Types of Participation The following is a list of the types of participation that could be evident in participatory work and their

characteristics. The type of participation influences what a person might say and the value they put on their participation. When considering the type of participation you make available for individuals it is important to ask yourself what is your own role and what power or control is being given to the individuals to have ownership over the project you are implementing. Assigned participation: An individual is told to participate and has little opportunity to decide on how or what they will contribute or even if they want to participate. The participants are likely to feel anxious and unskilled as they feel their views or concerns may be scrutinised or used against them. They are unlikely to say how they really feel unless it is supports the status quo. Prescribed participation: The individual feels a moral and cultural obligation to participate and considers the opportunity to participate a privilege. Even if couched in a way that it looks like they have free will: you can participate if you want to, the obligation to participate is such that this is only a facade. The participant might find it impossible to express his or her own opinions in fear of going against the grain. This form of prescribed participation is particularly evident when teachers or parents commit children to participate in projects where they have little choice because of the power relationships. Invited participation: The individual is invited and provided with the opportunity to feel able to withdraw without being disadvantaged. The level and form of participation is still controlled by the project officer but the individual, unlike in the prescribed participation scenario, has a choice. The participants are more likely to say how they really feel in this situation. Negotiated participation: The individual is assigned a participatory role through an invitation, but has the opportunity to negotiate the level and type of involvement and how long they would like to be involved. Providing a diversity of methods is important if you want to provide an opportunity for people to negotiate their participation - so they can pick and chose and feel they are able to contribute in ways where they feel they have strengths or something useful to offer. The role of the project worker is to provide skills to enhance the individuals capacity to contribute. Graduated participation: As the individual increases in competence, opportunities are provided so new and different types of participation are available to them. This means making a commitment to developing individual skills and the importance of working with a community over a period of time so they can take over responsibility and ownership of the project. Collaborative participation: Collaborative participation is when a project is initiated and supported by a group, which collectively negotiates all elements of the project, including the level and form of involvement of individuals and the type and use of the information emerging from it. Self-initiated participation: A self-initiated or existing project is the only time when self-initiated participation is truly evident. That is, a group has an existing project around an issue or concern to them and they control the information and contribution they make to the project. The participation is negotiated with the individuals controlling how their information is used. Self-initiated participation might start from the group contacting you and saying they have something to contribute or might be initiated by your contact to them.

Types of Participation in Decision Making

by Warwick Rowell People use, understand, demand or invite "participation" very loosely. It is so broad a phrase that it is almost a clich. To help my management consulting clients I have talked for over twenty years about the types of participation that are possible. These are set out below, for you to consider. TO AVOID SYNTHETIC PARTICIPATION, AND TO CLARIFY RESPONSIBILITIES WHEN MAKING A DECISION, ASK: 1. WHO SHOULD BE CONSULTED BEFORE THE DECISION IS MADE? Who are the people inside and outside the organisation who have some knowledge of or involvement in the matter being decided? List them all, to make sure that you consider all of them, and their various perspectives, and their different reactions to what might be proposed. Julius Caesar is reported to have said: "One should listen very carefully to one's petitioners. Frequently that is all that you can do. Frequently that is enough." 2. WHO WILL ANALYSE THE ALTERNATIVES? Someone may well take responsibility for analysis of alternatives, library searches, presenting information, etc. 3. WHO WILL ACTUALLY DECIDE? Deciding is choosing the best of the alternatives established as viable by those you have consulted. 4. WHO WILL MANAGE THE PROCESS OF MAKING THE DECISION? To whom will even the Managing Director defer when it comes to scheduling and chairing meetings, and timing? 5. WHO SHOULD BE ADVISED AFTER THE DECISION IS MADE? Who are all the parties who will be impacted by this decision? You will never offend anyone on the list... What do they need to be told? 6. WHO HAS A RIGHT OF VETO? A veto is a decision about whether to implement a decision. A good veto is based on a condition, rather than an opinion - "We will defer until we have $10,000 in the bank" rather than "We won't act until the bank manager is comfortable".
Copyright 2000, Rowell Consulting Services Pty Ltd.

Participatory Appraisal for Community Assessment: Principles and Methods 4. Types of Participation `Participation is one of those words that can be interpreted in many different ways it can mean finding something out and proceeding as originally planned; it can mean developing processes of collective learning that change the way that people think and act. The many ways that organisations interpret and use the term participation can be resolved into six distinct types. These range from passive participation, where people are told what is to happen and act out predetermined roles, to self-mobilisation, where people take initiatives largely independent of external institutions (Table 1). The problem with participation as used in types one to three is that any achievements are likely to have no positive lasting effect on people's lives. The term participation can be used, knowing it will not lead to action. Types 4-6, by contrast, involve building of social and human capital. Great care must, therefore, be taken over both using and interpreting the term participation. It should always be qualified by reference to the type of participation, as some types will threaten rather than support the goals of community regeneration. What is important is for institutions and individuals to define better ways of shifting from the more passive, consultative and incentivedriven participation towards the interactive end of the spectrum.

Table 1. A typology of participation

Typology 1. Passive Participation 2. Participation by Consultation Characteristics of Each Type People participate by being told what has been decided or has already happened. Information being shared belongs only to external professionals. People participate by being consulted or by answering questions. Process does not concede any share in decision-making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people's views. People participate in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Local people have no stake in prolonging technologies or practices when the incentives end. Participation seen by external agencies as a means to achieve their goals, especially reduced costs. People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives. People participate in joint analysis, development of action plans and formation or strengthening of local groups or institutions. Learning methodologies used to seek multiple perspectives, and groups determine how available resources are used. People participate by taking initiatives independently to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used.

3. Bought Participation 4. Functional Participation 5. Interactive Participation

6. Self-Mobilisation and Connectedness

Source: adapted from Pretty, 1995