18.

100A PS1
Author: Eric Emer, Collaborators: None February 10, 2013

1
1.1

Exercise 1.3 #1
Problem

Show increasing; nd an upper bound, if it exists; give the limit if you can. 2 a. nn1 1 1 b. (2 n )(2 + n ) n 2 c. 0 sin k 2 d. n 0 sin k/2

1.2

Solution

I have assumed for the following solutions that the only relevant values of n are the set of nonnegative integers. 1.2.1 a

Our rst task will be to show that an = nn1 is increasing. Clearly, the expression is undened for n = 0 because this would be division by zero. The expression is also undened for any values such that n2 1 < 0, because the value of the expression beneath the radical would be negative. Thus, the complete expression in (a) will be real only for values n 1. Now we wish to show that this sequence will be increasing. Let us dene: n2 1 an = n Therefore we have that: (n + 1)2 1 n+1 If this is an increasing sequence, then it will hold true that an an+1 for all n in our domain. So, we examine this inequality by evaluating the expression an an+1 : (n + 1)2 1 n2 1 an an+1 = n n+1 n2 1 n2 + 2 n n n+1 an+1 =

We wish to show that the above expression is negative for all n in our domain. If we can do that then we have proven that an is an increasing sequence. The expression simplies: n( n2 1 n2 + 2 n) + n2 1 n2 + n We clearly see that the denominator will always be positive. In addition, we see that n2 1 < n 2 2 for all n in our domain. We also see that n + 2n > n 1 for all n in our domain. Thus we can simplify our expression to be: n + (n ) n2 + n Where is a number constricted to 1, and is a very small number where n. Therefore, we can conclude that n + (n ) will always evaluate to a negative number, and thus n+(n ) will always be negative. Therefore, an an+1 is negative for all n in our domain, and we n2 +n conclude that for all n, an+1 an and the sequence is increasing.

The sequence is bounded above by 1. The limit of this sequence is limn+ 1.2.2 b

n2 1 n

=1

1 1 We will rst show that an = (2 n )(2 + n ) is an increasing sequence. We clearly see that the expression is undened for n = 0 because this would be division by zero. Therefore, we will prove that this sequence is increasing on the domain n 1.

1 1 1 )(2 + ) = 4 2 n n n 1 1 1 )(2 + )=4 an+1 = (2 n+1 n+1 (n + 1)2 1 1 1 1 an an+1 = (4 2 ) (4 )= n (n + 1)2 (n + 1)2 n2 an = (2 Here we can see that because (n + 1)2 > n for all n in our domain, the reciprocal of (n + 1)2 will always be less than the reciprocal of n. Thus, an an+1 < 0 for all n in our domain, and therefore an an+1 for all n in our domain. an is an increasing sequence.
1 1 This sequence is bounded above by 4. The limit of this sequence is 4. limn+ (2 n )(2 + n )= 1 1 limn+ (4 n2 ) = 4 limn+ n2 = 4 0 = 4.

1.2.3

c, if k is the variable being summed

Because of the notation of the problem, there is ambiguity concerning what k is supposed to represent. Therefore two solutions are possible. One solution where k is the variable being summed, 2 and another for if k is just a constant. This is the solution to the sequence an = n k=0 sin k .
2 We will rst show that an = n 0 sin k is an increasing sequence for all n in our domain. Because our domain only includes the non-negative integers, we can see that the only values we need to evaluate are sin0, sin , and sin2 , because after 2 , the expression cycles. It happens that sink = 0 for all k Z+ . Thus, the sequence an is actually 0 for all n in our domain. This is an increasing sequence because although all the terms are 0, it still holds that an an+1 .

This sequence is bounded above by 1. The limit of this sequence is 0. 2

1.2.4

2 We will rst show that an = n 0 sin k/2 is increasing. Because our domain only includes the non-negative integers, we can see that the only values we need to evaluate are sin0, sin/2, sin , sin3/2, and sin2 , because after 2 , the expression cycles. We see that these evaluate to, respectively: 0, 1, 0, -1, 0. However, the summation in the sequence is actually over sin2 k/2. Thus the value of sin2 k/2 cycles around the values 0, 1, 0, 1, 0. Because all of these values are negative, we can be sure that at each an it will hold that an+1 = an or that an+1 = an + 1. It holds that an an+1 . The sequence is increasing.

The sequence does not have an upper bound. The limit of this sequence is limn+ +.

n 2 0 sin k/2

2
2.1

Exercise 1.5 #1
Problem

1 1 1 a) Let an = 1 + 1 2 + 23 + . . . + n(n+1) . Prove {an } is bounded above. 1 1 b) Let bn = 1 + 1 4 + 9 + . . . + n2 . Prove {bn } is bounded above by comparing it to {an }. What upper bound does this give for {bn }?

2.2
2.2.1

Solution
a

1 1 We can simplify an signicantly. We use the lemma provided in the hint, that n(n1 +1) = n n+1 . 1 1 1 1 1 Using this, we see that, for instance, a2 = 1+( 1 1 2 )+( 2 3 ) = 2 3 . We can simplify an = 2 n+1 . 1 From here it is easy to see that limn+ 2 n+1 = 2. Thus we see that the sequence an is bounded above by 2.

2.2.2

We can compare a given ak to the same bk , and see that for any k , bk ak . We see ak = 1 1 1 1 1 + 11 2 + 23 + . . . + k(k+1) . Similarly, bk = 1 + 4 + . . . + k2 . We see that for any k , bk ak . Thus, by the comparison test, we see that since an converges and bn an , bn also converges. Therefore it is bounded above. We can easily compute the upper bound. Using the p-test from integral calculus, we can examine 2 1 1/x dx. We see that the integral evaluates to 1. Thus, given the initial term 1 in the sequence, we can conclude that bn is bounded above by 2. We can also conclude that {bn } is bounded above by 2 simply from the fact that it is less than or equal to {an }.

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3.1

Exercise 1.5 #2
Problem

Prove the sequence {bn } of the preceding exercise is bounded by expressing bn as the area of a set of rectangles and comparing this with the area under a suitable curve. What upper bound does this give for {bn }? 3

3.2

Solution

Modeling the problem as areas of rectangles, we see the upper bound visually. We start with a 1 by 1 square. Then draw inside of it a 1/2 by 1/2 square. Inside the 1/2 by 1/2 square we can draw a 1/3 by 1/3 square. We can continue this innitely. This is a visual representation of the upper bound of 2. Now, if we actually nd the area under the curve, from 0 to innity, we get 2. If we compute the actual upper bound of the series using a computer, we get 2 /6, showing that our conservative guess of 2 was relatively close to the actual upper bound.

4
4.1

Problem 1-1
Problem
an+1 = (an + 1)/2, n 0;

Dene a sequence by With a0 being arbitrary. a) Prove that if a0 1, the sequence is increasing and bounded above, and determine without proof its limit. b) Consider analogously the case a0 1. c) Interpret the sequence geometrically as points on a line; this should make (a) and (b) intuitive.

4.2
4.2.1

Solution
a

If a0 1 then the sequence is increasing and bounded above. We see that for a0 = 1, a1 = (1 + 1)/2 = 1. Because this is a recursive sequence, we see clearly that all the terms in the series for an+1 will evaluate to 1. We see that if an 1, then an+1 1 as well because the numerator will be less than or equal to 2. Consider the case where a0 = 1 . We see that a1 = 1 /2, a2 = 1 /22 , and a3 = 1 /23 . The series will continue to increase by /2n at each point in the series. Clearly an an+1 for all n in our domain, so the series is increasing. It is bounded above by 1, as shown in the rst part of the proof. The limit is also 1. 4.2.2 b

For the case of a0 1, the sequence is decreasing and bounded below by 1. We consider the same format of proof. Consider a0 = 1 + . We get that an = 1 + /2n . This is clearly decreasing for all n in our domain. We conclude that the sequence is decreasing and bounded below by 1. 4.2.3 c

By considering the sequence as points on a line, we see how adding one and dividing by two aects the position on the number line. Suppose we have a pin indicating the initial value of the sequence. We move that pin to the right by one, and then we halve the distance from 0. Doing this continually, it is very easy to see how the pin will get closer and closer to 1, without ever reaching it, unless the pin is initially placed at 1.

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5.1

Problem 1-2
Problem

1 1 Prove that an = (1 + 1 2 )(1 + 3 ) . . . (1 + n ) is strictly increasing, and not bounded above.

5.2

Solution

It is rather straightforward to show that the sequence is strictly increasing. Consider that ak = C 1 where C is a constant, the computed value of ak . In this case, ak+1 = C (1 + k+1 ). We know that 1 (1 + k+1 ) 1 by the laws of addition. We also happen to know that C 1. This is because if 1 we go back all the way to the lowest possible value of C , a2 , we see that (1 + 2 ) 1. We know from the laws of multiplication that if we multiply a number greater than 1, C , by another number 1 1 greater than 1, (1 + k+1 ), the product is greater than C. That is C (1 + k+1 ) > C . Thus, we see that the sequence is strictly increasing.
1 1 Now we seek to show that an = (1 + 2 )(1 + 1 3 ) . . . (1 + n ) is not bounded above. We can express n 1 an as an = k=2 (1 + k ). We examine the convergence criteria of this expression. We know that 1 1 1 n=2 (1 + n ) converges if and only if n=2 log (1 + n ) converges. From the Partial Product Formula, we see that: n

an =

k=2

1 n+1 (1 + ) = k 2

Therefore, an is strictly increasing, and not bounded above. It increases linearly with a slope of n/2. n+1 lim = + n+ 2

Used Wikipedia as a source for Innite Product information.