising potential issues during the course design process. In addition, it can broaden research areas of applied linguistics and TESOL regarding perceptions of an ESL/EFL teacher as a course designer.

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2. Literature review 2.1 Definitions of EAP English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is a branch of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). According to Robinson (1991), EAP is specific purpose language teaching. Jordan (1998) refers to EAP as any English teaching that relates to a study purpose. He also adds that ESL/EFL learners may need help with both the language of academic disciplines and the specific study skills required by them during their academic course. Therefore, the definition of EAP in this case study is an English language teaching and learning that aim to provide students English language and study skills to support their study in their mainstream subjects, such as sciences, humanities, and social sciences. 2.2 Model of EAP Course Design Process*

*This model is adapted from Munby (1978), Jordan (1998), Hutchinson and Waters (1987), Holliday and Cooke (1983), Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) in order to depict and facilitate the discussion of the findings in this particular study only.

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2.2.1 Needs analysis The course designer attempts to conduct a needs analysis that is a basis for the course designer to plan an EAP course. Approaching an EAP needs analysis, the course designer can ask why the learners are doing an English course, in what situations they will need or already need English, and what they must do in those situations. Therefore, in this study, the underlying rationale of the EAP course designer is based on three main approaches: a target situation approach, a skillscentred approach, and a learner-centred approach. The purpose of the target situation approach is to enable learners to function adequately in a target situation in which they will use the language they are learning. The most thorough explanation of target situation analysis is Munbys Communication Needs Processor. It offers a detailed profile of the learners needs in terms of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of communication, language skills, functions, and structures (Munby, 1978). Needs analysis, however, should be more than just a specification of learners target uses of the language. Munbys model rather focuses on linguistic features that learners should be able to comprehend. Students can employ learning skills to deal with their language problems. Jordan (1998) signifies study skills learners should acquire during their academic course. The principal idea of a skillscentred approach is that students can employ common reasoning and interpretive strategies to deal with forms of the language. What learners really need and want from learning EAP courses has not yet been identified. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) advocate a learning-centred approach to needs analysis. Their model of a learning-centred approach to course design proceeds from an analysis of both the target situation and study skills approaches. They propose the use of a checklist to analyse target needs and another checklist to analyse learning needs. The question checklists of both target needs and learner needs can potentially give the course designer in-depth perceptions of learners needs. According to the learner-centred approach, the course designer can obtain information on students wants, expectations, and cultures from questionnaires, interviewing, or observation. However, sometimes the course designer may not meet the students until they are present in the classroom, which means it is necessary for the course designer to exercise his/her assumptions based on previous experiences. Considering the target-situation approach and the skillscentred approach, the course designer can find out the information from the academic department. The academic staff can potentially give the course designer an idea of what linguistic features should be focused upon and included in the course content. Therefore, the course designer can plan an appropriate course content assessment to evaluate students performance. The goals and objectives of the EAP course, however, will primarily serve what the academic department expects their students to be able to do in their mainstream course because students may not be able to identify what they want and need. What students want and what students need may conflict with each other. Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) 84 A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis

suggest students need to be part of the planning process because it encourages student participation in the learning process and reduces potential frustration and disappointment. Therefore, the course designer has to initiate and judge how important the needs of each party are in order to establish goals and objectives of the EAP course. 2.2.2 Means analysis Besides needs analysis, the course designer has to be aware of means analysis, which can involve time and the culture of students. Holliday and Cooke (1983 in Robinson, 1991) suggest a means analysis concerning the local culture, that is, its patterns of thinking and learning. It looks at the environment in which a course will take place and encourages a course designer to acknowledge that what works well in one situation may not be as successful in another. Robinson (1991) notices that ecological conditions, level of technology, and related socio-cultural institutions affect perception and subsequent language development. These can directly and indirectly influence the course designers decision-making on the course design. However, the means analysis also entails individual concerns, which can vary from one situation to another. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) propose that the primary factor of what an EAP course should contain depends on whether English is used as a medium of instruction in the subject course or not. They categorize the use of English medium into four situations. Situation 1 concerns overseas students studying in a foreign system, where both general and academic cultures are different, and of course everything around them operates in English. Situation 2, English is used at all educational levels, but first language is still used in everyday life. Situation 3, English is used in science mainstream subjects. Situation 4, the first language is used in all tertiary education, whereas English is an auxiliary language. This case study is appropriately in situation 1, which takes place in English-speaking countries such as UK, USA, and Australia. This is absolutely crucial for the course designer to consider, in addition to the needs analysis. 2.2.3 The Role of the Academic Department in Designing EAP Course Components Though needs analysis and means analysis have been conducted, the effective EAP course design cannot be achieved without the cooperation and collaboration with the respective academic department. According to the Model, the course designer seeks help from an academic department to develop course components. The components that the role of the academic department can influence in this study are EAP course syllabus, materials selection and development, and classroom activities. The course designer initially asks questions and gathers information about the students mainstream subjects, how English is used to their course and what the department and students see as priorities (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998). Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) claim that a specialist informant The Journal (Vol.2 No.1 2006): 81-96 85

plays an important role of a technical nature in the areas of EAP. A subject-matter expert can interpret the conceptual content of the target situation. Besides cooperation, collaboration with the department involves a direct working relationship between the course designer and the department to prepare students for particular tasks or courses. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) point out alternatives for collaborative work including the selection of a specific input in the materials and helping students learning difficulties with their mainstream classes. The study of Tonkyn et al. (1993) explores factors influencing EAP teachers predictions of students success and recommends that there is a need within each university for continuing discussion with academic departments to receive clearer and regularly updated information regarding course requirements in terms of language skills, types of assignments and assessment to improve students academic studies. An academic department is a resourceful agent that can potentially provide relevant course content and relevant materials (Jordan, 1997). This may enable the EAP course designer to have a greater content focus. The influence of an academic department, however, can be limited to classroom activities that are primarily managed by a language teacher. For example, management students have to do a group discussion in the department. Therefore, the language teacher needs to set up a small group discussion in order to give them an opportunity to practice. To create a close relationship between the course designer and the academic department, both parties must build a reciprocal understanding and supportive relationship to achieve the departments expectations of their students in a mainstream classroom and the course designers objectives for students language learning. This reciprocal relationship may be idealistic. In reality, the course designer must bear in mind that some staff from the academic department might not be willing to offer help. A possible solution for the EAP course designer is to take texts from the learners specialist area (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987). Thus, the EAP course design is not a single and independent process, but rather a cooperative and collaborative task. 3. Research methodology 3.1 Research participant and setting The participant in this study is an EAP course designer, called Mark, teaching at the English Language Teaching Unit (ELTU) in a British university. ELTU has offered a wide range of English courses to international students coming to study degree courses since 1995. Courses offered are general English and EAP courses. EAP courses include English for Law, English for Economics, English for Management Studies, English for Museum Studies, and English for Mass Communications Research. Each EAP course is specifically requested by a particular department due to an increasing number of international students 86 A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis

enrolling in the department to develop language skills to support their studies in the department. 3.2 Rationale for the approach to research design This section reports on how a case study has been used in this research. Drever (1995) suggests that the case study should be able to identify a participant involved in the study and could aim at quite detailed understanding of the factors at work in that particular case, without assuming that any other case would be the same. McDonough and McDonough (1997) also comment that the case study is particularly appropriate for the small-scale research generated by a teacher. Tsui (2003) points out that case studies do not aim at making generalizations, but rather expanding or generalizing theoretical propositions. Therefore, the findings of this study do not aim to generalise an EAP course designers perceptions, but rather to explore the concept of EAP course design process by using the EAP course designer as a case for investigation. 3.3 Data collection This study employs a single source of data collection from a semi-structured interview (see Appendix 1) with the EAP course designer. The interview was conducted in his office and recorded with a tape recorder. The interview was conducted only one time because of the busy schedule of the course designer. The semi-structured interview not only provides a structured overall framework, but also allows an interviewer greater flexibility, richer interactions, and a more personalized response (Drever, 1995). In other words, the interviewer can adapt the main questions to suit the course designers roles and responsibility and can explore his perceptions in depth. For example, the interviewer can change the order of questions and add more extensive follow-up questions depending upon the responses. 3.4 Data analysis The interview data were transcribed and analysed. A transcript provides a record of the original interview. Drever (1995) claims that the transcript can both enhance and demonstrate the soundness of the research because the transcript can be repeatedly checked for the analysis. The data analysis is presented in three categories: needs analysis, means analysis, the role of the academic department in EAP course components.

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4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Needs analysis Mark and the academic departments expectations The first interactive relationship is between Mark and the academic department. The department provides Mark with relevant information about the nature of the academic course, its content, method of delivery, and course assessment. According to Mark:
English tutors and members of the department are involved not only in the planning, but also they should be involved as the course progressesThe department members can give information about what the course is like, what the method of delivery isYou need to know the course content, how the course is delivered, and the assessment mode

The departments expectations and the problems of their students are also focused on because they give the course designer a checklist of problems to prioritise the departments needs as Mark explains:
They [the department] might say we find that students are not very good at taking notes while listening to lectures or writing a paragraph. Again we make a checklist of these things, and then prioritise them: which one is the most important and is it really important?

Mark realises a skills-centred approach in his needs analysis. He wants to find out what skills students need to have in their academic study so that he can include them in the EAP course goals and objectives. Since his role as the course designer partly depends on the academic department, he has to deal and negotiate with the department quite a lot. However, there are potential problems regarding the assistance given by departmental staff. Unwillingness to contribute to course planning can become a constraint for Mark. He revealed that:
If you go to the department or the department approaches us and says Can you do a course for our students? The first thing we say is Yesbut we will do it provided that you play your part. Dont hand it over to us. Its a partnership and we need cooperation. Well need texts, past essays, which will be given to us such as the good, bad, and average ones. So we can use them to let students analyse why theyre good or bad essays. We try to get someone who is cooperative and helpful, usually there is one or two. You have to accept this.

The relationship between the course designer and the department clearly determines the direction of the course design. One of the important roles of the course designer is to build a rapport with the department in order to promote a helpful partnership to create a successful course. 88 A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis

Mark and the students wants Realizing students wants gives the course designer another angle to take into account when designing the EAP course. Though Mark is aware of what students want and actually considers it when he designs the course, he finds it difficult to change students preferences in their language learning as the example from the interview data below revealed:
They [the Arab students] will always say they want lots of grammar because they think its important. They will want grammar to be taught as formal grammar. But when I told them that they have learned grammar for fifteen years and they still speak very ungrammatically, maybe they want to try a different approach. This is very difficult to persuade some of these people who are used to learning in a particular way. They might disagree with me and want to change the course. I said grammar will be there but it will be presented in a different way.

This extract shows that Mark is also concerned about the target situation approach in his needs analysis because the Arab students find English grammar important for their study and for living in the UK. However, he tries to persuade them by presenting grammar in a different format that they can use in their daily lives. Mark takes into account a learning-centred approach in his needs analysis. He talked about students learning styles, which are not matched with the needs of the department. His example was:
Students might tell you they find it difficult to work in pairs, Id rather work on my own. But you found from the department that they have to work in groups or pairs. There are conflicts of interests of what students want but you found in the department that they actually need something else.

The above statements reveal that what students want may conflict with what students actually need. Some students may not be able to define certain learning needs, which then have to be pointed out by their academic department. Investigating learners needs, however, can be troublesome if learners are not present prior to the design of the course. Mark interestingly suggested a solution to deal with the absence of learners needs analysis:
The first time you run the course, obviously you need to make an educated guess because the students come from abroad then you dont know them until theyre here. We make an outline of the course, but then when they come, you quickly do needs analysis and adjust it as you go along. You find it very difficult. One of the problems in ESP and EAP is their needs change a little bit year to year. Therefore, you need to be flexible.

Mark uses his intuition to analyse and predict students needs due to this particular issue. He, however, does not ignore their needs. He still conducts his

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needs analysis once students arrive in the classroom. His flexibility in his EAP course design encourages him to address this issue within a limited time. Marks attempt to make a compromise between students wants and the academic departments expectations The link between the students and the academic department involves the course designer, who has to plan the content of the pre-sessional course and develop materials. He interestingly explained the process by comparing it to a pendulum:
So what you need to do, you try to balance their wants. So what most courses are trying to do is to start up by looking at what students want, slowly add what they need, and then gradually reverse the pendulumBut we gradually shift the balance and naturally end up at needs so called needs analysis. I think its very dangerous to ignore wants. If you simply say this is what you need, the students may not be sure that they do need it. They may need it but they might not be aware of that. So I think you have to take both things into account.

Though there is a direct link between students and the particular academic department, it is a non-communicating relationship on the basis of language learning and teaching. The pendulum, however, may tentatively swing to meet the expectations of the academic department. Students may have to accept this fact if they want to achieve success in their academic course. 4.2 Means analysis A means analysis varies from one context to another due to individual and situational differences. According to Mark, his means analysis mainly involves two prevailing factors, namely, the course designers time constraint and students cultures. His primary factor is time. His responsibilities cover not only teaching courses, but also organising and managing the language unit due to his position as director. Because of teaching time limitations, he has to hire teachers from outside as well. He explains his heavy workload:
Teaching time is very intensive. Weve got two to three weeks off. But its not off because we have to look forward to the next course. We have to employ a lot of teachers from outside. Im teaching ten hours a week. Ive teacher assessment, teacher observation, publicity, and meetings.

Since time is the constraint in his course design, it is necessary to pay attention to problems of management. Marks heavy workload can constrain his course design as well. The culture of the students also affects his decision-making. He realises that he has to be aware of cultural differences and tries to compromise. For example, students cultures can potentially affect materials selection such as commercial 90 A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis

textbooks because some cultures do not allow their learners to be exposed to certain prohibited pictures. Mark gave an interesting example:
Saudi Arabian students, most of the published materials in this country cant be possible because there are a lot of girls in mini-skirts, things which a Saudi Arabian doesnt want their kids to see. For example, pop culture and sex appear in most courses.

This situation is quite challenging for Mark who has to select the appropriate textbooks, which do not contain pictures prohibited in the Arab world. Therefore, he has to recognise potential issues related to students respective cultures. 4.3 The Role of the Academic Department in Designing EAP Course Components According to the Model of the EAP Course Design Process, the course designer seeks the supportive assistance from the academic department to design EAP course components, which, in this study, mainly focus on a course syllabus, materials selection and development, and classroom activities. Course syllabus Following the needs analysis, Mark develops a detailed description of goals and objectives for the course. He considers three approaches: target-centred, skillscentred, and learner-centred in order to design the EAP course. The following extract is taken from the syllabus of a writing course developed at the ELTU.

(With permission from the course designer of ELTU)

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The above syllabus is based on the three approaches, which were discussed in section 4.1 on needs analysis. For example, analysing the language of legal issues represents the target situation approach. Avoiding plagiarism is one of the study skills that students must be taught based on a skills-centred approach. Mark also added changes in the academic department can result in changes in the syllabus as well. He suggested ways to deal with the syllabus due to changes in a law course:
The change in a law course means the change for us as well. Youve got to adapt to those changes as well. Its pretty much a negotiated syllabus, one of the syllabuses, which is not cut and dried in advance. You have to negotiate with students, with the department. Negotiate where we are going next. Really, its like a broad outline, but you work it out as you go along.

This extract reveals the influence of the academic department on the course syllabus. Mark, however, not only considers those changes from the department, he also tries to negotiate with the students as the course progresses. Materials selection and development Once a syllabus has been established, teaching materials need to be selected. Mark has to gather the relevant materials, which can be appropriately provided by the department. He referred to materials selection for listening skills taken from a lecture:
at the beginning of the lecture, typically, the lecturer will tell you what the lecture is going to be about. Then we might tape it from the beginning of the two or three lectures, then compare and practice the language that is recognized. For example, Today I am going to do this, and then I am going to do that which will help with their notes. We look at things like how the lecturer moves from one thing to another. So they say things like Now, lets consider , Now, lets turn to the problem of this which will be the recognizing signposts for moving from one topic to another.

Besides materials for listening skills, Mark also mentioned how to develop materials for reading skills, which must be supplied by the department. He explained how he approaches materials development for reading skills for law students:
You [the course designer] go to the lecture and ask the lecturer what the lecture is going to be about, which key articles the lecturer wants students to read. If so, can you provide them to us? You choose key articles that will be useful for your students to have, give them to us, and we can make a reading comprehension out of it.

The role of the academic department can primarily influence materials selection and development because lecturers or academic staff can provide relevant materials that the course designer can use and develop for the EAP course. The

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developed or selected materials can potentially help students prepare for their academic study because they have a chance to practice and an advice from an EAP course teacher. Classroom activities The role of the academic department may partly influence an EAP teacher who has to set up classroom activities that allow students to practice skills that are important for the academic classes.
Were especially here to train students to take part fully in the academic activities. One of these is the discussion group, which is very common. We feel that students should be good at it.

Mark views a classroom discussion as an important skill for their academic course because lecturers expect students to be able to participate and give opinions about the subject matter. Mark, therefore, has to train and encourage students to take part in the discussion activities as much as possible. 4.4 Discussion Although the findings of this study may not allow us to draw completely accurate parallels between this particular course designer and other EAP course designers in general, the research does provide some important indications to the EAP course designer as to what issues may be particularly worthy for consideration. Designing an EAP course requires a skilful blending of what is already known about language teaching and learning with the new elements that a group of students bring to the classroom. Thus, being an effective EAP course designer not only requires sufficient knowledge of language content and the EAP/ESP course design process, it also takes years of experience to learn potential issues and deal with them in the course design. Marks valuable experience underlies his decision-making, beliefs, and attitudes in his EAP courses. He learns to be flexible in his course design because there can be complex and unpredictable issues such as changes in the mainstream courses or different students learning styles and expectations. The course designer, therefore, should develop and change from the inside out through individual practice and reflection, and from the outside in through contact with the actual experiences and theories of others. 5. Conclusion The aim of this paper is to investigate a course designers perceptions of the significance of needs analysis, means analysis, and the role of an academic department in EAP course design. The course designer selectively uses three approaches, namely target situation, skills-centred, and learner-centred, which underlie his decision-making in his EAP course design.

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The findings of the study are summarised into three main points. First, the results of the study suggest that the EAP course designer conducts the needs analysis by investigating students wants and the academic departments expectations. While students wants include learning styles and preferences, and cultures, the expectations from the academic department are skills that students should be able to perform well in their academic study. Those skills can be note taking, listening to lectures, and academic discussion. The course designer, therefore, has to compromise between the two. The course, however, tends to serve what the department expects their students to acquire if they want to achieve success in their academic courses. Secondly, means analysis offers two main constraints for the course designer in this study. First, time is quite limited for the course designer because of his workload. Time management can potentially help him overcome this limitation. The second one is a students culture. It can influence his materials selection because some cultures do not allow their students to be exposed to western pop cultures. He, therefore, has to realise this issue and compromise on it. Thirdly, the role of an academic department can particularly influence a course syllabus and materials selection and development. The academic department not only suggests what content should be focused on in the EAP course, it also provides relevant materials that the course designer can use and develop for that course. It, however, can only partly influence classroom activities that primarily depend on a classroom teacher. The above findings, therefore, can tentatively support Graves view (1996) that course design is a complex, unpredictable, and individual process. It requires an individual expertise to deal with unpredictable issues emerging in the process. Understanding the issues EAP course designer encounters can potentially create awareness for the involved parties, such as academic department staff, material developers, and EAP tutors to cooperate and establish a suitable EAP course for learners in order to be equipped with relevant skills for their successful academic study. _________________________________________________________________ Appendix 1 Interview schedule 1. What are the purposes of ELTU? 2. What factors do affect your decision-making when you design EAP courses? 3. Following the needs analysis, what else do you consider? 4. How do you develop EAP course syllabus and course materials? 5. How do you deal with the teaching methodology? 6. How do students learning styles and preferences affect your course design and teaching approach? 7. How do you assess your EAP courses? 94 A Course Designers Perceptions of Needs Analysis

8. What problems or limitations do you have when you design EAP courses? _________________________________________________________________ Acknowledgement I would like to thank Martin Kenworthy and Stella Smyth for their valuable time and assistance. I also sincerely appreciate my supervisor, Dr. Julie Norton, for her consistent supervision and patience from the start of this study. I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Simon Gieve and Dr. Tehmina Basit for their fruitful discussion. _________________________________________________________________ References Blue, G. (ed.). (1993). Language, Learning and Success: Studying through English.China: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Drever, E. (1995). Using Semi-Structured Interviews in Small-Scale Research: A Teachers Guide. Edinburgh: SCRE Publication. Dubin, F. and Olshtain, E. (1986) Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dudley-Evans, T. and St. John, M. (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: a multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flowerdew, J. and Peacock, M. (eds.) (2001) Research in Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Graves, K. (ed.) (1996) Teachers as Course Developers, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. p.2. Holliday, A. and Cooke, T. (1983) An ecological approach to ESP. In Robinson, P. (1991) ESP today: a practitioners guide, Hempstead, Prentice Hall International. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987) English for Specific Purposes: a learningcentred approach, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Johnson, R. (ed.) (1989) The Second Language Curriculum, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R. (1997) English for Academic Purposes: a guide and resource book for teachers, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. McDonough, J. and McDonough, S. (1997) Research methods for English language teachers, Great Britain, Arnold.

Munby, J. (1978) Communicative Syllabus Design, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press

Robinson, P. (1991) ESP today: a practitioners guide, Hempstead, Prentice Hall International. Tonkyn, A., Locke, C., Robinson, P., and Furneaux, C. (1993) The EAP Teacher: Prophet of Doom or Eternal Optimist? EAP Teachers Predictions of The Journal (Vol.2 No.1 2006): 81-96 95

Students Success. In Blue, G. (ed.) (1993) Language, Learning and Success: Studying through English, China, Macmillan Publishers Limited. pp.37-48. Tsui, A. (2003) Understanding Expertise in Teaching: Case Studies of ESL Teachers, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Yalden, J. (1987) Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. _____________________________________________________________ Singhanat Nomnian is an EdD student in TESOL and Applied Linguistics at the School of Education, University of Leicester, UK. He was previously an EFL lecturer at Mahidol University, Kanchanaburi Campus, Thailand. His research interests are Thai students Discourses in a British university.

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