9.

1 Discuss the main purpose of a Commutator: ~ Commutators are used to get unidirectional current Flow through the external circuits in DC generator system. A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current direction in an electric motor or electrical generator.

9.2 Discuss the importance of back voltage in the armature windings during motor stating. ~ When a current is supplied to a single coil of wire in a magnetic field a force is created which rotates the coil. This is a similar situation to the generation of current by a coil moving in a magnetic field. In fact generators and motors are almost interchangeable, depending upon which two of magnetic field, current and motion are provided. Additional coils of wire and more magnetic fields produce a more efficient motor. Interpoles are fitted to reduce sparking but now have opposite polarity to the next main pole in the direction of rotation, When rotating the armature acts as a generator and produces current in the reverse direction to the supply. This is known as back e.m.f. (electromotive force) and causes a voltage drop across the motor. This back e.m.f. controls the power used by the motor but is not present as the motor is started. As a result, to avoid high starting currents special control circuits or starters are used. The behaviour of the d.c. motor on load is influenced by the voltage drop across the armature, the magnetic field produced between the poles and the load or torque on the motor. Some of these factors are interdependent. For example, the voltage drop across the armature depends upon the back e.m.f. which depends upon the speed of the motor and the strength of the magnetic field. Shunt, series and compound windings are used to obtain different motor characteristics by varying the above factors. 9.3 Differentiate Thermocouple and Transducers. ~ A thermocouple is a temperature sensor, or more precisely measures temperature differences between two locations. Because it uses only wire in the sensing, it can be useful for measuring extreme hot or cold temperatures or in difficult environments. A thermocouple works because of the thermoelectric effect. What's thermoelectric effect? Thank a cat named Seebeck for the answer. If a piece of metal is warmer at one end than at another, the temperature gradient (the difference in temperature) creates a tiny voltage and the voltage depends on the type of metal. In a loop of wire made from the same material, the voltage effect cancels. But if the loop contains two different metals the different parts of the loop produce different voltages ,and the voltage difference can be used to calculate the temperature difference. The voltage set up (usually a few microvolts or 1/1,000,000ths of a volt) is usable to measure temperature difference with an external circuit. The conversion from voltage to temperature is typically a complicated polynomial equation. And in this day and age, the electronics to measure and convert are cheap and the device is fairly accurate.

While a transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form of energy to another form of
energy. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (includinglight), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments. A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy, often an electrical signal. For example, a pressure sensor might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to electricity for display at a remote gauge. An actuator accepts energy and produces movement (action). The energy supplied to an actuator might be electrical or mechanical (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.). An electric motor and aloudspeaker are both actuators, converting electrical energy into motion for different purposes. Combination transducers have both functions; they both detect and create action. For example, a typical ultrasonic transducer switches back and forth many times a second between acting as an actuator to produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as a sensor to detect ultrasonic waves. Rotating a DC electric motor's rotor will produce electricity and voice-coil speakers can also act as microphones.

9.4 Explain how Physical law, Circuit laws, and Newton's law effects the principle of energy conversion process in elecric motor and generator. ~ In Physics law, The basic principles of operation for a motor are the same as those for a generator,except that a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (motion). (Read our atom on electric generators first.) Most electric motors use the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. Lorentz Force If you were to place a moving charged particle in a magnetic field, it would experience a force called the Lorentz force: where v is the speed of the moving charge, q is the charge, and B is the magnetic field. Current in a conductor consists of moving charges. Therefore, a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field will also feel the Lorentz force. For a straight current carrying wire that is not moving, the Lorentz force is: where F is the force (in newtons, N), I is the current in the wire (in amperes, A), Lis the length of the wire that is in the magnetic field (in m), and B is the magnetic field strength (in teslas, T). The direction of the Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the direction of the flow of current and the magnetic field and can be found using the right-hand rule. Using your right hand, point your thumb in the direction of the current, and point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field. Your third finger will now be pointing in the direction of the force.

Mechanics of a Motor Both motors and generators can be explained in terms of a coil that rotates in a magnetic field. In a generator the coil is attached to an external circuit that is then turned. This results in a changing flux, which induces an electromagnetic field. In a motor, a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a force on both sides of the coil, which creates a twisting force (called a torque) that makes it. Any coil carrying current can feel a force in a magnetic field. This force is the Lorentz force on the moving charges in the conductor. The force on opposite sides of the coil will be in opposite directions because the charges are moving in opposite directions. This means the coil will rotate. In Circuits laws, Power within an electrical circuit is only present when both voltage and current are present for example, In an Open-circuit condition, Voltage is present but there is no current flow I = 0 (zero), therefore V x 0 is 0 so the power dissipated within the circuit must also be 0. Likewise, if we have a Short-circuit condition, current flow is present but there is no voltage V = 0, therefore 0 x I = 0 so again the power dissipated within the circuit is 0. As electrical power is the product of V x I, the power dissipated in a circuit is the same whether the circuit contains high voltage and low current or low voltage and high current flow. Generally, power is dissipated in the form of Heat (heaters), Mechanical Work such as motors, etc Energy in the form of radiated (Lamps) or as stored energy (Batteries). In Newton's law, The relationship between the net external torque and the angular acceleration is of the same form as Newton's second law and is sometimes called Newton's second law for rotation. It is not as general a relationship as the linear one because themoment of inertia is not strictly a scalar quantity. The rotational equation is limited to rotation about a single principal axis, which in simple cases is an axis of symmetry.

9.5 What are the commercial applications of DC motors?

Brushless motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost and control complexity prevents brushless motors from replacing brushed motors completely in the lowest-cost areas. Nevertheless, brushless motors have come to dominate many applications, particularly devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in electronic equipment are powered exclusively by brushless motors. They can be found in cordless power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use before the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power brushless motors are used in direct-drive turntables for gramophone records.

Transport
High power brushless motors are found in electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. These motors are essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotors. The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter use brushless technology. A number of electric bicycles use brushless motors that are sometimes built into the wheel hub itself, with [7] the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and rotating with the wheel.

Heating and ventilations

There is a trend in the HVAC and refrigeration industries to use brushless motors instead of various types of AC motors. The most significant reason to switch to a brushless motor is the dramatic reduction in [8] power required to operate them versus a typical AC motor. While shaded-pole andpermanent split capacitor motors once dominated as the fan motor of choice, many fans are now run using a brushless [when?] [9] motor. Some fans use brushless motors also in order to increase overall system efficiency. In addition to the brushless motor's higher efficiency, certain HVAC systems (especially those featuring variable-speed and/or load modulation) use brushless motors because the built-in microprocessor allows for programmability, better control over airflow, and serial communication.

Industrial engineering
The application of brushless DC motors within industrial engineering primarily focuses on manufacturing engineering or industrial automation design. In manufacturing, brushless motors are primarily used for motion control, positioning or actuation systems. Brushless motors are ideally suited for manufacturing applications because of their high power density, good speed-torque characteristics, high efficiency and wide speed ranges and low maintenance. The most common uses of brushless DC motors in industrial engineering are linear motors. servomotors, [10] actuators for industrial robots, extruder drive motors and feed drives for CNC machine tools.

Motion control systems

Brushless motors are commonly used as pump, fan and spindle drives in adjustable or variable speed applications. They can develop high torque with good speed response. In addition, they can be easily automated for remote control. Due to their construction, they have good thermal characteristics and high [11] energy efficiency. To obtain a variable speed response, brushless motors operate in an electromechanical system that includes an electronic motor controller and a rotor position feedback [12] sensor. Brushless dc motors are widely used as servomotors for machine tool servo drives. Servomotors are used for mechanical displacement, positioning or precision motion control. In the past DCstepper motors were used as servomotors; however, since they are operate with open loop control, they typically [13] exhibit torque pulsations. Brushless dc motors are more suitable as servomotors since their precise motion is based upon a closed loop control system that provides tightly controlled and stable operation.

Positioning and actuation systems

Brushless motors are used in industrial positioning and actuation applications. For assembly [15] robots, brushless stepper or servo motors are used to position a part for assembly or a tool for a manufacturing process, such as welding or painting. Brushless motors can also be used to drive linear [16] actuators Actuators that produce linear motion are called linear motors. The advantage of linear motors is that they can produce linear motion without the need of a transmission system, such as a ball-and-lead screw, rack-and-pinion, cam, gears or belts, that would be necessary for rotary motors. Transmission systems are known to introduce less responsiveness and reduced accuracy. Direct drive, brushless DC linear motors consist of a slotted stator with magnetic teeth and a moving actuator, which has permanent
[14]

magnets and coil windings. To obtain linear motion, a motor controller excites the coil windings in the [17] actuator causing an interaction of the magnetic fields resulting in linear motion.

Model engineering

A microprocessor-controlled BLDC motor powering a micro radio-controlled airplane. This external rotor motor weighs 5 grams, consumes approximately 11 watts and produces thrust of more than twice the weight of the plane.

Brushless motors are a popular motor choice for model aircraft including helicopters. Their favorable power-to-weight ratios and large range of available sizes, from under 5 gram to large motors rated at thousands of watts, have revolutionized the market for electric-powered model flight, displacing virtually all brushed electric motors. They have also encouraged a growth of simple, lightweight electric model aircraft, rather than the previous internal combustion engines powering larger and heavier models. The large power-to-weight ratio of modern batteries and brushless motors allows models to ascend vertically, rather than climb gradually. The low noise and lack of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion engines that are used is another reason for their popularity. Legal restrictions for the use of combustion engine driven model aircraft in some countries needed] have also supported the shift to high-power electric systems.
[clarification

Radio controlled cars

Their popularity has also risen in the radio controlled car sector. Brushless motors have been legal in North American RC car racing in accordance toROAR since 2006. These motors provide a great amount of power to RC racers and if paired with appropriate gearing and high-discharge Li-Po (Lithium Polymer) batteries, these cars can achieve speeds of up to 100 miles per hour (161 km/h).