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Electrostatics
Electrical forces 15.1 Forces between charged particles
predominate in the Positive and negative charges
interaction between the Coulomb's law
15.6 Capacitors
Relative permittivity
Stored energy
Energy density of the electric ®eld
542 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
Coulomb's law
Coulomb's law tells us the strength and direction of the forces acting
between two charges. This is the simplest possible case, but on the basis of
Coulomb's law it is possible to work out the electric force on any
distribution of charges. Consider two charges that we shall label q1 and q2 :
q1 and q2 are numbers representing the magnitudes of the charges in
544 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
The direction of the force between the two charges depends on their
signs. The force acts on the line joining the charges and, if the charges
have opposite sign, like the negatively charged electron and the positively
charged nucleus in the hydrogen atom, the force is attractive: it is the
electrical attraction that binds an electron to the nucleus and ensures that
the atom is stable. On the other hand, if both charges are positive, or both
are negative, the force between them is repulsive.
We must be careful to get the direction of the force correct when
setting up the ®nal equation for Coulomb's law. To do this we must use
the vector notation, and in particular we shall use unit vectors, which are
vectors pointing in any direction, but which always have unit length.
Since we are interested in the direction between the two charges, we
introduce the vector ^r12 , which is a vector of unit length pointing from an
origin at the centre of charge q1 towards charge q2 .
Unit vectors are used in Section 20.2 (in the mathematical review at the
end of the book) to de®ne the directions of the axes of a Cartesian
coordinate system. In that context, the unit vectors i, j, and k (all of unit
FORC E S BE T WE EN CH ARG ED P AR T IC LE S 545
length) are pointing in the ®xed directions chosen for the x-, y-, and z-
axes. Any vector a that has components ax , ay , and az along the x-, y-,
and z-axes can then be written as ax i ay j az k. This expression
speci®es both the magnitude and direction of the vector a. Here it is more
convenient to use a different notation, allowing unit vectors to point in
any direction. The symbol ^is used to indicate that a vector has unit length:
thus ^a is a vector of unit length pointing in the same direction as a.
to the speed of light, which is the distance light travels in a vacuum in one
second. Since the the unit of length is itself de®ned in terms of the time
taken for light to travel a distance of one metre, the speed of light is also
de®ned to be a particular number of metres per second. Scientists all over
the world have agreed that the value of the speed of light is exactly
2:997 924 58 m sÿ1 . Because the constant 0 , which is called the
permittivity of free space, is derived from the speed of light, it is also
in principle known exactly. However, it is not a rational number, but
when expressed in decimals it can be calculated to any number of places.
To four signi®cant ®gures, its value is
0 8:854 10ÿ12 C2 Nÿ1 mÿ2 :
15:5
Coulomb's law in the form given in eqn (15.3) enables us to work out the
forces that two point charges exert on each other. Most practical electrical
problems involve not just two charged particles, but vast numbers of
them. This section introduces the idea of the electric ®eld, which describes
the force on a charged particle due to all the other charges in its
neighbourhood.
T HE ELE C TRI C FIE LD 547
The caption j 6 i under the summation signs indicates that the sum is
taken over all values of j except j i, since the charge qi is not exerting a
force on itself. All the unit vectors ^rji in the equation remind us that the
force between each pair of charges is pointing along the line joining the
charges. However, when doing calculations it is usually convenient to
refer all the position vectors to a ®xed origin rather than dealing with
each pair of charges separately. Figure 15.3 shows two charges qi and qj
with position vectors ri and rj referred to an origin at O. The vector from
qj to qi is rji ri ÿ rj . Writing the length of this vector as jri ÿ rj j, the
unit vector in the direction from qj to qi is
Fig. 15.3 The vector rij between
ri ÿ rj the charges qi and qj is the differ-
^rji :
15:8 ence of the position vectors ri and rj .
jri ÿ rj j
548 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
qi X qj
ri ÿ rj
Fi :
15:9
40 j6i jri ÿ rj j3
Note that, because each term in this expression has a vector of length
jri ÿ rj j in the numerator, the length appears raised to the power 3 in the
denominator, even though the force follows an inverse square law.
The sum is over all j now, because the test charge has been excluded
from the labelling. Now look at the quantity F=q. It does not depend on
the test charge at all. It may be calculated at any location whether or not a
test charge is present; the position vector r is a variable, and F=q is a
vector function of position. This function is called the electric ®eld, and
it is denoted E
r.
The dimensions of the electric ®eld are force per unit charge, and it is
measured in newtons per coulomb: if a charge of one coulomb were
placed in an electric ®eld of strength one newton per coulomb it would
experience a force of one newton, and this force would act in the
direction of the electric ®eld vector at the position of the charge.
Exercise 15.2 Estimate the repulsive electrostatic force between the two
protons in a hydrogen molecule and compare it with their gravitational
attraction.
Answer The electrostatic force is about 5 10ÿ8 N, and the gravitational
force is about 4 10ÿ44 N. The electrostatic force is thus more than 1036
times larger: this ratio applies at any distance, since both forces obey an
inverse square law.
Lines of force
Around an isolated positive point charge q1 there is only a single term in
the summation in eqn (15.11). Choosing the origin to be at the position
of the point charge, the electric ®eld is
q1 r
E
r :
15:12
4p0 r 3
In this equation r is the position vector of any point in space with respect
to the origin. The electric ®eld E
r is everywhere pointing in the same
Fig. 15.5 Electric ®eld lines radiate direction as r, directly away from the origin. A positive charge q placed at
outwards from a positive point r will experience a force qq1 =
4p0 r 2 in this direction. This can be
charge and inwards towards a visualized by drawing lines of force in the direction of the ®eld, as in
negative point charge. Fig 15.5. The diagram is only two-dimensional, but it will look the same in
any plane passing through q1 . The diagram does not indicate the strength
of the force, but notice that close to q1 , where the ®eld is strong, the lines
are close together, whereas the lines are far apart at large distances where
the ®eld is weak. The ®gure also shows the ®eld around a negative point
charge. The diagram is the same except that the ®eld is in the opposite
direction, inwards instead of outwards. Following the arrows, you can see
that ®eld lines start from positive charges and end on negative charges.
An instructive diagram of lines of force is shown in Fig 15.6. Here two
charges q of the same magnitude but opposite sign are placed not very
far apart. Close to each charge, the lines behave in the same way as in
Fig 15.5, pointing away from the positive charge and towards the negative
charge. But, as the distance from one charge increases, the in¯uence of the
other becomes more important. Field lines leaving the positive charge
bend round and move towards the negative charge. At larger distances
Fig. 15.6 The ®eld lines around an from the charges, the lines are far apart. The electric ®eld has become
electrostatic dipole start at the weak because the contributions from the positive and negative charges
positive charge and bend round to almost cancel one another. Once again the diagram is two-dimensional,
end on the negative charge. but it will look the same in any plane passing through both charges.
The pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is
z The electric dipole called an electric dipole. The ®eld pattern generated by an electric dipole
G A USS' S LAW 551
The electric ®eld due to any system of charges is found by superposing the
®elds due to each one separately. This sounds very simple but, since the
®elds to be summed are vectors, the general expression given by
eqn (15.11) may be very dif®cult to work out.
A completely different way of relating the electric ®eld to the charges is
called Gauss's law. It is sometimes much easier to calculate the ®eld from
Gauss's law than by summing the ®elds from all the charges. Gauss's law
552 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
follows from the inverse square variation of the electric ®eld with
distance, and it can be understood by analogy with the spreading out of
energy from a light source, which also decreases with the inverse square
of distance. If the light source is in an enclosed space such as a room, all
the light leaving the source reaches a surface somewhere in the room.
Nearby surfaces are brightly illuminated and those that are far away are
dimly illuminated. Moving the surfaces will make a difference to their
brightness, but not to the total amount of light in the room. We shall
prove that a similar result holds for a quantity called the ¯ux of the
electric ®eld. If a charge is surrounded by a closed surface, the ¯ux over
the whole surface has a ®xed relation to the amount of charge,
independent of the shape or size of the surface.
Flux
Figure 15.7 shows a small ¯at surface of area dS placed in an electric ®eld
E so that the normal to the surface is at an angle to the direction of E.
Fig. 15.7 The vector dS has a
magnitude equal to the area dS
The projected area of dS viewed along the direction of the ®eld lines of
of the small surface and is E is dS cos . The ¯ux of E through dS is de®ned to be EdS cos . This
perpendicular to it. may be expressed concisely by associating a vector dS with the area dS,
directed along the normal to the surface, as shown in Fig 15.7. The ¯ux
through dS can now be written as the scalar product E dS. Note that dS
can be the normal to the surface in either direction from the surface. The
sign of the ¯ux depends on whether is greater or less than 90 . If the
component of dS in the direction of the ®eld is positive, is less than 90
and the ¯ux is positive: if this component is opposite to the ®eld, the ¯ux
is negative.
If we have a large area S, which is not necessarily plane, we can divide it
up as shown in Fig 15.8. If the division is ®ne enough, the small surfaces
like dSi are practically ¯at. The ¯ux through dSi is E
ri dSi , where ri is
the position vector of dSi , the total ¯ux through S is the sum
P
i E
ri dSi of contributions from all the surfaces dSi . In the limit as
the areas of all the surfaces dSi tend to zero, the summation becomes a
two-dimensional surface integral over the surface S which is written as
X Z
Flux through S lim E
ri dSi E
r dS:
15:13
dSi !0 S
i
Fig. 15.8 Any surface like the How does this equation apply to the electric ®eld around an isolated
shaded surface S may be divided up point charge q1 located at the origin of coordinates? Choose for the
into many adjacent surfaces dSi . In surface S a sphere of radius r centred at the origin. The electric ®eld on
the limit as the dSi become in®nite- the surface of the sphere has a magnitude q1 =
4p0 r 2 and is
simal, each one may be regarded as perpendicular to the surface, so that the outward normal to the sphere
a plane surface. is everywhere in the same direction as the ®eld. The area of the sphere is
G A USS' S LAW 553
4pr 2 , and the total electric ¯ux out of the surface S of the sphere is
Z
q1 q1
E
r dS 2
4r 2 :
15:14
S 40 r 0
Equation (15.14) relates the ¯ux out of the sphere to the charge inside it.
This equation is Gauss's law, though here it has only been derived for the
very special case of a point charge at the centre of a sphere.
Surface integrals
In order to generalize Gauss's law to surfaces of any shape, we need to
work out the surface integral on the left-hand side of eqn (15.14).
Multidimensional integrals are discussed in Section 4.2 in Cartesian and
cylindrical polar coordinates. Here it is best to use spherical polar
coordinates, which are compared with Cartesian coordinates in Fig 15.9.
The position vector r of the point P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z).
The vector r can also be speci®ed by the spherical polar coordinates
(r, , ). The coordinate r is the length OP of r and is the angle between Fig. 15.9 The spherical polar
coordinates
r, , are de®ned
OP and the z-axis. The plane through OP and the z-axis cuts the xy-plane
with respect to a set of Cartesian
along OQ. The angle between OQ and the x-axis is the coordinate .
coordinates
x, y, z.
The reason for using spherical polar coordinates here is that the proof
of Gauss's law depends on the mathematical concept of solid angle, which z Solid angles
is best expressed in this coordinate system. For readers unfamiliar with or
unsure of the meaning of solid angle, it is described in the box that
follows.
Solid angle is the measure of the angular size of a cone. Figure 15.10
shows part of a sphere with radius r and centre at the origin. The point P
with position vector r has spherical polar coordinates
r, , . Keeping r
and ®xed, rotate the position vector r through an angle . The point P
moves to Q along an arc of length r. Next rotate the line OQ through a
small angle while keeping r and ®xed at the values they have at Q.
The point Q moves to R along an arc of length r sin . When the D
rotations are performed in the order followed by , P moves to R C
via S. Denoting the area of the spherical surface within PQRS by S, the
quantity
S=r 2
15:15
is called the solid angle subtended by the area PQRS at the origin O. The
area of the whole sphere is 4pr2 , and so S=4pr2
=4p is the Fig. 15.10 The area within PQRS is
fraction of the total area of the sphere covered by the area within PQRS. on the surface of a sphere of radius
Equivalently you may think of
=4p as the fraction of the volume of r. The angles at the apex of the cone
the sphere occupied by the cone that has S as its base. Solid angle is are and sin .
554 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
To integrate over all directions, the limits are from 0 to 2p, and
0 to p: if were allowed to vary from 0 to 2p the whole sphere would
be covered twice. The total solid angle subtended by a sphere centred on
the origin is thus
Z 2p Z p
sin d d 4p
0 0
con®rming, by direct integration, the result already derived from the area
of the sphere.
This result applies for any charge q1 and any surface S enclosing it. Any
number of charges qi within S will each give a contribution qi =0 to the
Fig. 15.12 The ¯ux through a
total ¯ux through S. closed surface due to a charge
There may in addition be charges outside S. Figure 15.12 shows that outside the surface is zero.
such charges make no contribution to the ¯ux over S. The cone from the
charge q1 passes twice through S, once entering and once leaving. The
®eld E entering S makes a negative contribution to the ¯ux out of S,
because the outward normal makes an angle greater than 90 with E at
this point. Where the cone leaves S the contribution is positive and, since
the solid angle is the same, the net ¯ux contributed by q1 is zero.
Figure 15.13 shows a more complicated surface S which is re-entrant. A
small cone with apex at a charge q1 within S must always pass outwards
through the surface one more time than it passes inwards, and the con-
tribution to the ¯ux is just q1 =0 as for a sphere. Similarly a cone from a
charge outside S may enter and leave more than once, but the number of
entering and leaving ¯uxes are the same, and the net contribution is zero.
The ®nal result, which is Gauss's law, is that, for any closed surface S,
Z P
qi Q
E dS i
15:19 Fig. 15.13 Flux may pass several
S 0 0
P times in and out of a closed surface,
where Q i qi is the sum of all the charges situated within S. but for a charge located inside the
In words, Gauss's law states that surface the ¯ux always passes
outwards one more time than
The total ¯ux of the electric ®eld out of any closed surface equals the it passes inwards.
total charge enclosed within the surface divided by 0 .
Sometimes the electric ®eld possesses a symmetry that may greatly
simplify the calculation of the surface integral in Gauss's law. For
example, around a point charge q1 we can say immediately that the
electric ®eld must point towards or away from q1 and that its magnitude
must depend only on the distance from q1 . If we place q1 at the origin of
coordinates, the directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes are completely
arbitrary. One choice of directions for the axes is as good as any other. z When a system of charges
If we now use spherical polar coordinates related to the Cartesian possesses a simple symmetry,
coordinates as in Fig 15.10, all values of and , which de®ne a the electric ®eld may be
direction, must be equivalent. The ®eld is said to possess spherical calculated easily using Gauss's
symmetry, and all points on a sphere centred at the origin are equivalent. law
556 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
There cannot be any component of the ®eld along the surface of the
sphere. The magnitude of E in the outward direction at a distance r from
the origin depends only on r and can be written as E
r. According to
Gauss's theorem, the ¯ux through the sphere of radius r is E
r
4pr 2 q1 =0 , and
q1
E
r :
15:20
4p0 r 2
The argument used to prove Gauss's law from the inverse square law has
been turned around by invoking the symmetry of the ®eld. Each law can
be derived from the other, and either may be used as the basis of
electrostatics.
Worked Example 15.4 A large number of small charges are placed close
together along a straight line so that the total charge per unit length is
C mÿ1 (coulombs per metre). Assuming the line of charges to be
in®nitely long, calculate the electrostatic ®eld at a perpendicular distance
r from the line.
Answer This is an example of cylindrical symmetry, because all directions
pointing perpendicularly away from the line of charges are equivalent.
The electric ®eld must be perpendicular to the lineÐsince there is no way
to choose one direction along the line rather than the other, the
component of the ®eld along the line must be zero. A cylinder of
length ` with axis on the line and ends perpendicular to the
Fig. 15.14 The electric ®eld near a
line, as shown in Fig 15.14, is a suitable surface for the application of
line charge may be calculated by
Gauss's theorem. The ®eld is everywhere perpendicular to the curved
applying Gauss's law to an imaginary
surface of the cylinder and its magnitude E
r depends only on the
cylinder of length ` and radius r.
distance r. The area of the curved surface of the cylinder is 2pr` and the
¯ux out of this surface is therefore 2pr`E
r. The ¯ux out of the ends of
the cylinder is zero, since the ®eld lines do not cross the end surfaces. The
total amount of charge within the cylinder is ` and, applying Gauss's law
to the cylinder,
outward flux 2pr`E
r total charge=0 `=0
or
E
r :
15:21
2p0 r
A real line of charges can never be in®nitely long. However, eqn (15.21) is
a good approximation for the magnitude of the ®eld provided that r is
small compared to the distance to the end of the line of charges.
T HE E LEC T R OST AT IC P OTE NT IA L 557
The concepts of work and potential energy are discussed in general terms
in Sections 3.3 and 3.6. The work done by a force is de®ned in eqn (3.12)
as (force the distance moved in the direction of the force). Examples
considered in Chapter 3 include the work done against the gravitational
force in lifting a mass, and against the restoring force of a spring when it
is stretched. In both cases energy must be expended to do the work, but
this energy does not disappear. It is stored as potential energy, which may
later be released: gravitational potential energy may, for example, be
released by allowing an object to fall.
The charge q has been used as a test charge to sample the potential energy
it gains in the neighbourhood of the ®xed charges qj . The potential energy
per unit charge Utot =q is determined only by the magnitudes and
positions of the ®xed charges qj , just as is the electric ®eld. The quantity
Utot =q is called the electrostatic potential and it is denoted by
r,
X qj
r Utot =q :
15:26
j
4 0 ÿ rj j
jr
denoted by the symbol V. One volt is the same as one joule per coulomb.
One joule of energy is required to move a charge of one coulomb through
a potential difference of one volt.
The electrostatic potential depends linearly on the magnitudes of the
charges qj and, like the electric ®eld, the potential obeys the principle of
superposition. If the potential is known for two different sets of charges,
when both are present the potential is the sum of the potentials for each
separately.
Equipotential surfaces
For an isolated charge q1 the electrostatic potential at a distance r from q1
is q1 =
4p0 r. All points on the surface of a sphere of radius r are at the Fig. 15.18 Field lines radiating
outwards from the charge q1 are
same potential. Spherical surfaces centred on q1 are equipotential
perpendicular to the spherical
surfaces. No work is done in moving a test charge q across the surface
equipotential surface.
from one point to another. The electric ®eld generated by q1 points
radially outwards: electric ®eld lines pointing outwards from an
equipotential surface are illustrated in Fig 15.18.
At a point where a ®eld line crosses the equipotential surface the line is
perpendicular to the surface. This is obvious for a single charge, for which
the ®eld lines are radial and the equipotentials are spherical, but it is in
fact a general result. Electric ®eld lines are always perpendicular to
equipotential surfaces, no matter what the distribution of charge. This is
easily proved by considering a small movement of a test charge on an
equipotential surface. No work is done, and it follows that the electric
®eld does not have a component lying in the surface, that is, the ®eld is
perpendicular to the surface.
560 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
The electric ®eld and the electrostatic potential are really just different
ways of expressing the same information about a system of charges.
Figure 15.19 shows the ®eld lines and equipotentials in a plane passing
through a point charge q1 . Given a map of the contour lines representing
the equipotentials, we could draw ®eld lines cutting them perpendicu-
larly, and vice versa: given the ®eld lines, equipotentials cutting them at
right angles would have to be circles.
Up to now we have expressed the electric ®eld in units of newtons per
coulomb. Since one volt is the same as one joule per coulomb, newtons
per coulomb are equivalent to volts per metre (V mÿ1 ). Note that volts
per metre, which is the usual unit for describing electric ®eld, represents
the rate of change of potential with distance. In mathematical terms a
Fig. 15.19 Field lines (solid) and
rate of change is found by differentiation. For a point charge q1 ,
equipotential lines (dashed) in a
r q1 =
4p0 r. The potential decreases with the distance r from
plane through a charge q1 .
the charge, and to ®nd the rate of change of potential with distance we
must differentiate with respect to r. Remembering that for a positive
charge the ®eld points outwards, in the direction of decreasing potential,
we have
d q1
ÿ ,
dr 4p0 r 2
the same as the magnitude of the electric ®eld of a point charge given in
eqn (15.20).
Another simple example relating ®eld and potential is illustrated in
Fig 15.20, which shows the ®eld lines for a uniform ®eld E pointing in the
z-direction. Two equipotential surfaces, which are both perpendicular to
the z-axis, are a distance d apart, and at potentials
z and
z d,
respectively. The force on a test charge q is qE and the potential energy at
P is q
z. The difference in potential energy of the test charge between
Fig. 15.20 The relation between
the points P and Q equals the work done to move it back from Q to P,
®eld E and potential is found by
moving a charge in the ®eld. The
q
z ÿ q
z d qV qEd:
15:27
equipotentials are the dashed lines.
d
Eÿ :
15:28
dz
T HE E LEC T R OST AT IC P OTE NT IA L 561
Notice that there is a minus sign in eqn (15.28), just as in the equation
relating ®eld and potential for a point charge.
A differential relation similar to eqn (15.28) applies to any electric ®eld and
the argument used here for the uniform ®eld is generalized in the box below.
Figure 15.21 shows two equipotential surfaces very close together, having
electrostatic potentials and
d. The vector d` is a vector in any
direction joining the point P on the surface at potential to a point Q on
the surface at potential
d. The electric ®eld E at P is perpendicular
to the equipotential surfaces. which are a distance PR = d` cos apart.
The work done on a test charge q when it moves from P to Q is the
force qE times the distance PR in the direction of the force, i.e. Fig. 15.21 Here the charge is
moved in a direction different from
qEd` cos qE d`: This work is equal to the loss in potential energy
the direction of the ®eld.
ÿqd,
qE d` ÿqd:
15:29
The fact that no work is done on a test charge when it is moved round
any closed path that returns to its starting point is expressed mathe-
matically by taking the in®nitesimal limit of eqn (15.29) and integrating.
The result is that for electrostatic ®elds
I
E d` 0:
15:30
H
Here the symbol indicates that the line integral is round a closed path
made up of in®nitesimal segments d`.
If we choose Cartesian coordinates with unit vectors i, j, and k in the
x-, y-, and z-directions, we may write E E x i E y j E z k and d`
dxi dyj dzk leading to
E d` Ex dx Ey dy Ez dz ÿd:
The partial derivative @=@x is the rate of change of with x when
both y and z are kept constant. In the limit as dx, dy, and dz tend to zero,
@ @ @
Ex ÿ ; Ey ÿ ; Ez ÿ :
@x @y @z
The vector with components @=@x, @=@y, @=@z is called the gradient z The gradient of a scalar
of and is written as grad . The three eqns above are summarized as function
E
r ÿgrad
r:
15:31
The function grad
r is a vector ®eld that has been derived from the
scalar ®eld
r. The properties of grad have already been described
above in the discussion of the connection between the ®eld and potential:
grad is perpendicular to surfaces of constant and its magnitude is the
rate of change of with distance in that direction. In a two-dimensional
contour map the contours are equipotentials of the gravitational potential
562 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
The potential given in eqn (15.33) is often called the dipole potential, and
it represents the potential due to an idealized point dipole in which the
distance a has been allowed to tend to zero while p qa remains
nonzero. The dipole potential decreases with distance as 1=r 2 , whatever
the angle . As we predicted, this decrease is faster than 1=r because of the
cancellation of the ®rst-order contributions of the positive and negative
charges.
We have chosen the z-axis to lie along the line joining the charges of
the dipole. The vector p pointing along the z-axis and with magnitude p is z Expressing the dipole
called the dipole moment. In terms of this vector, the dipole potential is potential in terms of the dipole
pr moment
r :
15:34
4p0 r 3
This expression makes no mention of the variable and it is in fact
correct whatever may be the orientation of the dipole moment with
respect to the z-axis.
The general relation between the potential and the electric ®eld is E
r
ÿgrad
r (eqn (15.31)). In spherical polar coordinates the r-, -, and
components of E
r are in the directions of the unit vectors labelled
564 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
p cos p sin
Er ; E ; E 0:
15:36
2p0 r 3 4p0 r 3
The electric ®eld lines given by eqn (15.36) for small a=r are shown in
Fig 15.24. This ®gure applies to any plane that includes the z-axis. Both
the outward component Er of the electric ®eld and the component E
following circles of constant r and constant are proportional to 1=r 3 ,
falling off with distance faster than the ®eld due to a single charge. The
Fig. 15.23 The arrows show the terms in higher powers of a=r, which we have neglected, decrease faster
directions of the electric ®eld com- still. Electrically neutral molecules may possess a dipole moment and,
ponents E r , E , and E at the point P although their dipole ®elds may cause important interactions with other
that has spherical polar coordinates molecules, the higher terms are almost always negligible.
r, , .
The average charge density
rj varies smoothly with the position rj and
it is legitimate to replace the sum in eqn (15.37) with an integral, even
though we started with volumes dVj that are large enough to contain
many atoms. The macroscopic ®eld becomes
Z
1
r0
r ÿ r0 dV 0
E
r
15:38
4p0 volume jr ÿ r0 j3
566 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
where the integral, labelled volume, is over all volumes that contain a
net charge. From now on, when we refer to an electric ®eld E
r without
stating whether it is a microscopic or macroscopic ®eld, we shall mean the
macroscopic ®eld that has been averaged over many atoms.
As already mentioned, the macroscopic electric ®eld in electrically
neutral matter is zero if there is no external electric ®eld. However, if an
object is placed in an electric ®eld, this ®eld is modi®ed by the presence
of the matter. To investigate how this comes about, we must consider
electrical conductors and insulators separately.
Because the electric ®eld is zero throughout the conductor, its whole
volume is at the same potential. In particular, its surface is an equi-
potential surface. Since ®eld lines and equipotentials are always perpen-
dicular to one another, the external ®eld is normal to any conducting
surface. Using Gauss's law we can relate the magnitude of the electric ®eld
to the amount of charge on the conducting surface. In Fig 15.26 the
closed surface S is shaped like a pillbox. The curved surface is parallel to
the electric ®eld and there is no ¯ux through it. The ¯at surfaces of the
pillbox, each of area dS, are parallel to the conducting surface, one inside
and one outside the conductor. The electric ®eld and hence the ¯ux are
zero on the inside. The total ¯ux out of S is E dS and, if the charge
inside the pillbox is dQ, Gauss's law gives
Z
E dS EdS dQ=0
S
or
0 E dQ=dS
15:39
where is the surface charge density, which is measured in coulombs per Fig. 15.26 Gauss's theorem relates
square metre (C mÿ2 ). In the simple example of slab geometry illustrated the induced surface charge to the
electric ®eld outside the conductor.
in Fig 15.26 the surface charge density is given directly in terms of the
external ®eld by eqn (15.39).
For other shapes of conductor the surface charge density must be
distributed in such a way as to ensure that the external ®eld is normal to
the conducting surface. This is illustrated schematically in Fig 15.27 which
shows a conducting sphere in an electric ®eld that is uniform far from the
sphere. Close to the sphere the surface charges modify the ®eld lines so
that they curve towards the sphere and meet it normally.
z Induced charges on the for the contribution of the induced charges to the ®eld. Including the
surfaces of conductors surface charges, the general expression for the macroscopic electric ®eld is
contribute to the electric ®eld Z Z
1
r0
r ÿ r0 dV 0 1
r0
r ÿ r0 dS 0
E
r 3
40 volume
0
jr ÿ r j 4 0 surface jr ÿ r0 j3
15:40
where the labels volume and surface indicate that the volume integral is
over all volumes containing a volume charge density and the surface
integral is over all surfaces on which there is a surface charge density.
Similarly, the potential is
Z Z
1
r0 dV 0 1
r0 dS0
r 0j
0
:
15:41
40 volume jr ÿ r 40 surface jr ÿ r j
the product of the distance x and the charge Ze is called the dipole
moment of the atom and is measured in coulomb metres (C m). The
dipole moment is denoted by the vector p: the vectors x, p, and E all
point in the same direction and
Ze2
p Zex E 0 E
15:42
k
where the constant is called the polarizability of the atom.
How does polarization affect the macroscopic electric ®eld in an
insulator? Let us ®rst consider a slab of uniform insulating material
placed in an electric ®eld normal to the faces of the slab. Within the slab
the macroscopic electric ®eld must be in the same direction as the ®eld
ouside the slab, and we shall assume for the moment that it is constant
throughout the slab, having a value Eint , say. Each atom of the insulator
acquires a dipole momen 0 Eint and, according to eqn (15.42), the centre
of the electron distribution is displaced a distance 0 Eint =Ze from the
nucleus.
The nucleus is much more massive than the electrons, and the centre of
mass almost coincides with the nucleus. We may picture the polarization
as if only the electrons move: this simpli®es the argument without
altering the results. Figure 15.29 represents a section through a slab of
insulator placed in an electric ®eld perpendicular to the sides of the slab.
The dashed lines show the boundaries of imaginary closed boxes with Fig. 15.29 The movement of
faces of area dS perpendicular to the ®eld: we shall apply Gauss's law to charge in the slab of insulator builds
these boxes. up charge on the surface but leaves
the interior electrically neutral.
When the atoms are polarized, electrons move through both surfaces of
the box (b), which is completely inside the insulator. Negative charge has
moved out of the left-hand side of the box, but just as much has moved in
at the right-hand side. The net charge inside the box is zero, as it was
before the atoms were polarized. Gauss's law tells us that the net ¯ux of E
out of the box is zero. This requires the ¯ux entering the left-hand side to
equal the ¯ux leaving the right-hand side, and the assumption that the
®eld is uniform within the slab is justi®ed.
Now look at the box (c), which straddles the right-hand surface of the
insulator. Negative charge has moved out of the left-hand side of the box
but there are no atoms at the right-hand side and the box has acquired a
net positive charge. If the number of atoms per unit volume is N , the
charge density of electrons is ÿNZe. All the electrons in the slab have
moved the same distance x, and the charge moving out of the area dS on
the left of the box is ÿNZexdS ÿNpdS. The box now encloses a net
charge NpdS, and the surface charge density caused by polarization is
p Np. The opposite face of the slab acquires a surface charge density
(ÿNp as electrons move into box (a). The slab as a whole is electrically
neutral, as it must be since it is composed entirely of neutral atoms.
570 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
p dS N p dS P dS
15:43
Fig. 15.30 If the ®eld inside the
insulator is not perpendicular to its
where the vector P N p is the dipole moment per unit volume of the
surface, the charges move the same
insulator. The vector P is called the polarization density. The
distance, but the surface charge is
now spread out over a bigger area.
polarization density, like the dipole moment of a single atom, is in the
direction from negative to positive polarization surface charge.
The polarization density is useful because it is related to the electric
®eld inside the polarized material. In slab geometry this relation is easily
found from Gauss's law. The closed surface S in Fig 15.31 has surfaces of
area dS normal to the ®eld. The polarization charge within S is
p dS PdS. According to Gauss's law the net ¯ux out of S is therefore
PdS=0 . The ®eld entering S from the left is Eint and the ®eld leaving on
the right is Eext , and the net ¯ux is
Eext ÿ Eint dS PdS=0 . Hence
Eext Eint P=0
15:44
Worked Example 15.6 At 20 C and one atmosphere pressure helium gas
contains 2:7 1025 atoms mÿ3 , and the electric susceptibility of the gas is
6:5 10ÿ5 . Calculate the separation of the centres of the positive and
negative charges in a helium atom when it is placed in an electric ®eld of
106 V mÿ1 .
Answer From eqns (15.42) and (15.45) the separation is
0 E E 0 E
x :
Ze ZeN
ELE C TRI C FIE LD S IN M AT TE R 571
Equation (15.45) has only been proved for slab geometry. The relation
between internal and external ®elds for other shapes of insulator is more
complicated, and we shall not discuss it in detail here. The direction of the
®eld as well as the magnitude may change at the boundary of an insulator.
Figure 15.32 shows the ®eld lines when an insulating sphere is placed in Fig. 15.32 The ®eld lines of an
a uniform external ®eld. The external ®eld lines are bent towards the insulating sphere placed in an
sphere, rather like the ®eld pattern for the conducting sphere. The sphere external electric ®eld E. The ®eld
is a specially simple case that can be solved exactly. The ®eld inside the changes direction at the surface
sphere is uniform: the ®eld inside has a smaller magnitude than the ®eld of the sphere.
outside because of polarization charges on the surface of the sphere.
Provided that an insulator is uniform, polarization polarization charge per unit volume, which we shall
charges appear only on the surface. For a non-uniform denote by p . Once the distribution of polarization
insulator there may be polarization charges distributed charges is known, the electric ®eld and potential are
throughout its volume. For example, if an insulator given by eqns (15.40) and (15.41), including polarization
consists of atoms that all have the same polarizability but charges, induced charges on conductors, and distribu-
a variable density, more charge moves in a more dense tions of free charge in the charge densities and .
region than in a less dense one, and there is a net
Polar molecules
The atoms in a solid make small vibrations about ®xed positions. Each
atom is locked in place surrounded by neighbouring atoms, keeping the
same set of neighbours over long periods. When the solid is heated, the
vibrations become more and more energetic, until at the melting point
atoms escape from their ®xed positions and the solid turns into a liquid.
In many liquids the atoms do not move independently. They remain as
parts of a molecule with a ®xed structure. The molecules are the units that
change their positions and orientations with respect to their neighbours.
The water molecule, for example, consists of one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms. As shown in Fig 15.33, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
do not lie on a straight line. (The structure of the water molecule is brie¯y
explained in Section 11.4.) Furthermore, the oxygen atom has more than
its share of the electrons in the molecule, so that there is excess negative Fig. 15.33 The centres of positive
charge near the oxygen atom and excess positive charge near the and negative charge do not coincide
hydrogen atoms. The centre of positive charge does not coincide with the in the water molecule, and it has a
centre of negative charge, and the molecule has a dipole moment. dipole moment.
572 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
Molecules like water that possess a dipole moment are called polar
molecules. Although the water molecule is polar, in the absence of an
external electric ®eld the macroscopic electric ®eld inside a volume of
water is zero. This is because thermal motion ensures that all directions
are equally likely for the dipoles and, on average, their contributions to
the electric ®eld cancel out.
When a polar liquid or gas is placed in an electric ®eld, electrons and
nuclei are pushed in opposite directions just as in an insulating solid, and
as a result the liquid acquires a net dipole moment per unit volume.
There is an additional effect for polar molecules that is usually more
important. The dipole moments, which were initially randomly oriented,
are partially lined up by the ®eld so that they are more likely to be
pointing in the direction of the ®eld than opposite to it.
Fig. 15.34 The dipole placed in an
A polar molecule is represented in Fig 15.34 by positive and negative
electric ®eld experiences a couple.
point charges with the same dipole moment p qa as the moleculeÐthe
dipole moment is all that is needed for working out the effect of a
uniform electric ®eld acting on the molecule. The ®eld exerts a couple on
the molecule, tending to rotate it so that the dipole moment and the ®eld
point in the same direction. The ®gure shows that, when the dipole is at
an angle to the ®eld, there is a couple qaE sin pE sin acting on the
dipole. This couple is zero for 0 and for 180 . At 0 the
dipole is in stable equilibrium; when rotated through a small angle the
couple will turn the dipole back to 0 . At 180 the dipole is in a
position of unstable equilibrium; after a small de¯ection it will ¯ip over
to 0 .
Work is done by the electric ®eld when it causes the dipole to rotate.
The potential energy of the dipole therefore depends on its orientation.
In Fig 15.35 equipotential surfaces passing through the charges q and
ÿq are at potentials and ÿ respectively. From eqn (15.17) the
potential energy of the charge q is q and, similarly, the potential
energy of ÿq is ÿqÿ . The potential energy of the dipole in the ®eld is
thus q
ÿ ÿ . The difference between the potential energies is given in
terms of the ®eld by eqn (15.29) as q
ÿ ÿ ÿE a, leading to the
potential energy of the dipole
Fig. 15.35 The potential energy of Udipole
q
ÿ ÿ ÿqE a ÿp E ÿpE cos :
15:46
the dipole depends on its orienta-
tion in the ®eld. In calculating this potential we have not considered the energy of each
charge q due to the presence of the other. For a real molecule this
additional energy contributes to the binding energy of the molecule,
which does not change as the molecule is rotated in electric ®elds that can
z Thermal motion counteracts be realized in practice.
the tendency of dipoles to line If there were no thermal motion, all the dipoles in a polar liquid would
up along the electric ®eld line up with the ®eld. But the molecules are continually colliding with
their neighbours. There is a con¯ict between the thermal motion that
ELE C TRI C FIE LD S IN M AT TE R 573
tends to randomize the orientation of the molecules and the couple due
to the electric ®eld trying to line them up. The effect of thermal motion is
discussed in Section 12.6, where it is explained that the probability of
occurrence of states with different energies depends on the comparison of
the energy difference with a thermal energy kB T . Here kB is a universal
constant called Boltzmann's constant and T is the absolute temperature
measured in kelvins.
In a liquid the electric ®eld acting on each molecule is the internal ®eld
Eint , and the potential energy is ÿp Eint . At ambient temperatures the
ratio pEint =kB T is always small, and the molecular dipoles have only a
slight tendency to line up with the ®eld. The molecular dipole moment
averaged over many molecules has a magnitude 13
pEint =kB T p. The
average dipole moment is in the direction of the ®eld and, if there are N
molecules per unit volume, the polarization density P, which is the dipole
moment per unit volume, is
Np2
P Eint :
15:47
3kB T
This result is proved in the box that follows.
The polarization density arising from the polarizability of the
molecules adds to that arising from the permanent dipole moment. For
an isotropic liquid or gas made up of molecules with a dipole moment of
magnitude p and polarizability , combining the results of eqns (15.45)
and (15.47) leads to an electric susceptibility
p2
E N :
15:48
30 kB T
15.6 Capacitors
where
0 S
C
15:50
d
for a parallel plate capacitor in vacuum. The unit of capacitance is the
farad (symbol F). The farad, which has its magnitude ®xed by other SI
units, is impracticably large, and capacitances are usually quoted in
microfarads (1 mF 10ÿ6 F), nanofarads (1 nF 10ÿ9 F), or picofarads
(1 pF 10ÿ12 F).
The capacitance C is determined by the dimensions and geometrical
arrangement of the capacitor. Whatever the shape and size of two
conductors, it is always true that, when a potential difference is
maintained between them, equal and opposite charges are induced on
the conducting surface and the magnitude of the charge is proportional to
the potential difference. Equation (15.49) applies, with a value of the
capacitance determined by the geometry of the two conductors. Since the
charges on the conductors are equal and opposite, the total charge on any
capacitor is zero. The ¯ux of the electric ®eld through a surface enclosing
the capacitor is therefore zero and, apart from the small `fringing' ®elds
near the edges of the conductors, the ®eld outside the capacitor is
everywhere zero.
Relative permittivity
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by eqn (15.50) only if
there is no matter between the plates, that is, the capacitor is in vacuum.
Figure 15.37(a) shows such a capacitor with charges Q on its plates. If
the capacitor is isolated, so that charge cannot ¯ow on to or away from Fig. 15.37 The capacitance is
the plates, the charge remains the same if a slab of insulator is placed increased by inserting dielectric
between the plates as in Fig 15.37(b). The slab is polarized and the electric material between the plates of the
®eld inside the insulator is less than the ®eld outside. Consequently, the capacitor.
576 1 5 : ELE C TRO S TA TI CS
Table 15.1 Relative permittivities of potential difference between the plates is also reduced, although
some materials, measured in steady the charge on them is unaltered. From eqn (15.45), the ®eld inside
®elds. The value for silicon is the insulator is smaller than the ®eld outside by the factor
1 E . If the
included although it is too good a insulator ®lls the whole of the space between the plates, the ®eld has the
conductor to be used as the
reduced value everywhere between the plates, and the potential difference
dielectric material in a capacitor.
is also reduced by the factor
1 E . The charges on the plates have
However, the relative permittivity of
semiconductors in steady ®elds has
remained the same, and the capacitance C Q=V (from eqn 15.44)) has
an important in¯uence on their increased by this factor,
behaviour capacitance with insulator between the plates
1 E :
15:51
capacitance in vacuum
Material Relative
permittivity
The factor by which the capacitance is increased by the insertion of
Mica 7.0 the insulating material is called the relative permittivity. An older name
Soda glass 7.5 for this factor is dielectric constant and, in the context of discussing the
Polyethylene 2.3 behaviour of electric ®elds, insulating materials are still usually referred to
Silicon oxide 3.9 as dielectric materials. The relative permittivities of some dielectric
Silicon 11.8 materials are given in Table 15.1.
The relative permittivity is simply a number for materials that are
Gas 104
ÿ 1) isotropic, that is, materials that have no directional properties. In some
Air 5.4 crystals induced dipole moments are not necessarily in the same direction
Ne 1.3 as the applied ®eld, but depend on the orientation of the ®eld to the
crystal axes. The equations we have derived are not then valid. Such
crystals have important applications in optics because of their effects on
the rapidly varying electric ®elds in visible light, but only isotropic
materials are used in capacitors. Provided that a capacitor is completely
®lled with a uniform dielectric material, the result that its capacitance is
enhanced by the factor applies to all capacitors and not only to those
with slab geometry.
Stored energy
How much potential energy is stored in a capacitor when its plates have a
potential difference V ? We can work this out by starting with an
uncharged capacitor and gradually building up the charge, which is at all
times linked to the potential difference by eqn (15.49). Again suppose
that one plate is held at earth potential and the other carries a positive
charge as in Fig 15.36. When the positive charge has built up to a value
Q 0 the potential on the left-hand plate is V 0 Q0 =C. If further charge
dQ0 is moved from a great distance from the capacitor, where the
potential is zero, work V 0 dQ 0 Q 0 dQ 0 =C must be done. An extra charge
ÿdQ 0 is induced on the right-hand plate, but no work is required for this
since the negative charge does not change its potential. The total work
done in building up charges Q on the plates of an initially uncharged
capacitor, which is the potential energy stored by the capacitor, is
Z Q 0 0
Q dQ 1 Q2 1
U CV 2 :
15:52
0 C 2 C 2
For a 1 mC capacitor with 100 V across the plates, the stored energy is thus
1 ÿ6
2 10 104 5 10ÿ3 J.
where V is the volume where the electric ®eld due to the capacitor is
nonzero. For a steady ®eld it is not really possible to locate the energy
in a particular region of space and associating the energy with the ®eld
does not lead to any advantage in calculations. However, when there are
rapidly varying ®elds, as, for example, in the antenna of a mobile
telephone, energy is transmitted from one place to another by radiation.
It turns out that the energy density of the electric ®eld that we have
calculated for steady ®elds also applies to radiated energy. Similar
expressions, which we shall meet in the next chapter, apply to magnetic
®elds, and it is energy carried by both electric and magnetic ®elds that
constitutes electromagnetic radiation. The theory of radiation is beyond
the scope of this book, but it is important to realize that a thorough grasp
of the behaviour of electric and magnetic ®elds is required before
radiation can be understood.
Problems
tolerated on the corners of a box that is to be raised to has a lifting force of 1 N, and each has the same charge
100 kilovolts? Q. The angle between the strings is 30 . What is the
15.6 A charge q is at a distance d from a thin wire magnitude of Q?
carrying a charge C mÿ1 . What is the force on the 15.14 A dipole consists of charges q and ÿq separated
charge q? by a distance a. Derive an expression for the electric ®eld
15.7 Two parallel thin wires, each carrying a charge per on the axis of the dipole at a distance r from its centre, in
unit length C mÿ1 , are separated by a distance d. What powers of
r=a.
is the force per unit length between the wires? 15.15 Equal charges q are situated at the corners of a
15.8 Two parallel wires, each of radius R, are a distance cube of side a. What force acts on any one of the charges,
d apart (d > 2R). One of the wires is at earth potential and what is its direction?
and the other at a potential V . Sketch the lines of the 15.16 A charge q is placed at the centre of a cube. What
electric ®eld and the equipotentials around the wires. On is the ¯ux of the electric ®eld through one of the cube
what part of the wires does the surface charge density faces? What is the ¯ux through one of the opposite faces
have its greatest value? if the charge is placed at a corner of the cube?
15.9 Two isolated plates are parallel to each other, One 15.17 A conducting sphere of radius a carries a charge
carries a total charge Q and the other a total charge 2Q. qa . Outside it are two thin conducting spherical shells, of
Use Gauss's law to ®nd out how the charges are distri- radii b and c
a < b < c carrying charges qb and qc . The
buted on the surfaces of the plates, neglecting end effects. outermost sphere is at earth potential. Obtain expres-
15.10 A slab of material has a uniform charge density sions for the potentials of the other two spheres.
throughout its volume. Calculate the electric ®eld as 15.18 Using the same value for the radius of the nucleus
a function of distance from the central plane of the slab. of the lead atom as in Problem 15.11, calculate the
15.11 The nucleus of a lead atom carries a charge 82e. It electrical potential energy of the nucleus. (Hint.
is quite a good approximation to assume that the Calculate the energy needed to build up the nucleus,
nucleus is a uniformly charged sphere of radius bringing charge from in®nity in in®nitesimal steps.)
7:5 10ÿ15 m. Draw a diagram showing the electric 15.19 Two dipoles, each with dipole moment
®eld as a function of distance from the centre of the 6 10ÿ30 C m, are placed as shown in Fig 15.40. Their
nucleus. What is its greatest value? separation a is 0.4 nm. Calculate the potential energy of
the dipoles. (These values apply roughly to water
Level 2 molecules.)
plane conductors each with an area of 0:6 10ÿ12 m2 . The three-dimensional equivalent of this problem
The relative permittivity of SiO2 is 3.9. Estimate the must be solved for different crystal structures to ®nd the
number of electrons on the negatively charged con- electrostatic contribution to the binding energy of ionic
ductor when the voltage across the capacitor plates is 5 V. crystals.
15.22 Two spherical conducting surfaces have radii a 15.28 Three concentric cylindrical conductors have
and b and the space between them is ®lled with air. radii 1 cm, 2 cm, and 3 cm. The space between them is
Calculate the capacitance of the two conductors. ®lled with oil with a relative permittivity 2:2. If the
15.23 A conducting sphere of radius 1 cm is suspended maximum ®eld that the oil can maintain without
in air. Any other conductors are far away. Estimate the breakdown is 5 106 V mÿ1 , estimate the highest
capacitance of the sphere with respect to Earth. voltage difference that can be achieved between the
inner and outer conductors, and the voltage between the
15.24 A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of
inner and middle conductors under these conditions.
10 pF when the space between its plates is ®lled with air.
(The maximum voltage occurs when both the inner and
One of the plates is covered with a slab of dielectric
middle conductors have almost the breakdown ®eld on
material of relative permittivity 7, with a thickness that is
the outer surfaces.)
half the distance between the plates. What is now the
value of the capacitance? 15.29 A line charge of strength C mÿ1 is parallel to an
earthed conducting plane and at a distance d from it,
as shown in Fig 15.43. Calculate the surface density
of the induced charge on the conducting plane as a
Level 3
function of y, neglecting end effects. (The solution of
15.25 Three charges ÿq, 2q, and ÿq are arranged on a this problem requires the use of the uniqueness theorem,
line as shown in Fig 15.42. Calculate the ®eld at a which states that if an electric ®eld is known to satisfy
distance r > a on the line, and ®nd the leading term in the conditions at the boundary of a region of space, it is
the expansion in powers of r=a. the only possible ®eld. Here the ®eld must be normal to
the conducting surface. Consider the ®eld due to two
line charges with strengths and 2d apart. This ®eld
satis®es the boundary condition and in the region
between the line charge and the conductor it is the
required solution. The imaginary line charge ÿ is called
the image charge of the real line charge .)
15.30 Two parallel plane conductors are a distance d
Fig. 15.42 apart. A plane sheet of charge with surface charge density
lies between the plates at a distance x from one of ®eld. The density of water is 0:9982 g cmÿ3 at 20 C and
them. Calculate the induced charge on each plate. 0:9718 g cmÿ3 at 80 C. Use these data to obtain the
15.31 The relative permittivity of water is 80.36 at 20 C dipole moment and the polarizability of a water
and 60.76 at 80 C when measured in a steady electric molecule.
15.1 2:3 10ÿ8 N. plate carrying a total charge 2Q and ÿ 12 Q for the plate
15.2 Each of the charges q exerts a force q2 =
4p0 a2 carrying a total charge ÿ 12 Q.
on the charge ÿq. The horizontal components of these 15.10 The electric ®eld points outwards from the centre
forces are equal and opposite, and the net force on ÿq is and at a distance x from the centre, within the slab, its
down the page, as shown in Fig 15.44, with a magnitude magnitude is jxj=0 .
p 2 15.11 The ¯ux of the electric ®eld at a distance r from
2q2 3q
F cos 30 : the centre of the nucleus is due to the charge within r. If
4p0 a2 4p0 a2
r is less than the radius R of the nucleus, and the charge
15.5 Outside a conducting sphere of radius R the
density is , the total charge within a sphere of radius r is
potential varies as 1=r and may be written 4 3 2
3 pr . The area of this sphere is 4pr and the ¯ux out of
r
R R=r. The electric ®eld E
r is
it is
@ R
R
E
r ÿ , 4pr 3 r
@r r2 4pr 2 E
r , giving E
r :
which has its maximum value
R=R at r R. If the 30 30
corners of the box are rounded so that they are portions Outside the nucleus the electric ®eld is the same as for a
of spheres of radius R, the ®eld close to the corners is point charge at the centre, that is, it is proportional to
also
R=R. The minimum radius Rmin that can be 1=r 2 and the maximum ®eld is at r R.
tolerated when the box is raised to a potential of 100 kV For lead the total charge 43 pR 3 82e, and
satis®es
105 82e
82 1:6 1ÿ19
5 106 , leading to Rmin 0:02 m or 2 cm: Emax
Rmin 4p0 R 2 4p 8:85 10ÿ12
7:5 10ÿ15 2
15.7 The force is 2 1021 V mÿ1 :
The ®eld acts along the axis in the same direction, from 15.18 The electrostatic energy is calculated by building
the negative to the positive charge, on both sides of the up the charge on the nucleus from the centre, assembling
dipole. For small a=r the magnitude of the ®eld is thin spherical shells one by one like the successive layers
proportional to
1=r3 : it falls off faster with distance of an onion. As in Problem 15.11, at a distance r from
than the ®eld due to a point charge, because to second the centre of the nucleus, less than its radius R, the
order in
a=r the contributions of the positive and charge within r is 43 pr 3 . The potential at r is
negative charges cancel out.
1 4
15.15 The three charges at BDE and the three at CFH pr 3 :
4p0 r 3
are symmetrically placed with respect to the diagonal GA
in Fig 15.45. By symmetry the force on the charge at A is
The energy needed to bring from in®nity an extra thin
therefore outwards in the direction GA from the
shell of radius dr, carrying a charge 4pr 2 dr is
opposite corner. The component of the force due to
the charge at B along GA is 1 4 4
p2 r 4 dr
pr 3 4pr 2 dr 3 ,
4p0 r 3 0
q2 1
2
p ,
4p0 a 3 and the electrostatic potential energy of the whole
nucleus is
the component due to the charge at C is
p Z R 4 p2 r 4 dr
4p2 R5 3 Q2
q2 2 3
p 2 p , 0 0 150 5 4p0 R
4p0
2a 3
and the force due to the charge at G is where Q 43 pR 3 is the total charge of the nucleus. For
lead, Q 82e, giving a total electrostatic energy of
q2 1:24 10ÿ10 J or, equivalently, 775 MeV.
p :
4p0
3a2 15.19 The two dipoles attract one another, and their
potential energy at a distance of 0.4 nm is ÿ0:126 eV.
The total force is therefore
15.21 The number of electrons is about 1300. Capaci-
p
q 2
3 3 2 1 q2 tors of about this size are used to store digits in dynamic
2
p
p 2:14 : random access memories (DRAMs).
4p0 a 3 2 3 3 4p0 a2
15.24 When no dielectric is present, the electric ®eld E
15.16 For a charge at the centre of the cube the ¯ux inside the capacitor is E V =d, where V is the voltage
of the electric ®eld out of one face is q=60 . For a difference between the plates and d their separation. If
charge at one corner the ¯ux out of an opposite face is their area is S, the charge Q on the plates is 0 ES and the
q=240 . capacitance C Q=V 0 S=d.
When the space between the plates is half-®lled
with an insulator, the ®eld inside the insulator is smaller
than the ®eld outside by a factor equal to the relative
permittivity . Call the electric ®eld at the surface of the
plates E 0 . The ®eld inside the insulator is E 0 = and
the voltage between the plates is V E 0 d=2 E 0 d=2.
The charge on the plates is now Q 0 E 0 and the
capacitance is
20 S 20 S
C0 :
Fig. 15.45 d d= d
1
AN SWE R S 583
C0 2
:
C 1
For a single charge or any number of charges at a work by collecting such electrons and ions by placing
distance x from one of the conductors, the division of them in an electric ®eld. The electrons and ions move in
the induced charge between the two conductors is the opposite directions towards conducting plates. Induced
same as it is for a sheet of charge. X-rays and
-rays charges appear on these conductors before the ions and
cause the formation of electrons and ions when they electrons arrive, allowing the time of generating the ions
interact with matter. Many X-ray and
-ray detectors and electrons to be determined accurately.