"

EIGHT THEORIES
OF RELIGION


SECOND EDmO_
" "
Daniel L. RaIs
Uniuelsity of Mfiii7u
OXR:>RD
" 0
4
Religion as Alienation:
Karl Marx
.,.
Mao: ctiscov=d ... the simple fact . that irumkind must firs' of all
.. eat, drink, have sbeltu aud clothing, befaR> it can pursue politics.
scienoe, art, religion.
Friedrich Eogels. Speech at die Gravesi<le of Karl Marx"'
If the order of this book w= strictly chronologicaJ, the theorist we take up
in this chapter would have appeared at the lw:ginning. not bole in !be middle.
. K8ri Marx (1818-1883), !be Getman social pbilosopber and guiding spirit
of the movement that has come 10 be known as commUDisin. bad lived much
. of his liIe before the oth .... figures in our survey bad even begun their. work.
His major writings were coDIPleted well before Tylo< published PrimiziVt!
Culture in 1871, while frazer's Goltkn Bough did not appear until SO!Ile
seven years after Marx's death in 1883, It would be still anot1la twenty years
before Freud and Durkheim d e V ~ u p e d their leading ideas. Nooetheless, it
makes sense to consida Marx bore and not carli ... in our slD'Vey. For though
he wrote in the middle years of the ninMeenth cenbJJy, his ideas gained liule
notice in his day beyond a imall Circle of own radical associates and
the suspicions eyes of public authorities. Only late in his IiI .. after be pub-
lished Das KapitaP (in &gIisb, Capital), !be fiISI volume of his buge critical
study .of economics, did people in !be mainsUeam of thought 1w:gin til pay
close attention to his vieWs. From that paint OD, howev .... his influence did
begin 10 grow enonnously, as auyooe !lOW alive catainly knows. In Russia.
he won a convert in Vladimir Lenin. the major force behind the Rnssian
Revolution of 1917, Which destroyed an empire ani! . shocked the world.
Later, in the 194Os, the same shock went through Cbina when anotber
Miuxist, Mao Toe-lUDg, led an army of poor peasants to an equally shatter-
ing victory. A3 simiJar revolls unfolded 8round the world in lesser lands,
intellectuals in lioth Europe and America found tJw:mseJves forced to grapple
with Marx's explosive and alI-embr1icing vision of society. Some have
118
li9
~ strongly attracted, others thoroughly repc:lled. Ll lbo pcosc.nt e!reurnsbnee.
even after communist systems have begun to collapse, all would readily
agree on at leas, one thing: Man's own cenbUy could igno'" him. bu, ours
caunot.
3
About Mux. two things must be noticed from the very stan. FiIsr. as the
shaper of COOIIDUDism. be presents US less with a theory of Idigion than.
a total system of thought that itself resembles a 1digi0ll. .Though some have
said the same even of Freud's psycboanaIysis, the impact of the Mamst =eel
arouod the world has been tar gteaIer. F<r a time in our c:enIUIy, Maaist tbougbI:
in ODe fonn or other was lite ruling philosophy of goYaiUDWts in many pans
of the wo<ld, tbough--<ince the 8"'a1 collapse of commuoism in Europe and
the S.oviet Union-just a few major oulpOSiS remain. Marx's writings &I<>
as sacred to some communislS as is the Bible to the most sincm: and devout
of Christians. Communism offen; a syStem of doCIriDes wilb aotborized inter-
pretatioos. It has ilS own telemoWcs. sacred places, and sacred pers<lIIS. It has
missioaaries who in the space of ooe century have woo (and DOW lost)
mil!ioos of converts; and i ' has corvJnctedpersecwioos."""" rUilsane even
than tI!ose of the Middle Ages oc Wars of Religion. Qynmnniqn in essence
claims 10 present not just a brood theory of politics, society. and ......-.ni<:s
but a c:onpeIIing total vision of bumIn life, "qWr willi a philnmphical
_ 00 lmmauity's place in the D81JUal wuId, ... nplmotim of an tbo1 is
~ in bisIocy, and a jXop.ecy of what is still to oome.
Seeood,' because Man' s philooopby is so r..-...-mng. what be offers as a
"tbeoIy" of traditional Idigion makes up a _ SIDII'l and "'" oeoessariJy
ceoIral-'-part of his thinlring In this respect. be is quite IIDlie Dw!d>eim or
Freud ... our ocher theuisIs. The views be held wen: clear aad -.pMm as
we shall sbortly see; they have also had bemaiilous inlIueoce in the mo<Iem
world. especially in officially IXMDIDnnjsr so:ietics But amcug all of Marxs
yoImniQOlJS writings. it is significant drat DOt CIIJt; addr 5fJ or... any or in
sysawic fasbion the subject c:L Jetigian. 'Iltoup be _ em .oIIr:n eoougb
in his many books, Joarn, and mtiI::Jes OIl 0Iber aJbjccI&. be __ always
does SO in iDdircct &sbioD, """k' 'i''& bole OIl RIigion in &I'II"I'Ii. Ibr:n: OIl
cbulla., .... iiiWIIS, ... c:ieIgy, mil at OIberoplaces OIl Ibis lw&:f or dill pac-
lice. Cwstquwdy, this dJapIa- calls far a saaa:gy sIipd]' __ from _
_ we _ in the ~ u-ad ofllllciog !be Mguwtul c:L a single
bocIc, as we couJd do wiIb iigmes like Tyior aad [lqrtIw:im "'" will have to
...........uiK!t Mux's vir:w of IeIigiaa moiDIy from catlin eody piliIosopIrial
aad social writings. where be ... !be subject most upIicidy, _ from
s ... 1 comments be makes in laIer boots 00 poIiIics and ",. WiIh
-...,....,..m out of !be way, we can still bep 10 our pIIIr:m. We sbaJllooIr:
first at Man's liIe and inrellecmal boctgnxmd. noxt .. 1be 0YeRIl framew<rt
122
Eigm Theories of ReUgwn
and oracle. a man often obscure but also profound: Engels was the interPreter
and communicator. always able to e:JCpre$8 ideas in ways that were clear. direct,
and pem18&ive. Over the years, they visib:d fiIctIlries togethez; they shared results
of their studies; they criticized eacI1 othels ideas; they joined in writing for
their common cause; and they combined to support and advise Dew political
parties. Together in 1848 they wrote the celebrated CoMmWlist Manifesto.
Consequently. it is not really MaIX a1ooe, but MaIX and Enge\s jointly who
are the fathers ot "MarxIsm" as we \mow it today. Together they promoted
their message of materialism, class stroggi., communism, and revolution in
a way that neither could have managed as effectively on his own.
Though onlinary people knew little aIiout them. the "revolutionary" ideas
of MaIX and Engels were no secret to authorities: When, in 1848. revolutions
began to break out across Europe, Marx came under immediate snspicion.
Arrested and expelled fro!D Belgiwn, he reIUIned to Germany to take part in
the revolution that was beginning there and was . again anested but had the
good-fortune to be acquilled of an cbarges in coUrt. In 1849 he)eft die European
continent for London. Tbeze he chose-to live fOt the" rest of his life-ln exiJe
but emphatically not in retiIemeot. Despite -griuding poverty and a family 00
the edge of starvation, he worked tiIdessIy on fu!:ther studies in politics and
economics. Returning regularly to a favorite chair in the reading room of the
British Museum (where today a plaque maxks his plaoe). he wrote two works
on French revolutionary politk:s, two more on political economy. and,geyersi _
others on economic history and theory. Capital (1867) was of course the most
important of these studies. In it Marx -assembles a wealth of factuaJ data, sub-
jects it to social analysis. and adds his acute insight into political and social
structnres--<II in Older to show bow the facts of ecooai:Jie activity support his
materialist view of history and point the way to a revolutionary ecmmunist
future. -
Doring this time MaIX also tried to remain active in what he ",gaMed
as the ongoing class sIplggIe, the battle of WOlters agsinst their eapitaIist
oppressors. He gavc advice and assistance to socialist parties in France aod
Germany. He was a leader in oqpmizing the W<Wtingmeu' . Intematiooal
Aasociation (more simply. "the iDteroatiooali. wbose aim was
the common interests of the wOlbrs, of their n2tionaI home. All
the wbile he continued his writing. Capital was the first of thtee volumes on
that subject. He continued wod< on two oIheIs, which were in manuscript but
not complete. and which were to be part of the gteat project be envisioned
under the g.,.,ersi title Economics. His worl< habits were sttanj:e. Some days
be would be drunk or asleep. wbiIe on OChers he would worl< fanatically throngh
the night and into the day despite a house full of noisy children. He was for-
tunate to have almost \imjtless mergy. and wheo he wished, he could apply
it with a mental discipline made .of iron: oDIy liming the _ .... JI'OI$ of his
life did his energies abate. as illness began to take its toll A timely inherit-
ance and some financial help from Engels had at least takm his family out
of poverty. Although he continued to tead and coneop<:Wid with friends, all .of
his major writing was-by then behind hitn. His wife, Tenoy; died in 1881. and
two -years later he fonowed. Wtth Enge\s at the graveside, he was bmied
in London-latgely 1lllJJlOIII1Jed and wmoticed-in the land whole be lived,
-studied, and wroie. for the last thirty -years .of his life-
_ Marxism: Economics and the Theory of Class SIruggle
Few tbiDla:lS have evee presented their main tbesis in words as blum 0.- as
disImbing as those of MIIIX and Enge\s in the CommwIisz MtDtifesur.
The history of an bitberto eUsIing soc:ie<y is the history of class stmggIes.
n-aod olave. poIriciaD ... pIebo:ioD. lord ... ..u. piId- ...
joawc,maa.. in a word. OJlPCISiiA ..s. cwa I SIDod ill Or"
to """ _. COIricd CD.., _upa:d, ..... ____ i&k a lig!!l
_eacbtimeended,Ctbainue. _,n: .. ofaociely _bqe.
(W in the cxmmoo rum ollbe . I I Ii "' cb:s5es. 6
The message .of these ringing ...,,"""'" is .mmjstabhly clear. If ... wish 10
DDdezsrand what hnmanitY and its hisIOry are an about, we IDIISl recogxIize
wbal is truly fuod.amentaL And what is fj'JIOlw"knt, J is die foDc:rwiDg: Frmn
their first c:mergenee 00 earth human beings have been IIII:IIivmd not by grand
ideas but by very basic malaia\ o . ...... the eL u. y ao:eds of survival.
'Ibis is the first fact in the gpInjoljst view of,bisfory. Ew:Iyoac ao:eds food.
cioctring and sbeItI!:r. o..:e these ao:eds _ -. C3Ibou; lib: the dme fur sex..
join tb:m. Rep' b. fica dM2l leads to families IDIl ejI - wbic:b CRate
sIill_.maIIrial desires and is 1bose aD be.-aaIy by ikt , 1 , .
wbat Maa calls a ""mode of po." ri Hi "'" The . d je, _ C!ftD COIIIfu1s
of life IIIIISl in some way be poducz.d---.by --.,g _ II d " 18 fOods. by
fisbiDg. growing grain. cr eaII:Iing OILsome _ labnr.. "'WtU. heeaase
various people are inYolvaI in these a:tifilies in diIlbWl ways. they SOI1DCl"
cr later fall into a division of iab<r. difraWl people do diIlbWl thing$. Marx
c:al!s the ties or ( ., .... Mus _ those silo divide their lobar in this
fashioo "relations of pod' K<ion -I may be II boot maka; you may.mate DCIS
ID fish with. In the earliest. form of society. the tind __
calls primitive communist. boIb the boot ax! the _ are .ily _ by
eoayooe in the vi1Jage. whole each st....:s an as DCa! may .me.
126 Eighl Theories of Religion
call God. In his system, this absolute" is a being that coostandy strives to
become ever more aware, more conscious, of itself. It does so by pooring itself
into material f01lD8 and ev ... ts, just aa, let os say, the mind of an architect
might express itself in a beaptiful building. But because the actual never fully
captures the ideal (aa every dissatisfied 8IclJilI:Ct knows), the materia1 form is
, always inadequate, or, in Hegel's language, ali ..... to spirit Try aa it may,
materiai rea1ity never quite IIlCaSIlR5 up to the absohne So, each time an ev ... t
occurs in the materia1 world (Hegel called it a "thesis''), spirit generates an
opposed event (an "antithesis"), which trieS' to COIIeCt it. 'The tension between
theSe two 'is then resolved by yet a third event (the "synthesis"), which bleods
elements of both, ooIy to serve aa the new thesis for yet another sequence of
opposition, and resolution. Again, we shoald think of an an:hitect who designs
each new building aa an improvement on earlier efforts and does so by always
COIJ!bining the best elements of the previous two attempts. For Hegel, all that '
happens in the world arises in the fOlDl of this great alternating sequeo::e. which
he calls the "dialectic"-the "give and take"-<>f spirit in nature and history.
In the absolute alienates itself, uosatisfactorily, in one ,materia1'form; then
rosponds with another, and finally combines and smpasses them both with still ,
another. In addition, Hegel thought , of this a1tcmation as happening DOl in
little,ways but in very large social pattcms.1n his scheme, an entire culture,
such as the civilization of classical Gt= or that of Renaissan.ce Europe, can
serve as a great, single expresai.on of the thesis which, after an
interval ca1ls forth as its antithesis an opposing cultme. In time, these two
then merge into a third, richer and still higbeJ" form of civilization, ."hich can
be called the synthesis. Thus the entire world 1IIIfo1ds tbrough a gIeat and
varied process of .ilmJ8ting _ aud aubCle inIrzw<:avings that tie DIIIUIe,
history, and spirit lDto a gnmd and UDiIary wbo1c.
We noied above !bat Maot rejected Hegel's idealism But be did not I<:ject
,e:ither the concept of alitnatioo or the idea !bat history moves along by a vast
process of con1Iict. On the COIlIIary, he folded both of these ideaa into his
materiali"'" and put them the very center of his own Yiew ,of the hwnan
story. History, be says, is iDdeed a great sceDO 'of coolIict, and,Hegel, is right
to see "alienation" at the COI<: of it. But he fails to see just how deeply alien-
ation aild historical progress = rooted not In ideas bot in the basic DuueriaI
realities of life. ,Like the theologjans with their Creator God, when Hegel speaks
of alienation, he thioks chielIy of how the physical world never lives up to
the perfection of its spiritual source, the absolute idea, or min<l But in fact,
Maot countm, things = just the odIc:r way around. It is CCIICl1:Ic, actnal,
woddng human beings who CI<:aIe their own alienation, and!ftcisely by aItribut-
jog to others the very things !bat properly belooIg to themselves. That is the
real alienation and the 'true soun:e of human UDbappiness. In I<:!ig;on, God is
'always being' given the the worship, !bat ,*opedy belongs to' human
beings. In philosophy, Hegel gives his absolute spirit all the praise for what
hwnan sweat and toil actually accomplish. Ev ... iii politics be makes this
mistake; he sees govenu:nent--the modem iwioo. state as a great and recent
expression of the absolUte spirit, with the D8lIIIally coosa il'ative conclusion
!bat human being. must resign their individual inte=ts aDd desires to tbooe
of a Icing or'soroe ruling elite. Bnt wby do people choose in the lUst place to
give all this glory to God and all this power to Icings? Not because tbeI<: Jea1Iy
is a God or because theI<: are'people deserving to be cal1ed royal. but because
something is fundamentally wroog wiIh human minpet 1 , "se at the ....ery
cere of our be:ing, we suffer from self.alimatim. a deep ...... of inner sop-
matial from our tI8IImI! hwnan chaxactcr as it ougbt to be.
If we truly want . Iimarim, Maot "AiJli es, ... IlIIlSt ootice
how singnlarly impoI1ant the everyday ......."."ic fact of Iobor is to
!bat lives. Labor is the free activity of Imman bc:iDgs as they __ and
support their social lives ovec against the world of natDre: It ought to be rich,
=ative, varied, and expression of the whole personality. But
lIIIfonunately. it is DOl. It has; in fact, become 'UD d,ing apart, something alien
to oorsdves, panIy because of the eviJ _ of pRlIIOrtY. As we nocioed
with the boatman and the net roam. alieoalioD begins ooce I think of the
product of my labor as an object apart, as 50Inething odru tIrtm the tI8IImI!
eltp[ession of my pc:rsonaIity for the beudit of a .. iiliity. From tbat
lDOIDent I am aVma
ted
from the object of my Ii(("'''' rio *'; it is something
I can sell and another person can ,boy. I am JIso .t;m-d from my OWD self;
raIber!ban e:xp1essing my 1IIIiqoe tak:uts, my -mag of ""'" is just the mak-
ing ill a (. MI.'oxIity, .om .hing I can use to lmIa ... ' boy odIc:r ' '-IIII O)djties.
Tbe ___ is also fmthen'im-d from the ... ' life"
of IDuauiry: dealiDg in a IDOIC prodDct. I ....., DDdIiDg gfaIIy Imman
II> sbow for my WOIt. ADd finally, of -. I _ _ from other indj.
,Yidaol people because my pmmoIity.the IIIin& .. is f ' Dy \amo about
me, DO looger engages _ .... justtrade the CJb.i!:cts...a. of as bas made.
In _ mu1tipIe forms of aljemrim ... find die tme IIIioay of the human
ayvtitioo And ooly wb<n it is......- om ........ coa real baman happiness
;evmmallY be leco.aed.
Exploitation or Labor. Capitalism aud SorpIas Value
'Ibc con: for this COllUSive al jenaljoo C3DtJOl he applied wiIbout fust finding
'!lie cease. And here it is p1ain .. howe_ bod ill itself. 'I" w" bas been
JDIIde'aueIJy WIne by the c:omiDg of modan ild JS!lial apiA'ism M= tries
(V
.1j:I
-
130
Eiglrl1Moriu o/Religion.
Base and Superstructure
For Mar.t, then, the central drama ofhisloly is the struggle of classes, a coofIict
controlled from below by the bani realities of economic life. In a world of
private property; somo--usuaIIy the rich-own the means of production,
. while otheis-overwhelmingly the poor-'-do nO!. But even so, economics is
not all of existence. What about the types of actiVity !hat form the other dimen-
sions of our social life? What about politico and law? What about morality,
the arts, literature, and various olhec intdlectuaI endeavors? And what about
. religion? Whore do all of these lit in? .
Marx has much to say on each of these topics, and his starting point for
all of them is to make a distinction between what he caIIs the "base" of soci-
ety and its "superstructure." Through all ofhisto<y, be insists, economic facts
have formed the foundation of social life; they are the base !hat geoerates the
division of labor, the SlI'Ilggle of classes, and human alienation. By conlIast,
certain other spheres of activity, the things that are so visible in daily life,
belong to the supcr5truclwe. They .not only arise from economic base but
are in significant ways shaped by it. They are aeated by the deep, hidden
energies and emotions of the class T!>e institntions we associate with
culturallife-famuy, government, the arts. most of philosophy, ethics, and
reJigion-must be understood as strucIUIes whose main role is contain or
provide a controlled release fot the deep, bitter tensions !hat arise from the
clash between the powe:rful and .
Consider the.case of government. of the stare is not bani to under-
stand. Mar.t says it exists in all ages to ' .... GSall the wishesof the mling class,
the dominant. group. In a capitalist society built on the principle of private
property, it therefore passes strict.laws ag3inst tboft, so that the mothez of a .
starving child can he jailed for steallDg a loaf of bread even from a factory
owner so wealthy that he has enough food to feed a vil1age. Government
creates and pays. police fan:e to make SUIe that the J8ws are eofOICed; thieves
must be caught and brought 10 trial. And it establishes a judiciary to make
certain that those laws are upheld; the accused must be coovicted and sen- .
tenoed fot her offense. DisinIDgndioa, the breokdown of law, is cmstanl
threat to any society th!It. like the capitalist is made up of just a few
oppressors and so many who are oppressed. So the preseu:e of a strong
state, . one that will impose laws and aush anY tmeat of deviation. is abs0-
lutely essential
. Although the state uses fon:e to acbit;ve cootro1, other auIbarities in the
cultural superstructme achieve the ...... eud by nsmg persuasion. In each age
of the past, ethical J.eadem.......tgisns, pJ>iloq>heIs. and moralists--bve .
helped to control the poor simply by .preaching to !hem, by telling them what
Rdigion as MioratioII: /Carl Marx HI
is right and what is wroog. The panicuIaI virtues !bey """"""" depend. natu-
ially, on the kind of society they live in, fot "the ideas of the mling class
.>Ie in every epoch the ruliog ideas .... In the Middle Ages. when fuming was
the chief.means of production, all Lands were owned by bishops of the church
(] by fendallords, who defmded their JlIOPCItYwiIh annies of vassals and
scm SWOIIl to their savice.,should we be smprised, then, tiuIt the maral code
of the day stressed devotion 10 the cbun:b. aloug with wmri<r vinues such as
.,.,. ,. e, honor, and loyalty to one's feudal masI<I? In modem industrial
socieIy. capitalist 0WDeIS need a buge pool of -=. people with
few ties beymd their immediate family aad no claim to social privilege (]
staInS. Should we be shocked, then, thai in the preseol era tbe maral w>lCb-
words an: individual fIeedom and social equality? Modem pbiIosopben and
theologians promote these-new maral values because they the new ec0n-
omy. Like their medieval coontelparIS. they claim tiuIt the mcnIs they peach
>Ie etemal truths, !hat they belong to a fixed order of _ wb::n in fact
they are <iefmnined by the ..........,ic rea1ities of their ""'" specific p1a::e and
time. Noc are the creative arts ICa1Iy much diffezmL Fer an their talk of indi-
vidualism and originality, writr:rs and artists depend 011 the I eprrl ideas of
the age foc their success, so even wb::n they seem 10 ..-. they in =lity
gM: unwitting, sileo. approval 10 socieIy DDdcr the 0jJp ........ camd.
Fer bistcrical support of these views, Man .-IUIDS 10 the n:ocd """""
IuIions in modem Emope: the EngIisb Ovil W. of tbe lCiOOs -.I especPDy
. !be n:volutions in France, wbicIt be SIiIdied an of !lis life -.I llip , in 110
less 1ban thiee separaIe waIts. 10 00 the Sudace, 1be&e amflirts seem 10
be pmeIy of politics and idigjoa; the WJdedyiog n:alitie&. buWCfU.
loot C<lIlSiderabIy diffen:ut. In sew"" ""...:eoImY FngImd soys Max. i1 is
<apiIalism that lcads.the Londoo mea_ -.I micIdlc>< P fPJIrY 10 dW-
looge !be political anlbJriiy of !be king. wbose powa- Jay wiIh ........ i ......
It is capitaIism that leads the rising middle cIas5 10 Idcpt a new
fumi PI sf? rism which is much"beIa' suited to its iotaesIs in
irade, investment, and individuIIl _pise. ADd, _ migbt add, it is ca;R-
ta1ism thai leads artisIs likc Rcmbnudl -.I FnDs H.als ID poiol pclItIUs of
Dmch tow_ and their &milies u.s-! of tbe ..... -.I tiogs we
lind in tbe fI=oes of medionl daacbes. In Fr-=e of 1189 it is tbe rising
middIc class (the urban bowgaWsie) of poo . .... k aad biueau:t .. who
eQginoa the ovenhrow of the king aad lead tbe lIIIKIt on the cborcb in the
.-De of _ rights. Ooce the upbonal p,' . Ie. ..... . -=s again
pt:nil as the same nUddle class naiIos 10 bold '-I< the ,_.... ....,. zsP-
....... of the iIDpoverisbed masses.. In eoch case _ CID .... .. the
lO1ttdWe at poIitic:s and n:ligioa is ICally aDrCDcd by the . bzse 2lJd
tbe dyuamics at class WIIflue.
134 Eight Thu>riu of ReUgion
for a supennan in the fantastic reality of heaven . .... fOlDld nothing there but
the reftexion of himself." He then added: basis of i=Jigious criticism
is: Man malus religion, religion docs not make man:
m
: . .
Persqasjve as Feucrbach's ougumeDI8 were, Man: saw two places where they
could be made still stronger. First; if we ask why human beings refuse to talce
credit fot their own accomplisbmen1s. if we ask why they insist on caJling
themsClves miserable sinnerS and offer instead all praise and glory to God,
Feuerbach really h8s no answer beyond an empty generality. He tends to
say, in effect, .that is just the way people it is human nature to be .
iilienated-unhappy with ouneIv .. yet pleased with God. This will not do for
MaIX. Thm is a real answer to the question of alieIiation, he insists, and it
fairly leaps out at us the moment we look at IhiDgs from.a maleriiilist and
economic .
MaIX observes that there is a parallellietween religions and socioeconomic
activity. Both are marked by alienation. Religion takes qnalities--moral
ideal&-l>ut .of our naIUral human 1W> and .gives them, 11IlDJIIIlrally, to an
imaginaIy and alien being we can God. o,pitalist eoo ....... ';.. take atI04IJa expes-
sion 'of our iWUral humaI!i!}'--our p.tOdoctive labor-<md ttansform it just as
unnaturally info .. material object, lIOmetbing that is bought, sold, and owned
by others. In the one case, we'hand over a part of our selves-our virtue and
sense of self-worth-lo a wholly imaginary being. In the other, we just as
readily deliver our labor for noIbiDg more than wsges to get alba things that
money will boy. A1J religion us of our human merits and gives them to
God, so the capitalist economy robs us of our labor, our true
and giveS it, as a mere commodity, into the hands of the those-!he rich-
who .are able to buy it. Nor is this unhappy Combination just a coincide'noe.
Religioil, remember, is part of the superstruciure of society. Economic reall
ties fonn its base. The alienation we see iii religion is, in actoaIity, just the
expression of our more baSic' unhappiness, wbicb is always economic. The
surface iilienation evident in reIigion is simply a mirror image of the real and
underlying iilienation of humanity, which is economic and material.
In these terms it is .easy 'lI! understand why for many people religion hai
such a powerful and lasting appesI. than anything else in the sociiI
supezstructure, it 3ddresses the...,.",..;.,.w .-. of an atiemlrrl, tmbappy
ity:Hen: is how Man: pots it in the fmioos Iines that. dr:peoding on the reader,
are now among the most widely hated or admiIod in an of his writing': '
ReUgio .... disI=s is at the same time the apr=ion ofJ<8l (MOJIOIIIic] disI=s
and the protut agaiIIst real -.... RdigjoD is the sis!> 'of the oppressed
aealDre, the heart of a _ wcdd, just as iI is the spirit oi a spiridcos
situatioo. It is the opium of the people. .
Religion as Aliu.arion: Korl Mcrx l lS
The abolition of religion as the iUllSOry happiness of the people is
for their real happiness. The demand to give up the illusion abow. its condition
i$ the demand to giw: lIP a condiJum which nuds ilbuions.
16
It is not cICar how much Man: understood about opium use in his day. but
be certainly knew that it was a narcotic and hallucinogenic snhsninoe; it eased
pain even as it created fantasies. And that. for him. is pn:cisely the role of
religion in the life of ihe poor. Through the pain people suffec in a world
of croel exploitation is eased by the fantasy of a supernaIUral wcdd where
all SOIIOWS cease, all oppression disappears. Are the poor without jewels? No
mailer, the gates of Heaven are inlaid with pearl. Are the oppi j without
The very streets of Heaven are paved with gold. Are the poor jeal-
OUS of the rich? They cae I)'&d Jesns' parable of poor Lazarus. who died and
_ to father Abraham, while the soul of the rich man who igooRd him in
1W> traveled diIectly to Hailes at his deaIh. To "1Iy away" ODe day and go
home 10 live with God, -as the old Negro spirituoIs is 10 enjoy in
die IIOXt 1W> a wclJ-<Iesaved conso
1a
rim f<r an al the SufI<rio&s eodurod in
this one. .
From Man:'s standpoim. it is just this Umeality, this leap ioIo an imaginary
wuId, which makes religion such a wicbdIy COOJforting l"'i,* s' Afte< an.
if the IllIth is that there is neilba a God DOl' a snpema"Rlll wodd, being
religious is DO diffomJt from being addidrd 10 a drug. lite opam. It is I"""
esc>qBsn Worse. in ICIDS of the strugIe apinst cxpL i ' in the ..add..
it is also fno<!anwItally desuoctive. What 0IIt:Igies will the poor pill inIo
changing their ciJmmstaoce if they are pen..cdy CCIRm _ the thought of
the next 1W>? How will they organize. plan their aIIacIc, and begin their "",011
if their hope of heaven leaves them 110 more wish 10 ciJaoge their 1W> than
. the "sigh of prorest" we fiIJ:I in otheIwoddIy n-Js aDd a:a ,- . 7 Rdigion
sbifts their gaze upward to God _ it sbJuId IeoIiy be IDUIed dowo. a d to
the injustice of their materi.al. physical sjmatioo
It is in just this aJrJDCdion that MaIx <IIII= his odIer inqaowemem OIl
Faat...:b, wbose major problem is !baI. lite moot IbintJ:n, be prmn
'"'"' i<UJg himself mordy 10 the 1W> of the miDd; be is a am-
"d_"'_ on the bmnao sitmrion Be qaiIe rigImy -._ dul bumm beiDgs
are eljep;wd aod dEiefUiC tam to n:JigioD. Bat mere 00s:a .... is IICJ[
a>DIIgb. and oda ioWJectmk UBISl be awabaed II> the fxt tbat
the ptapose of anaIyziDg the probkm al rdigion is _ just D> _ a DCW
&Dbjcd ra. discassion; the purpose is to fiIJ:laa active ShIqy that will soI".-e
the problem. This emphasis 011 actiaIt. in aJIItraSt D> dIe.pm:ly _ eIical
CODCCillO of so many tbinkers in his day <aDd ours). is cmcial poiu1 in
MaIx's rommwjst program.lu he palS u in the last alhis _ -Thaaon
" j"

:'i,...,
f1 \
138
Eight Tliei>ri .. of ReUgiort
collapse amid the great proletarian revolution of a furore. '
Nonetheless, the almost blindly enthusiastic approval Marxist theory enjoyed
in past decsdes has been by an almost equally emphatic rejection in
the present.
Between these two oxt:reQ1es, Objectivity about either Marx or his view of
religion is difficult to achieve.20 Pe:rbaps the best that one can do, at least al
the start; is to lay aside the issue ,of praise 00: blame and try simply to be descrip-
tive. In that regard, at least two eleu,>ents in Marx' s theory th81 distingnisb it
from olbers deserve our notice: (1) his stmtegy of functional explanation, which
ends in its own'distinctive form of rerlnctiooism, ind (2) his stress on !he strong
,ties that link religion to economics.
1. Functional Explanation and Reductionism
Although he began writing _ than half a centnry before eiiher of them,
Marx's geomaI approach to Ieliginn.is siimIar 'in farm to the functional
""Planations we bave observed iu'-' Freud 'and Dud:boim. What iDIaests
him is nol so much the conient of Ieligioua beIid&--nOt so mucb wbat
people actually say is true aboul God, Heav .... the Bible, or any other sacred
writing or divine entity-aa the role these beliefs play in the social struggle.
He agrees with Tylor and Frazer tIiat the main religious beliefs are, of .,.,."...
absurd superstitions. Bnl be also agi-ees with 'Frend and Dwkbeim that we
still have to explain why PeoPle hold to them. them, he insists that
we find the key to religioil Only when ,we discover what its fundioll is, only
when we discover what"its beliefs do for peopJe either socially or pSych0-
logically or both. Marx's ,tresa on society pull, his view in one respect closer
to Durkbeim than to Freud, foo: Frend', as we saw, f3lIs mainly 011
the individual rather than the group, 00 his view, the neurotic needs of !he
individnal personility &Ie the main canse of belief. Even so, the COOIrast
is not a shall>' one because FIend', theOy also bas social featnres, with the
individnal personality bc:ing shaped by the inlIUeuces of the family and
commwmy.
At !he same time, Marx and Frend &Ie closer togeIIia-and far1ha from
Durlcheim-oo another side of the issue. Since, foo: ])nrkbeim, Ieligion is in
a very real sense simply the wOlship ofsociety, he thinks it impossible to
imagine human social life without some set of either Ieligious ritnals or
near equivalent. Marx and Freud, by contrast, believe no such thing. BoIh
think: religion expresses a false or:ed for iDdividual security, and they are
perfecdy happy to predict the disappearmoe of zdigion once the couse of its
fantasies bas been detected and removed. Frend thinks people would be much
better off withont the neurotic illnsions of fsjlh, bot he seems to' teaIize many
Religion as AlimDzion.' Cm1 Men:
will stili cling to them. Marx goes _. He tbinJcs pcople be beaer
off IUI1il they are withont them---that is, until =olntioo bas daDe away willt
the exploitatjoo and misery that bave created Ieligioo in the
From this comparison. we can see that Marx's expJanatioo is DOt just func-
tionalist but aggressively Ieductiooist as The teodmcy of his tbinting
tbrongboul is to describe religioo , a1ways as an effect. an Cxpessipo. a
sympcom. of somedung more real aDd s.Jh$tmtiaJ dw lies qrvL 1'''' iL. Even
if be sometimes speaks of religious ideas as having some isedeI .a". .... ,. his
predcminant emphasis is always tIie other way. His SIr.IIegy is jcImtjca) 10
that of Freud and Dmkheim in that beoea!h the' surface 'of reIiiiioos belieis
and ritnals, he is always seeking out the hidden cause of these things. which
is to be fouDd in something else. For Fn::u!I. that some<hing is psy-
cbological oeed; for J)onkbejm, it is socicry; ftr Marx, il is . ,RaIity bcuealb
bach of these--tbe mat<:rial facts of the class SII1IggIe and ar "Ii ...
2,. 8ad ReligPw . .'
WbaaI:va" our jodgment OIl Man" ...;" ,. 'lisP ODe tb:iDg ill b::yaDd. debale.
His emphasis 011 """""!ric realities bas DOW made it imp<eoft!e II> __
religions life mywhere wiIbcat explccing its close boo II> _ social
reaJiIies. In the century since his death, Mat)<'s discipks ba'ft: broagbt grea1
iasigIIt to our noderstaDdiDg of rei" ..... il .. _ the spiriIDaI_ male-
rial cIjrpmsjms of life. 'They have cast a wbolt """" Iigbl OIl the ' , .....
_ Ocoaomic 'needs, social classes, and. religions bciid's, esperioUy in
the case of such pivotal _ in bisIoIy ... Ibeo Pt_ Rd .... the
!lQgIisb 0viI War, the Freocb aoIlimiIo<-"!ol ......... of'-
times _ place$. In additioo, they ba'ft: .. odDoc:d .. 0 ........ SIIidics of the
, <XOn1ims _ Ieligioa and such sabjccIs os modem i" wiG" a>Io-
, DioJi&m, and sIavy. In this ,..;pect. wbttIt;.u baIJpuJs 10 poIiIic2I
"R:gimes. Marx's rpatrria.jst (' .... "jo ;. ICi'l fwe will. lID daIIIt eudare.md.
'''''0" to .bear froit wbCIe.cc d ... ius address the role Clt Idi&iou in ceo-
DOIIIic, IOCW. and poliJicaJ affaiJs.
Mao:'s..."..,.,."ie _gn ofIo.s a weoIIh of iosjzbIiaIo the boo _ bind
Jdjgioo to soci n"jc Iife.IDsigbt. 00_""" is DOt I . ' Imof:or os
Mao: gives us a theOy of reIigioa. ..... mmpcIIing is il? n..o. i) WI is :m
.,...;any large one in this case. bccaIISe Mon's jio'" ... rdigioD is_
impossiNe to sepulIIe from the .-aspecIS Clt his We ..... this 10
,N

N
r.
142 Eighl Theoms uf Religion
, quite apart from the paths of developljleIlt that may have been followed in
othot societies.
3. ' Marxist Political Tbeory: A Contradlction
A theory is ooiy as strong as its assumptions. Since Mantis! thinking redu=
religion to economics, we cannot leave it wilbout examining, at least brielly,
the geocral theOly of ecooomy 8IId society on wbich it rests. This is, to be
sure, no simple task. In both IXJII!IIII1DiSl8lld.II<lII<:ODIDlunist countries, entire
libraries are needed to hold an !be inImpreIaIioos 8IId critiques of Marx and
Mantism in its multiple variations. What we can do, however, is point to at
least two central difficulties that bear strongly on !be issue of religion 8IId
. seem part of !be very naIuIe 8IId fabric of Marxism. These are not just cbaIges
hurled by political eaemies but appan:otly coogeoitsl disabilities that
Marxists themselves, in C8IIdId 1IIOOIeats, xecognize the need to overcome.
The first is a social and .political problem, and to see it we
must=nember that Marx "'",,,lIlIendS his SYstem not just as a theOly'but as
a COUl!e of real action. The wadciDg closs !be proletaIW-is !be great agent
of revolution; it is the social group which, driven to despention by its uni-
versal miseIy, must one day rise up to destroy bowgeoi.s capitalism. Its leaders, '
whether they be the members of a coomiuuist party, self-styled !evolutionary
strongmen. or e1ected IepIeSenIaIives .imbody !be singUlar, uniform inr=t
of ''the people" as a wbole. They and !bey _ speak 8IId act for 1I",.,evo-
lution. MOIeOvot, because tbeIe can be oo1y one such "colleclive will" of !be
people, there is no plaCe fOl' disagreeaneIlt about its puI'JX)SeS. Though it is
elected, there can be oo1y one political party. 1boogb they can do their wad<,
tbeIe can be no such thing as "individual fioed<im" for -. scjcnrisls, 8IId
intellectuals, sinCe the only puxpose in any of tbese pmsuits is to serve !be
will of the proletariat. Though. families exist, pm:nts too must xecognize that
thc:ir children belong ultimotrly to the stare. Religion, of course. C8DD0t be
toleraled because It saps 'rDvoIuIiooary energies and demands an ultimate
loyalty that sbouId be giw:u ooly to !be cause of IeVOiution.
If this is a fair portrait of Marx's !evolutionary social program. then it is
very bard to see how it could. ever acbieve the ead of a petfectly classless,
harmonious community which be sets for it. Marx, seems' to assume that the ,
workers in an of their mi11ioos will, on any import;u!t social issue, have 'ooly
one point of view_ '_ cle!mniDed folly by their miserable positioo as
the oppressed class. But wby should this nocess
m
1J! be so? AI the outbreak
of World War I. some, commuuist Ieadc:IS expected that pro1eIarians in each
of the European naIioos involved would acIDaIly Iefuse to fight their fellow
, wod=s in enemy lands. But, this obviously, did DOt happen: FrezJcb, German,
i 43
lind BriIisb wortas discovered that the tics of language. oabon, culture
were' stronger tb;m any class loyalty that might have gone beyond natiooaI
bonIets. ' '
" Second, aud more dsugerousIy. MalXist theOly seems to assume that scme
smaller group--some elite. eI<cIed or otbe<wiso-will. in fact, be making the
impoI1ant decisions in the name of the wortas. but wirhoUl tvry
'i1tstiJJaWn in 1M sociely that has a righllD aamine or tpJeStion that claim.
If I as communist party _ say, "You must die became !be cause of
!eVolution clem
a
,,!,' it." !be one questiOo that DO ODI>--OO arIisr, theologian.
opposing poIitici
m
or ordinary bas a p.-..d rigid: to ask
me is: '"Who are JOIl to speak f<r !be c:aase of le .-..r SiDce I believe
I speak for !be party, !be mae fact that .. ,1M cu .,.. .. - , .. me abeady $II&-
gesIs that she or be is an enemy of !be IeOIutioo. I JIIIISl respood to such
challenging questions not with an aDS'WeZ O['.a pc:asuasive atgWDUil but wiIh
fine. The pacIicaI Ccoscquea;c of Ibis iuq"6
s
'" sjnWian bame 0U1 ill limos<
every modem communist SIlItr, is !be dait IiIID -.I ... "or 11IIe by par-
ties or di<:IaIxn. a100g with !be wi11in& desuuaiuo ofbasic batoan rigb.Is. And
wby not7 Marx himself was D'''''''' swayed by appcoIs to bumm rigllls. fo<.
as be pOinIed out in !be case of the Freocb !bey ale oaIy boor-
geois va1ues-ideals imposed on an by !be middIc class, !be group wbiclJ, in
modem Westr:m uations, happens now to bold !be power, In ages. 0Iher
mast= did !be reaching, but always it bas been powa-, the "'nDght" of
-. !bat deIamiDed !be "rigbl'" of morals. IroaicoIIy, bo_,a, this .....
spariugly iadical _ of moral rigbI;i as _ __ ......-= for
!be very wod:r:ts wbooe iDIm:sIs Moo. "'W .... 1Iy bas Itbeail. Siacc it pI2ICCS
... iu " du.1 morallW1laiia DpCI1 tbooe peape wIlD, _ ill the _ of
the le.oIutiou. ba"" .,...wei! power aad claD 11> ........ beboIf. it _
.. dinaiy peq>Ie just .. opeo as bc:fi:e to --,1boa8b .... _ the
..".. baaoer of IevoIDIion IDiI Ibcir OWII (fuIme) wdHJoiag. AD of wbicll is
'troubling. TIIcIe seems to be a uamlMtictiw beortofMaixist social
Ibeby, a pandox wbkb some criIics ba1Ie pell'"ptiidy .............. as the pr0b-
lem of "'-1ilarian democ .. a:y .....
:-. MarD.t Ecoaomic Theory: A
Mmx spmt !be' lallec portioo of his life 1iiiiIiD& OIl ...... II. , in the _-cal
tobII1Ies of CopiIDl aad boob. He ";,,..ded Ibis as ..... c:&IiCJy impo< .....
........ solid 'ou--'-Qllab'on' ;::.:.: ..... "--- <- e .. ..... ..., - 3 1".
doc "h ... of the class srroggIe ODd wod:r:r ''Ii .M; Ii In QzpiIDI. as we
;Iiave ...... be argues !hat bumm IabOI' aeaIIe$ the only real ftIue to be fOllDd
":in p __ Ihat apIoibtioo - __ apihIisu pay just
:,
I,
i'"
/i''W
1
,-"
" 1;"
146
EighJ Theoriu of ReUgion
8. Karl Marx, CapiJal. 3 vols .. ed. Friedrich Eogels (New York: InteinaIional
Publish.,.. 1967), I: 645.
9. Marx oodEDaols. 7'he GumDnldeoIo,y,Purs 1 and 3, ed. R. Pascal (New york
JntemadOnai Pub1iabon, 1947), P. 39.
10, 'Tilt Clas.! Struggla In France (1850); 7'he ElghteenJh Brumalre uf Louis
B,OIUlpat'k (1852); On 1M Civil War In France (1871).
11. For the meaning of the term .... again. Carvec, Man Dictionory: under,
"ideology," pp. 89-92. '
12. Karl Marx, "DocIonl1>issenalion." in McLeI1an, Early Texts, p. 13: ..., also
McLellan's CoInm<alI>' in KlJrI MtII'% (1973), p. 37.
13. Tbese w..., Pre/lminory Thuu on ' 1M Reformalian uf Philosophy and
Principia uf tilt Philosophy uf tilt FlIZIITe, bocb publiabod in 1843.
14. Karl Marx, "ProfiIce," Econoniic and Philosophical M=cripu, in T. B. '
BOIIomote, ed., Karl Marx: Early Writings (New YOlk: McGraw-Hill BooIc
1964), p. 64.
IS. Karl Marx, "Contiibution to the Critique of Hegel's PbjIosophy of Right
in Ktul ' Man and Fri4driI:h Engels on Religion, introduced by
Reinhold Nicbahr (N ..... York: Sch: 10" Boob, 1964), p. 41.
16. Marx, "Critique ofHepl's PhiIOiophy of RighI. "in NiObuhr, Man and Engels
on ReUgioll, p. 42.. '
17. Karl Marx, "Ibosea on FeiJerbach." in NIebuhr, MtII'% and Engels on Religion,
p. 72. " ,
18. Karl Marx, "The O>mrmmjsm of the Pape< Rheinischu Beobachur," in
NIebuhr, Mqrx and Engels on Religion, pp. 83-84. '
Marx, "Critique oflfe&el's PbiIosopby of RighI. "in N"Jebuhr, Man and Engels
on Religion, p. 42:
20. One of the JD<lIt tboroogh ...,..,. C<posi1iom of Marx 00 rdigion, """""'P""iet!
by a pmdr3tiog analysis, can _ in AIistdr Kte, M= and tilt Faibu< if Liberrition
Thtology (London: SCM Pless. 1990), cIlapt= 1-5.
21. Marx did brielly addresS this in _ articles wriu.o wbiIe seMng as .. cor-
reapoDdeot fo< theN ... York Daily Tribune; see Txmr Un&, Karl Man and Religion
in' Europe and India (New Yori:: Harpec & Row, 1980), pp. 6S-aO. '
22. On this see R. N. CareW HuDI, 7'he Themy and PIYJCtice if Communimi:
All Inlrodut:tion (Fiannoodswonb. MiddIeaox, EugIaDd: Pe1i<:an Boob, [1950]1963).
A thorough .tudy of this problem bocb in tile Fzax:b moolulioo ODd in 0Cbcr nodicaI
RlV01utl'oo.uy .,.,.._ in' lbo West ill: L ToImon. Origins
Dmwcracy (BosIoa: !!eacoIi Preis, 1952).
23. Eugen BllIun-Bawed<, "UmesoIved Coobadiclion in Ibo Miuiian :&:ooomiC.
SysI<m" [1896], in Shorter Cl<mia if EMgen BIfIrm.lJawot, tr. Alice U.,..j"".1d (SooIh
Ho1laod, IL: Liboltarian Pless. 1962).
24. See the study by 1. Samue1 Preas, Explaining ReligiOn: Criticism and Theory
from Bodin to Freud (New -. CT: Yale UuivorsiJ:y Press. 1987), which .,gueS
that !be most convinchig _ expI_ of reIigioo to dare is 10 be
found in a combination of Ibo u-;.s of Dmkheim ODd Freud. "
"
Amold, N. Scott. Marx's Radical if Siay: A and Crili=J
, _ New Yodc Oxf.m UuiYasity 1990. A sop,;_ -""gb,
aod dcWlcd modem malysis of Marx', . <:OD<:qIIa ODd _ ,_
Bedln.lsI!iah- KlJrI Marx. New Yori:: Tuue IDc., [1939] 1963. A _ jnIrDean.,
biogmphy whicl\ aoaIy= Ibo dee,,,-, of'Marx'$1boagI!t in Ibo COIlIeXl of
" European inte1Jectua
i
IradiDaos.
BllIun-Bawerk, Eugal. K4rl Mane tmd tilt CIo# if His s-. EdDcdby Pm!
M. Sweezy. Loodon. EogIaod: .Ma:tiD Pless. (1896) 1974. AaoIyses by !he
foreuiost economic ailic of Marxism.
Brznjnslcj Zbigniew. 7'he Grand FaihTe: 7'he Birrir and DeatIt ifCarrmlurUm in 1M
" Twensutn Centwy. New Yorlc a..des Scriboa'$ Seas. 1989. ODe of !he first
appraisa1s of !he co11apse of c:ommUDism, _ by the fenDer oaIicaal s=J-
rily advisor for PresideIlI Tunmy Carta.
Carvec, Teudl. ed. 7'he Cambridge Companion to, Marx. Cambridge, EogIaDd:
Cambridge University Pross. 199I.IusnDCti",essays""thecbmgingesrimalrS
0< Morx, his politicol _ ...... oE.a...z. ___ achcr
Inpico.
ear-, Tendl.AMan Diaionary. T_ New 1eaey: _4 _Boob. 1987.
A useful rd'm:uce wid especiaI1y fer toy ....:eps ill MIa', daoagbL
GcIdieb, Roger S. Mar.rism, 1844-1990: 0rigiIu. /HtraJd. _ l..oDdoa:
RomWge. o.apmm a: HalI.lDc... 1992. AD .acmp: by ., ' , - mind to
,.". .. ljtarr Maaism in Ibe afialLlllb oE Ibe Sorict ___
Kee, AlisIair. Mane and tilt FaibIr< n-liIo. SCKPross. !990.
A widl>rangiog __ aiDque of MalUm IDI Ibo lAiD Amaia:l
1booIogy !bat _ .. __ Moaisr buy _ CIo:isIia bdicf..
I.dr. Gar-. 7'he A _ Pross.
1961. AJ1 0_ -. but IIiIl a -cJDac ,.... i " 'Ii ..,... _ cri<icis:o
of Maais< ideology.
Moa. K.ad, aod Friedrich EogoIs. KDrl JI4T:r and Friedrit:Il &,;<U ",, '
-.cod by ReiaboId _ .. New Yom: Sol I _ 1964.
M<:Ko1m, Delos B. TM III>T%ist.Critiqws &,;<U. Ler.in.
The IfagDe: _ 1975. AJ1 _ ... aJii4Wai
S1IIlIy of differing aiIifpIes of Jdi&ioa otrm:d by map- Moaisr -. of tile
early - <:aJIIIIy. .
Mel c!Jan David. Fridridi &,;<U. NeW Yom: VikiDg Press, 1m. A biogi :i 0<
M.-x"$ c:oIIabc:nIrJr" aod willi aIII:Mira giw:a., Ibc i l M- d -, bc:twt:cl
the two mea as well as 1b2- ,Ii,. a , -.ill 1ftnitirs
Mel dim David. Karl Marx. Modem M-. Sc:Dcs. IIa I _ill. M"r'ksM
EogIaod: Peogaio Boob. 1976. A _ ,*"",1' 1..-oE Max', = _
cwtr:ufasies. aod ideas.
, Mcl.e1Iaa. David. Karl II=: His Life tmd 77ooo<J.I<. New Yom: a.per & Row. 1m.
, An_ve __ \JiogIatiJy oE Max ill &gIisIL