Report

ST.
JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ABSTRACT
This report has been prepared to deliver detailed information about Industrial Practical Training done at ALNO Technologies Limited. The functions and basics of Electronics and Communications have been explained to give basic content of the knowledge obtained at the organization. Some of the materials have been obtained from various sources to help in understanding the challenges faced by the company management towards accomplishing the goals of ALNO Technologies Ltd being the satisfactory service provider. The standard language is used to enhance the understanding ability in most of the explained concepts and definitions. The working and principle mechanisms in this report are correlated to the activities took place in the practical training period.
IPTR AT ALNO TECHNOLOGIES LIMITED BY GODFREY K. GERVAS
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ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the report has been prepared by me to fulfil the curricular requirement of Bachelor Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering offered by Electronics and Communication Department at St. Joseph College of Engineering and Technology.

SUPERVISORS
Name.
Signature and official stamp
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank and appreciate the contribution made by the following during my industrial practical training program. First I would like to thank God for his merciful grace and guidance during my Industrial Practical Training and in my daily activities. I give thanks to St. Joseph College of Engineering and Technology Administration for giving me this opportunity of doing the Industrial Practical Training, which has given me the experience of the field in my career. Also I would like to give special thanks to Electronics and Communication Department Staffs especially the Head of Department, Mr. Thandaiah Praboo and My class Advisors Mr. Phalguni Singh and Mr Senthil Sivakumar for preparation of this industrial practical training which is of useful to me. I also wish to acknowledge the ALNO Technologies Limited organization for giving me the permission to conduct my IPTR in order to achieve the objectives of industrial training. I also like to thank Mr. Noel S. Gundula, for his enduring support and guidance throughout the training. I am very grateful to the whole Management of ALNO Technologies Limited for their support and guidance. Finally I wish to thank my family for supporting me all the time in my industrial practical training.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page Number Abstract ...........1 Declaration ..........2 Acknowledgement ..........3 Chapter 1: Introduction to ALNO Tech. Ltd Background of Organization...6 Organization Team......7 List of Esteemed Customers....8 Core Group of the Organization..9
Chapter 2: GSM Network System Introduction....10 History of GSM..10 GSM Services.13 Concept of Cellular System....17
Chapter 3: GSM Architecture Mobile Station.19 Base Station System21 Network Switching System.22 Operations and Maintenance system...28
Chapter 4: GSM Operations Network operation...30 Radio Resource Management..30 Mobility Management..33 Connection management..34 Operation Administration and Maintenance35 Transcoder Rate Adaptation Unit.35
Chapter 5: Features of GSM Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying37 Calll Routing38 Frequency Reuse..39 Mobile Communications..39 GSM Channel Structure...40
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Burst Structure42 Error Protection and Detection...43
Chapter 6: GSM Cellular Repeaters Introduction to Repeaters...45 GSM Booster or RF Repeater46 Fiber Optic Repeater..49 Frequency Shifting Repeater..49 Deployment of Frequency Shifting Repeater.....50 Repeater Installation...55 Advantages of Repeater......58
Conclusion..59 Appendix.................................................................................................................60
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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO ALNO TECHNOLOGIES LTD
1.0 Background of the Organization ALNO Technologies Limited was established in 2002 seeing unique need in the high technology marketplace for a full services consulting firm. ALNO Technologies Limited specializes in Telecommunication Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Air Conditioning Systems, Security Systems, Fire Alarm Systems, and Information Technology etc. Today ALNO Technologies Limited based has a qualitative Customer base in Tanzania. And as will see, our success in rooted in your companys success, which is why were driven to provide unparalleled engineering product development capability, to add value to your bottom line. Plus, we do it at the best price performance ration available. 1.1 Organizations Goal. We provide our clients with the concepts, technology, and expertise to help them reach their Companys objectives. We gives your company the competitive edge to compete in todays information- intensive, global marketplace by providing everything from conceptual planning to complete system delivery. Our goal is to provide the highest quality products according to clients needs and specifications. It is our scope that we can then create a concrete working relationship with our clients so that we not only meet but also exceed client expectations for years to come. If our client roaster is any indication, weve just done that. 1.2 How We Work By creating a solid partnership, we can substantially help you with your systems solutions. Once we understanding your objectives, we roll up our sleeves, assess the situation and recommended a solutions that will achieve your goals. In every stage of the process well provide you with the innovation, leadership and organization that you demand and expect. By combining the flexibility of client technology with a partnership approach, we can provide unmatched quality. Rest assured that ALNO Technologies Limited leaves no stone unturned. 1.3 Employment We believe that today our success in the marketplace is due to the fact that our focus has always been on employing top quality technology professionals and managing our relationships with both clients & employees in highly professional manner. We consider it as our duty to see that our employees are exposed to a variety of Hardware and Technology environment.
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1.3 Organization Team We provide skilled project leadership / management and an experienced technical team for the installation, implementation and Development of the project. Individuals are assigned based on customer and project requirements. We work with industry standard tools delivering cost-effective solutions and focusing on making our clients successful. With the development of new technologies, we try to position our expertise to accommodate new needs of our clients also, to stay ahead of the Hardware and software service industry; we also continually research the technical marketplace to maintain our competitiveness and leading edge of information systems. 1.4 Organization Commitments is towards Unparalleled Quality. Timely Delivery. Customer Satisfaction. 1.5 Technical Know-how The Organization have proven expertise in:1. RF Planning and Optimization for GSM and WCDMA Networks. 2. RF installation for GSM and WCDMA equipments 3. VSAT installation and Maintenance. 4. Civil works for Telecommunications towers. 5. Planning and Implementation of Computer Networks. 6. Power systems design, implementation, servicing and consultation. 7. Supply, installation and Maintenance of Air conditioning systems. 8. Supply, Planning, installation and Maintenance of Electrical and Security systems. 9. Supply, installation and installation of intercom telephone systems 10. Specialized high level / management level consultancy in all the fields above. 1.6 Available Facilities /Tools State-of art technology computer systems with varieties of software tools Laptops and desktop computers for demos and Presentations, Also for configuring and commissioning of telecommunications systems including base stations, transmission links, repeaters, etc. Well-equipped library with titles inclusive of latest technologies Connectivity to the internet. Well-qualified, enthusiastic technocrats, who are at your disposal to share, learn, innovate and serve. State-of-art safety working tools and test gears, fully equipped mechanical and electrical toolkits, rigging equipment, Full body harnesses for each technical member, first aid kit for each team, etc. Vehicles to facilitate transportation of equipment and manpower, some of the vehicles are company owned and others were issued by shareholders.
IPTR AT ALNO TECHNOLOGIES LIMITED BY GODFREY K. GERVAS Page 7
1.7 List of few of our Esteemed Clients: Vodacom Tanzania Ltd We have RF contract with Vodacom Tanzania RF Installation and commission of GSM, WCDMA and WiMAX systems (including installing feeder, antennas and Base Stations). Motorola to Nokia BTS Swap in Kilimanjaro region. Radio transmission installations and commissioning. RF Installation of Indoor and outdoor GSM and UMTS repeaters RF Optimization (including antenna tilts and orientation changes) Installation of Tower Mounted Amplifiers (TMA). Supply and installation of satellite television in the head office and branch offices. Service and repairs of Air conditioners Tigo Tanzania Computer networking cabling for Tigo branch offices. Contract for installation, service and Maintenance of Air conditioner, generator, office electrical system for the Head office and all branches in Tanzania. The contract is renewable annually. Tanzania Airport Authority Installation and maintenance of distributed satellite television system for the Terminal II building and VIP at Julius Nyerere international Airport, Dar es Salaam. Maintenance contract for Service and Repairs of VRV Air conditioners at Terminal II departure and arrival lounges. Kinondoni Municipal Council Computers, printers, maintenance, internet service provision and structured cabling. Maintenance and servicing of generators and air conditioners. Dar es salaam Maritime institute Wireless installation and internet service provision Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) Service and maintenance of Air Conditioners. National Electoral Commission Wireless installation using Cisco wireless equipment to connect Dar es Salaam branches with Head office.
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1.8 Core Group of the Organization Daudi Kwavi: (Director: Finance Sales and Marketing) Qualification: Advance Diploma in Computer Science & Engineering (IFM) Diploma in Multimedia Programming, APC Certified Engineer Experience: 12 years. Specialized: Dell Desktop & server setup, Networking Configuration, Application Software development, Web designing, e-Business solutions, Multimedia, Database, Administration, MIS & Marketing, American power Conversion UPS Engineer. Noel Seth Gundula: (Director: Administration, Technical and Projects) Qualification: BSc. Electronics Science and Communication (UDSM) Tanzania Experience: 11 years. Specialized: RF Planning and Optimization for GSM and UMTS Networks installation, commissioning and maintenance in Telecommunication industry including GSM, CDMA, Wimax, SDH and PDH transmission, Fiber systems, etc. Computer Networking and system design, Consultancy in all related fields of telecommunications. Samson John (Director). Qualification: BSc. Electrical Science and Communication (UDSM) Tanzania. IBM certified Engineer, Brand-rex Certified structured Cabling Engineer, Oracle certified Administrator (OCA), Oracle Certified Professional (OCP). Experience: 11Years. Specialized: Desktop Computer, server, Structured Cabling, Wide Area, Network, Wireless designing and installation, VSAT designing and implementing, Microsoft Operating Systems, Microsoft Exchange server 2000 SCO UNIX. Adolf Kinyero (Director). Qualification: Diploma in Information Technology Experience: 10 years Specialized: Desktop Computer, Server, Structured Cabling, Wide Area, Network, Wireless designing and installation, Microsoft Operating System, Microsoft Exchange Server 2000, Veritus disaster recovery specialist, American Power Conversion UPS Specialist.
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CHAPTER TWO GSM NETWORK SYSTEM
2.1 Introduction GSM is an acronym that stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. The original French acronym stands for Groupe Spcial Mobile. It was originally developed in 1984 as a standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe. GSM is now an international stand for mobile service. It offers high mobility. Subscribers can easily roam worldwide and access any GSM network. GSM is a digital cellular network. At the time the standard was developed it offered much higher capacity than the current analogue systems. It also allowed for a more optimal allocation of the radio spectrum, which therefore allows for a larger number of subscribers. The first generations of cellular phones were analogue, but the current generation is digital, using packet radio. Digital transmission has several advantages over analogue for mobile communication. First, voice, data and fax, can be integrated in to a single system. Second, as better speech compression algorithms are discovered, less bandwidth will be needed per channel. Third, error correcting codes can be used to improve transmission quality. Finally, digital signals can be encrypted for security. In contrast the European digital system, GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) has been designed from scratch as a fully digital system, without any compromises for the sake of backward compatibility. GSM is currently in use in over 100 countries, inside and outside Europe, and thus serves as an example of digital cellular radio. GSM was originally designed for use in the 900 MHz band. Later, frequencies were allocated at 1800 MHz, and the second system, closely patterned on GSM, was setup there. The latter is called DCS 1800, but it is essentially GSM. A GSM system has up to a maximum of 200 full duplex channels per cell. Each cell consists of a downlink frequency (from base station to mobile station) and uplink frequency (from mobile station to base station). Each frequency band is 200 KHz wide. 2.2 History of GSM During the early 1980s, analogue cellular telephone systems were experiencing rapid growth in Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in France and Germany. Each country developed its own system, which was incompatible with everyone else's in equipment and operation. This was an undesirable situation, because not only was the mobile equipment limited to operation within national boundaries, which in a unified Europe were increasingly unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of equipment, so economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized.
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The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982, the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a study group called the Group Special Mobile (GSM) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system. The proposed system had to meet certain criteria: Good subjective speech quality Low terminal and service cost Support for international roaming Ability to support handheld terminals Support for range of new services and facilities Spectral efficiency ISDN compatibility
In between 19802- 1985 Conference Europeenne des Postes et Telecommunications began specifying a European digital telecommunications standard; in the 900MHz frequency band. These standards later become known as Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). The evolution of mobile communication has taken place over various generations as: 2.2.1 1G First Generation 1G, which stands for first generation, refers to the first generation of wireless telecommunication technology, more popularly known as cell phones. A set of wireless standards developed in the 1980s, 1G technology, which featured mobile radio telephones and such technologies as Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), AND Push to Talk (PTT).Unlike its successor, 2G, which made use of digital signals, 1G wireless networks used analogue radio signals. Through 1G, a voice call gets modulated to a higher frequency of about 150MHZ and up as it is transmitted between radio towers. This is done using a technique called Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).In terms of overall connection quality, 1G compares unfavourably to its successors. It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all since voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties. However, 1G did maintain a few advantages over 2G. In comparison to 1Gs analogue signals, 2Gs digital signals are very reliant on location and proximity. If a 2G handset made a call far away from a cell tower, the digital signal may not be strong enough to reach it. While a call made from a 1G handset had generally poorer quality than that of a 2G handset, it survived longer distances. This is due to the analogue signal having a smooth curve compared to the digital signal, which had a jagged, angular curve.
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As conditions worsen, the quality of a call made from a 1G handset would gradually worsen, but a call made from a 2G handset would fail completely. The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G networks use are analogue, while 2G networks are digital. Although both systems use digital signalling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to higher frequency, typically 150 MHz and up. 2.2.2 2G Second Generation 2G is short for Second Generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in 1991. Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages 2.2.3 2.5G GPRS 2.5G stands for Second and a Half Generation, is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packet-switched domain in addition to the circuit-switched domain. It does not necessarily provide faster services because bundling of timeslots is used for circuit-switched data services as well. The first major step in the evolution of GSM networks to 3G occurred with the introduction of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS. GPRS could provide data rates from 56 Kbit/s up to 115 Kbit/s. It can be used for services such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email and World Wide Web access. GPRS data transfer is typically charged per megabyte of traffic transferred, while data communication via traditional circuit switching is billed per minute of connection time, independent of whether the user actually is utilizing the capacity or is in an idle state. 2.2.4 2.75G EDGE GPRS networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK encoding. Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard GSM. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM family and it is an upgrade that provides a potential three-fold increase in capacity of GSM/GPRS networks. It achieves higher data-rates (up to 236.8 Kbit/s) by switching to more sophisticated methods of coding (8PSK), within existing GSM timeslots.
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2.2.5 3G Technology GSM technology was able to transfer circuit switched data over the network. The use of 3G technology is also able to transmit packet switch data efficiently at better and increased bandwidth. 3G mobile technologies proffers more advanced services to mobile users. It can help many multimedia services to function. The spectral efficiency of 3G technology is better than 2G technologies. Spectral efficiency is the measurement of rate of information transfer over any communication system. 3G technology and 3g Technologies characteristics: 3G technologies make use of TDMA and CDMA. 3G (Third Generation Technology) technologies make use of value added services like mobile television, GPS (global positioning system) and video conferencing. The basic feature of 3G Technology (Third Generation Technology) is fast data transfer rates. It is expected that 2mbit/sec for stationary users, while 348kbits when moving or traveling. Network authentication has won the trust of users, because the user can rely on its network as a reliable source of transferring data.
2.3 GSM SERVICES Services are defined as anything the end user explicitly sees as worth paying for. The primary objective of a mobile telephony system is to allow mobile subscribers to communicate effectively. GSM has much more to offer than voice telephony. Additional services allow you greater flexibility in where and when you use your phone. You should contact your local GSM network operator for information on the specific services available to you. But there are three basic types of services offered through GSM which you can ask for: Telephony (also referred to as teleservices) Services Data (also referred to as bearer services) Services. Supplementary Services
2.3.1 Teleservices or Telephony Services: A Teleservice utilizes the capabilities of a Bearer Service to transport data, defining which capabilities are required and how they should be set up. 2.3.1.1 Voice Calls: The most basic Teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. This includes Full-rate speech at 13 Kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest emergency- service
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provider is notified by dialling three digits. A very basic example of emergency service is 911 service available in USA. 2.3.1.2 Videotext and Facsimile: Another group of teleservices includes Videotext access, Teletext transmission, Facsimile alternate speech and facsimile Group 3, Automatic facsimile Group 3 etc. 2.3.1.3 Short Text Messages: SMS (Short Messaging Service) service is a text messaging which allow you to send and receive text messages on your GSM Mobile phone. Services available from many of the world's GSM networks today - in addition to simple user generated text message services - include news, sports, financial, language and location based services, as well as many early examples of mobile commerce such as stocks and share prices, mobile banking facilities and leisure booking services. 2.3.1.4 Multimedia Message Service (MMS) MMS means a multimedia presentation which consists of music, voice, image, text, video and graphics all synchronized across a common timeline. MMS-enabled mobile phones enable subscribers to compose and send messages with one or more multimedia parts. Mobile phones with built-in or attached cameras, or with built-in MP3 players are very likely to also have an MMS messaging client -- a software program that interacts with the mobile subscriber to compose, address, send, receive, and view MMS messages. 2.3.1.5 Enhanced Messaging System (EMS) EMS can support relatively simple pictures, sounds and animation. EMS messages that are sent to devices that do not support it will be displayed as SMS transmissions. It is a 3GPP standard. 2.3.1.6 Emergency calls The emergency call function enables a subscriber to make an emergency call by pressing a predefined button or by using the emergency number (like 112, 911). 2.3.1.7 Instant Messaging It enables to communicate with another individual in real time, analogous to a telephone conversation but using text based communication instead of voice-based communication. 2.3.2 Bearer Services or Data Services Using your GSM phone to receive and send data is the essential building block leading to widespread mobile Internet access and mobile data transfer. GSM currently has a data
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transfer rate of 9.6k. New developments that will push up data transfer rates for GSM users are HSCSD (high speed circuit switched data) and GPRS (general packet radio service) are now available. 2.3.3 Supplementary Services Supplementary services are provided on top of teleservices or bearer services, and include features such as caller identification, call forwarding, call waiting, multi-party conversations, and barring of outgoing (international) calls, among others. A brief description of supplementary services is given here: 2.3.3.1 Multiparty Service or conferencing: The multiparty service allows a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation that is, a simultaneous conversation between three or more subscribers to setup a conference call. This service is only applicable to normal telephony. 2.3.3.2 Call Waiting: This service allows a mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a circuit-switched connection. 2.3.3.3 Call Hold: This service allows a subscriber to put an incoming call on hold and then resume this call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal telephony. 2.3.3.4 Call Forwarding: The Call Forwarding Supplementary Service is used to divert calls from the original recipient to another number, and is normally set up by the subscriber himself. It can be used by the subscriber to divert calls from the Mobile Station when the subscriber is not available, and so to ensure that calls are not lost. A typical scenario would be a salesperson turns off his mobile phone during a meeting with customers, but does not wish to lose potential sales leads while he is unavailable. 2.3.3.5 Call Barring: The concept of barring certain types of calls might seem to be a supplementary disservice rather than service. However, there are times when the subscriber is not the actual user of the Mobile Station, and as a consequence may wish to limit its functionality, so as to limit the charges incurred. Alternatively, if the subscriber and user are one and the same, the Call Barring may be useful to stop calls being routed to international destinations when they are routed. The reason for this is because it is expected that the roaming subscriber will pay the charges incurred for international re-
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routing of calls. So, GSM devised some flexible services that enable the subscriber to conditionally bar calls.
2.3.3.6 Calling Line Identification Presentation: This service deals with the presentation of the calling party's telephone number. The concept is for this number to be presented, at the start of the phone ringing, so that the called person can determine who is ringing prior to answering. The person subscribing to the service receives the telephone number of the calling party. 2.3.3.7 Calling Line Identification Restriction: A person who does not wish their number to be presented to others subscribes belong to this service. In the normal course of event, the restriction service overrides the presentation service. 2.3.3.8 Connected Line Identification Presentation: This service is provided to give the calling party, the telephone number of the person to whom they are connected. This may seem strange since the person making the call should know the number they dialled, but there are situations (such as forwarding) where the number connected is not the number dialled. The person subscribing to the service is the calling party. 2.3.3.9 Connected Line Identification Restriction: There are times when the called person does not wish to have their number presented, so they would subscribe to this person. Normally, this overrides the presentation service. 2.3.3.10 Malicious Call Identification: The malicious call identification service was provided to combat the spread of obscene or annoying calls. The victim should subscribe to this service, and then they could cause known malicious calls to be identified in the GSM network, using a simple command. This identified number could then be passed to the appropriate authority for action. The definition for this service is not stable. 2.3.3.11 Advice of Charge (AoC): This service was designed to give the subscriber an indication of the cost of the services as they are used. Furthermore, those Service Providers who wish to offer rental services to subscribers without their own Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) can also utilize this service in a slightly different form. AOC for data calls is provided on the basis of time measurements.
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2.3.3.12 Closed User Groups (CUGs): This service is provided on GSM to enable groups of subscribers to only call each other. These type of services are being offered with special discount and is limited only to those members who wish to talk to each other. 2.4 Concept of Cellular System The covering area of an operator is divided into cells. A cell corresponds to the covering area of one transmitter or a small collection of transmitters. The size of a cell is determined by the transmitter's power. The concept of cellular systems is the use of low power transmitters in order to enable the efficient reuse of the frequencies. In fact, if the transmitters used are very powerful, the frequencies cannot be reused for hundreds of kilometres as they are limited to the covering area of the transmitter. The frequency band allocated to a cellular mobile radio system is distributed over a group of cells and this distribution is repeated in all the domain of an operator. The whole number of radio channels available can then be used in each group of cells that form the covering area of an operator. Frequencies used in a cell are reused several cells away. The distance between the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient to avoid interference. The frequency reuse will increase considerably the capacity in number of users. In order to work properly, a cellular system must verify the following two main conditions: The power level of a transmitter within a single cell must be limited in order to reduce the interference with the transmitters of neighbouring cells. The interference will not produce any damage to the system if a distance of about 2.5-3 times the diameter of a cell is reserved between transmitters. This also depends on the performance of the receiver's filters. Neighbouring cells can not share the same channels. To reduce the interference, the frequencies must be reused only within a certain pattern.
In order to exchange the information needed to maintain the communication links within the cellular network, several radio channels are reserved for the signalling information. 2.4.1 Cluster The cells are grouped into clusters. The number of cells in a cluster must be determined so that the cluster can be repeated continuously within the covering area of an operator. Typical clusters contain 4, 7, 12 or 21 cells. The number of cells in each cluster is very important. The smaller the number of cells per cluster is, the bigger the number of channels per cell. The capacity of each cell will, therefore, increase. However, this must be balanced with the reduction of two interference occurring between
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neighbouring clusters. This interference is produced by the small size of the clusters (cluster size is defined as the number of cells/cluster). The total number of channels per cell depends on the number of available channels and the type of cluster used. 2.4.2 Cell Types The density of population in a country is so varied that different types of cells are used: Macrocells: The macrocells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas. Microcells: These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas into smaller cells, the number of channels available is increased as well as the capacity of the cells. The power level of the transmitters used in these cells is then decreased, reducing the possibility of interference between neighbouring cells. Selective cells: It is not always useful to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In some cases, cells with a particular shape and coverage are needed. These cells are called selective cells. A typical example of selective cells are the cells that may be located at the entrances of tunnels where a coverage of 360 degrees is not needed. In this case, a selective cell with a coverage of 120 degrees is used. Umbrella cells: A terminal crossing very small cells produces increased number of handoffs among different small neighbouring cells. To solve this problem, the concept of umbrella-cell is introduced. An umbrella cell covers several microcells. The power level inside an umbrella cell is increased comparing to power levels used in microcells that form the umbrella cell. When the speed of the mobile is too high, the mobile is handed off to the umbrella cell. The mobile will then stay longer in the same cell (in this case the umbrella cell). This will reduce the number of handoffs and the work of the network. The speed of the vehicle is detected by means of the number of handoffs and its propagation characteristics
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CHAPTER THREE GSM ARCHITECTURE
3.1 Functional Components A GSM network is composed of several functional entities, whose functions and interfaces are specified. Figure 2.1 below shows the layout of a generic GSM network. The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber. The Base Station System controls the radio link with the Mobile Station. The Network Switching System, the main part of which is the Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile users, and between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also handles the mobility management operations. Not shown is the Operations and Maintenance Centre, which oversees the proper operation and setup of the network. The Mobile Station and the Base Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or radio link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile services Switching Centre across the A interface.
Figure 3.1: General architecture of GSM network
3.1.1 Mobile Station (MS) The Mobile Station (MS) consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a smart card called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal.
By inserting the SIM card into another GSM terminal, the user is able to receive calls at that terminal, make calls from that terminal, and receive other subscribed services. The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to identify the subscriber to the system, a secret key for authentication, and other information. The IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The SIM card may be protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.
Figure 3.2: Components of Mobile Station A Mobile Station consists of two main elements: The Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): It is protected by a four-digit Personal Identification Number (PIN). In order to identify the subscriber to the system, the SIM card contains amongst others a unique International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). User mobility is provided through mapping the subscriber to the SIM card rather than the terminal as we done in past cellular systems. Mobile equipment/terminal (ME): There are different types of terminals (MN) distinguished principally by their power and application: `Fixed' terminals mainly installed in cars. Their maximum allowed output power is 20W Portable terminals can also be installed in vehicles. Their maximum allowed output power is 8W.Handheld terminals; their popularity is owed to their weight and volume, which is continuously decreasing. According to some specification these terminals may emit up to 0.8W. However, as technology has evolved their maximum allowed power output is limited to 0.1W.
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3.1.2 Base Station System (BSS) The GSM Base Station System is the equipment located at a cell site. It comprises a combination of digital and RF equipment. The BSS provides the link between the MS and the MSC. The BSS communicates with the MS over the digital air interface and with the MSC via 2Mbit/s links.
Figure 3.3 Typical Layout of BSS
The BSS consists of three major hardware components: The Base Transceiver Station BTS The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular cell. This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with the MS. The antenna is included as part of the BTS. The BTS provides the air interface connection with the MS. I also has a limited amount of control functionality which reduces the amount of traffic passing between the BTS and BSC. The functions of the BTS are shown opposite. Each BTS will support 1 or more cells. The Base Station Controller BSC The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple BTSs. Any operational information required by the BTS will be received via the BSC. Likewise any information required about the BTS
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(by the OMC for example) will be obtained by the BSC. The BSC incorporates a digital switching matrix, which it uses to connect the radio channels on the air interface with the terrestrial circuits from the MSC. The BSC switching matrix also allows the BSC to perform handovers between radio channels on BTSs, under its control, without involving the MSC. The Transcoder XCDR The Transcoder is used to compact the signals from the MS so that they are more efficiently sent over the terrestrial interfaces. Although the transcoder is considered to be a part of the BSS, it is very often located closer to the MSC. The transcoder is used to reduce the rate at which the traffic (voice/data) is transmitted over the air interface. Although the transcoder is part of the BSS, it is often found physically closer to the NSS to allow more efficient use of the terrestrial links.
3.1.3 Network Switching System (NSS) The Network Switching System includes the main switching functions of the GSM network. It also contains the databases required for subscriber data and mobility management. Its main function is to manage communications between the GSM network and other telecommunications networks.
Figure 3.4: Components of NSS The components of the Network Switching System are listed below: Mobile Services Switching Centre MSC Home Location Register HLR Visitor Location Register VLR Equipment Identity Register EIR Authentication Centre AUC
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InterWorking Function IWF Echo Canceller EC
In addition to the more traditional elements of a cellular telephone system, GSM has Location Register network entities. These entities are the Home Location Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR), and the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The location registers are database-oriented processing nodes which address the problems of managing subscriber data and keeping track of a MSs location as it roams around the network. Functionally, the Interworking Function and the Echo Cancellers may be considered as parts of the MSC, since their activities are inextricably linked with those of the switch as it connects speech and data calls to and from the MSs. 3.1.3.1 Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC) The MSC is included in the GSM system for call-switching. Its overall purpose is the same as that of any telephone exchange. However, because of the additional complications involved in the control and security aspects of the GSM cellular system and the wide range of subscriber facilities that it offers, the MSC has to be capable of fulfilling many additional functions. The MSC will carry out several different functions depending upon its position in the network. When the MSC provides the interface between the PSTN and the BSSs in the GSM network it will be known as a Gateway MSC. In this position it will provide the switching required for all MS originated or terminated traffic. Each MSC provides service to MSs located within a defined geographic coverage area, the network typically contains more than one MSC. One MSC is capable of supporting a regional capital with approximately one million inhabitants. An MSC of this size will be contained in about half a dozen racks. The functions carried out by the MSC are listed below: Call Processing Includes control of data/voice call setup, inter-BSS and inter-MSC handovers and control of mobility management (subscriber validation and location). Operations and Maintenance Support Includes database management, traffic metering and measurement, and a manmachine interface. Internetwork Interworking Manages the interface between the GSM network and the PSTN. Billing Collects call billing data.
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3.1.3.2 Home Location Register (HLR) The HLR is the reference database for subscriber parameters. Various identification numbers and addresses are stored, as well as authentication parameters. This information is entered into the database by the network provider when new subscriber is added to the system. The HLR database contains the master database of all the subscribers to a GSM PLMN. The data it contains is remotely accessed by all the MSCs and the VLRs in the network and, although the network may contain more than one HLR, there is only one database record per subscriber - each HLR is therefore handling a portion of the total subscriber database. The subscriber data may be accessed by either the IMSI or the MSISDN number. The data can also be accessed by an MSC or a VLR in a different PLMN, to allow inter-system and inter-country roaming. 3.1.3.3 Visitor Location Register (VLR) The VLR contains a copy of most of the data stored at the HLR. It is, however, temporary data which exists for only as long as the subscriber is active in the particular area covered by the VLR. The VLR database will therefore contain some duplicate data as well as more precise data relevant to the subscriber remaining within the VLR coverage. The VLR provides a local database for the subscribers wherever they are physically located within a PLMN, this may or may not be the home system. This function eliminates the need for excessive and time-consuming references to the home HLR database. The additional data stored in the VLR is listed below: Mobile status Indicates the status of the Mobile Station such as Free, Busy, No Answer, etc. Location Area Identity (LAI) Cells within the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) are grouped together into geographical areas. Each area is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI), a location area may typically contain 30 cells. Each VLR controls several LAIs and as a subscriber moves from one LAI to another, the LAI is updated in the VLR. As the subscriber moves from one VLR to another, the VLR address is updated at the HLR. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) The VLR controls the allocation of new Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) numbers and notifies them to the HLR. The TMSI will be updated frequently, this makes it very difficult for the call to be traced and therefore provides a high degree of security for the subscriber. The TMSI may be updated in any of the following situations: o Call setup. o On entry to a new LAI.
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o On entry to a new VLR. Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) As a subscriber may wish to operate outside its home system at some time, the VLR can also allocate a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN). This number is assigned from a list of numbers held at the VLR (MSC). The MSRN is then used to route the call to the MSC which controls the base station in the MSs Current location. The database in the VLR can be accessed by the IMSI, the TMSI or the MSRN. Typically there will be one VLR per MSC.
3.1.3.4 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) The EIR contains a centralized database for validating the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This database is concerned solely with MS equipment and not with the subscriber who is using it to make or receive a call. The EIR database consists of lists of IMEIs (or ranges of IMEIs) organized as follows: White List Contains those IMEIs which are known to have been assigned to valid MS equipment. Black List Contains IMEIs of MS which have been reported stolen or which are to be denied service for some other reason. Grey List Contains IMEIs of MS which have problems (for example, faulty software). These are not, however, sufficiently significant to warrant a black listing.
The EIR database is remotely accessed by the MSCs in the network and can also be accessed by an MSC in a different PLMN. As in the case of the HLR, a network may well contain more than one EIR with each EIR controlling certain blocks of IMEI numbers. The MSC contains a translation facility, which when given an IMEI, returns the address of the EIR controlling the appropriate section of the equipment database. 3.1.3.5 Authentication Centre (AUC) The AUC is a processor system, it performs the authentication function. It will normally be co-located with the Home Location Register (HLR) as it will be required to continuously access and update, as necessary, the system subscriber records. The AUC/HLR centre can be co-located with the MSC or located remote from the MSC. The authentication process will usually take place each time the subscriber initializes on the system. Authentication process Before Authentication to take place Triplets (Kc, SRES and RAND) have to be generated at the AUC by:
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RAND =Randomly generated number. SRES = Derived from A3 (RAND, Ki). Kc = Derived from A8 (RAND, Ki). A3 = From 1 of 16 possible algorithms defined on allocation of IMSI and creation of SIM card. A8 = From 1 of 16 possible algorithms defined on allocation of IMSI and creation of SIM card. Ki = Authentication key, assigned at random together with the versions of A3 and A8. To perform the authentication process the VLR should have all the information required to perform that authentication process (Kc, SRES and RAND). If this information is unavailable, then the VLR would request it from the HLR/AUC.
Figure 3.5: Authentication process 1. Triples (Kc, SRES and RAND) are stored at the VLR. 2. The VLR sends RAND via the MSC and BSS, to the MS (unencrypted).
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3. The MS, using the A3 and A8 algorithms and the parameter Ki stored on the MS SIM card, together with the received RAND from the VLR, calculates the values of SRES and Kc. 4. The MS sends SRES unencrypted to the VLR 5. Within the VLR the value of SRES is compared with the SRES received from the mobile. If the two values match, then the authentication is successful. 6. If ciphering is to be used, Kc from the assigned triple is passed to the BTS. 7. The mobile calculates Kc from the RAND and A8 and Ki on the SIM. 8. Using Kc, A5 and the GSM hyperframe number, encryption between the MS and the BSS can now occur over the air interface. The first time a subscriber attempts to make a call, the full authentication process takes place. However, for subsequent calls attempted within a given system control time period, or within a single system providers network, authentication may not be necessary, as the data generated during the first authentication will still be available 3.1.3.6 Echo Canceller (EC) An EC is used on the PSTN side of the MSC for all voice circuits. Echo control is required at the switch because the inherent GSM system delay can cause an unacceptable echo condition, even on short distance PSTN circuit connections. The total round trip delay introduced by the GSM system (the cumulative delay caused by call processing, speech encoding and decoding etc.) is approximately 180 milliseconds, this would not be apparent to the MS subscriber, but for the inclusion of a 2-wire to 4-wire hybrid transformer in the circuit. This is required at the land partys local switch because the standard telephone connection is 2-wire. The transformer causes the echo. This does not affect the land subscriber. During a normal PSTN land to land call, no echo is apparent because the delay is too short and the user is unable to distinguish between the echo and the normal telephone side tone. However, without the EC and with the GSM round trip delay added, the effect would be very irritating to the MS subscriber, disrupting speech and concentration 3.1.3.7 Interworking Function (IWF) The IWF provides the function to enable the GSM system to interface with the various forms of public and private data networks currently available. The basic features of the IWF are listed below. Data rate adaption. Protocol conversion.
Some systems require more IWF capability than others, this depends upon the network to which it is being connected. The IWF also incorporates a modem bank, which
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may be used when, for example, the GSM Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) exchanges data with a land DTE connected via an analogue modem. 3.1.4 Operations and Maintenance System The operations and maintenance system provides the capability to manage the GSM network remotely. This area of the GSM network is not currently tightly specified by the GSM specifications, it is left to the network provider to decide what capabilities they wish it to have. The Operations and Maintenance System comprises of two parts: Network Management Centre (NMC) The Network Management Centre (NMC) has a view of the entire PLMN and is responsible for the management of the network as a whole. The NMC resides at the top of the hierarchy and provides global network management. The NMC offers the ability to provide hierarchical regionalized network management of a complete GSM system. It is responsible for operations and maintenance at the network level, supported by the OMCs which are responsible for regional network management. The NMC is therefore a single logical facility at the top of the network management hierarchy. The NMC has a high level view of the network, as a series of network nodes and interconnecting communications facilities. Operations and Maintenance Centre (OMC) The Operations and Maintenance Centre (OMC) is a centralized facility that supports the day to day management of a cellular network as well as providing a database for long term network engineering and planning tools. An OMC manages a certain area of the PLMN thus giving regionalized network management. The OMC provides a central point from which to control and monitor the other network entities (i.e. base stations, switches, database, etc) as well as monitor the quality of service being provided by the network. At present, equipment manufacturers have their own OMCs which are not compatible in every aspect with those of other manufacturers. This is particularly the case between radio base station equipment suppliers, where in some cases the OMC is a separate item and Digital Switching equipment suppliers, where the OMC is an integral, but functionally separate, part of the hardware. There are two types of OMC these are: o OMC (R) OMC controls specifically the Base Station System. o OMC (S) OMC controls specifically the Network Switching System. The OMC should support the following functions: o Event/Alarm Management. o Fault Management.
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o Performance Management. o Configuration Management. o Security Management.
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CHAPTER FOUR GSM OPERATIONS
4.1 Network Operations In GSM, five main functions can be defined: Radio Resources Management (RRM). Mobility Management (MM) Communication Management (CM) Supplementary services management (SSM) Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
4.1.1 Radio Resources Management (RRM) The role of the RRM function is to establish, maintain and release communication links between mobile stations and the MSC. The elements that are mainly concerned with the RRM function are the MS and the BTS. However, since the RRM component performs connection management also during cell handovers, it also affects the MSC which is the handover management component. The RRM is also responsible for the management of frequency resources as well as varying radio interface conditions. Main component operations are: 4.1.1.1 Handover The user movements may result a change in the channel/cell, when the quality of the communication is degrading; this is known as handoff or handover. Handovers occur between: Between channels within a cell Between cells controlled by the same BSC Between cells under the same MSC but controlled by different BSCs Between cells that are controlled by different MSCs. Handover Frequency hopping Power-level control Discontinuous transmission and reception Timing advance
Handovers are mainly controlled by the MSC. However to avoid unnecessary signalling, the first two types of handovers are managed by the respective BSC (thus, the MSC is only notified of the handover). To perform the handover the mobile station
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controls continuously its own signal strength and the signal strength of the neighbouring cells. The list of cells that must be monitored by the mobile station is given by the base station. Power measurements allow deciding which the best cell is in order to maintain the quality of the communication link. Two basic algorithms are used for handovers: The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm gives precedence to power control over handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain point, the power level of the mobile is increased. If further power increases do not improve the signal, then a handover is considered. This is the simpler and more common method, but it creates 'smeared' cell boundaries when a mobile transmitting at peak power goes some distance beyond its original cell boundaries into another cell. The 'power budget' method uses handover to try to maintain or improve a certain level of signal quality at the same or lower power level. It thus gives precedence to handover over power control. It avoids the 'smeared' cell boundary problem and reduces co-channel interference, but it is quite complicated.
4.1.1.2 Frequency hopping Frequency Hopping is an old technique introduced firstly in military transmission system to ensure the secrecy of communications and combat jamming. Frequency Hopping is mechanism in which the system changes the frequency (uplink and downlink) during transmission at regular intervals. It allows the RF channel used for signalling channel (SDCCH) timeslot or traffic channel (TCH) timeslots, to change frequency every TDMA frame (4.615 ms). The frequency is changed on a per burst basis, which means that all the bits in a burst are transmitted in the same frequency. The propagation conditions and therefore the multipath fading depend on the radio frequency. In order to avoid important differences in the quality of the channels, the slow frequency hopping is introduced. The slow frequency hopping changes the frequency with every TDMA frame. The frequency hopping also reduces the effects of co-channel interference. There are different types of frequency hopping algorithms. The algorithm selected is sent through the Broadcast Control Channels. Even if frequency hopping can be very useful for the system, a base station does not have to support it necessarily on the other hand, a mobile station has to accept frequency hopping when a base station decides to use it. 4.1.1.3 Power Control There are five classes of mobile stations defined, according to their peak transmitter power, rated at 20, 8, 5, 2, and 0.8 watts. To minimize co-channel interference and to conserve power, both the mobiles and the Base Transceiver Stations operate at the
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lowest power level that will maintain an acceptable signal quality. Power levels can be stepped up or down in steps of 2 dB from the peak power for the class down to a minimum of 13 dB (20 mill watts). 4.1.1.3 Discontinous Transmission and Reception Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) DTX increases the efficiency of the system through a decrease in the possible radio transmission interference level. It does this by ensuring that the MS does not transmit unnecessary message data. DTX can be implemented, as necessary, on a call by call basis. The effects will be most noticeable in communications between two MS. DTX in its most extreme form, when implemented at the MS can also result in considerable power saving. If the MS does not transmit during silences there is a reduction in the overall power output requirement. The implementation of DTX is very much at the discretion of the network provider and there are different specifications applied for different types of channel usage. Discontinuous Reception (DRX) DRX allows the MS to effectively switch off during times when reception is deemed unnecessary. By monitoring the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), the Frequency Correction Control Channel (FCCH) and the Synchronisation Control Channel (SCCH) the MS is aware of the Frame Number and repetition format for Frame Synchronization. It can therefore, after initially locking on to a BCCH, determine when the next relevant information is to be transmitted. This allows the MS to go to sleep and listen-in only when necessary, with the effective saving in power usage. DRX may only be used when a MS is not in a call. When DRX is employed, the MS using information broadcast on the BCCH determines its paging group. The paging group may appear once during a control channel multiframe, or may only be scheduled to appear once over several multiframes the rate of repetition is determined by the network provider and it is this information which is broadcast over the BCCH, which allows the MS to determine its paging group. 4.1.1.4 Timing Advance To simplify the design of the MS, the GSM specifications specify an offset of three timeslots between the BSS and MS timing, thus avoiding the necessity for the MS to transmit and receive simultaneously. The synchronization of a TDMA system is critical because bursts have to be transmitted and received within the real time timeslots allotted to them. The further the MS is from the base station then, obviously, the longer it will take for the bursts to travel the distance between them. The GSM BTS caters for this problem by instructing
the MS to advance its timing (that is, transmit earlier) to compensate for the increased propagation delay. The timing advance information is sent to the MS twice every second using the SACCH. The maximum timing advance is approximately 233 ms, this caters for a maximum cell radius of approximately 35 km. 4.1.2 Mobility Management (MM) Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM network that allows mobile phones to work. The aim of mobility management is to track where the subscribers are, allowing calls, SMS and other mobile phone services to be delivered to them. Mobility Management Manages problem that arise from mobility of the subscriber. The ideal situation is when system always knows where the subscriber is located (what cell) in each moment. But this will cause the subscriber to update the system on every move, and this means a lot of obsolete update messages, wasting bandwidth. Another extreme situation is when system never knows subscribers position, but this will cause the system to look for the user over the whole geographical area, that means a lot of paging messages on every terminating call. Strategy used by GSM is as following, group of neighbour cells is grouped in one location area and subscriber updates its position when moving from one location area to another. Paging is done only in the current location area.
Figure 4.1:Registering to Mobile Switching Centre As seen from Figure 4.1, when a subscriber registers to MSC it sends registration message that contains subscribers information. MSC updates its VLR and sends a message to subscribers HLR. 4.1.2.1 Location Management: Location is managed through periodically or on-demand. At power-on time, the MS performs an IMSI attach. On-demand location updates are signalled when the MS moves to a different PLMN or new location area (LA). The signal is sent to the new MSC/VLR, which forwards it to the subscribers HLR. Upon authorization in the new MSC/VLR, the subscriber's HLR removes the registration entry of the MS at the old MSC/VLR. If after the update time interval, the MS has not registered, it is then deregistered. On power-off, the MS performs an IMSI detach.
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4.1.2.2 Security and authentication: Authentication involves the SIM card and the Authentication Centre. A secret key, stored in the SIM card and the AuC together with a ciphering algorithm called A3, are used to authenticate the user. The MN and the AuC compute a SRES through A3 using the secret key and a nonce generated by the AuC. If the two computed SRES are the same, the subscriber is authenticated. 4.1.3 Connection Management (CM) The CM component manages Call Control establish and terminate calls call related supplementary services Supplementary Services call forwarding / barring Number identification Charging SMS Sending and receiving of short messages
4.1.3.1 Call Control It controls call setup, management and tear-down in relation to management of type of service. Call routing is the primary task for this component. To reach a mobile subscriber, a user dials the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN) number which includes: Country code National destination code; this identifies the subscriber's operator Code mapping to the subscriber's HLR.
The call is then passed to the GMSC (if the call is originated from a fixed network) that 'knows' the HLR corresponding to the particular MSISDN number. The GMSC signals the HLR for call routing information.
Figure 4.2. Paging process
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The HLR requests this information from the subscriber's current VLR. This VLR allocates temporarily a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the call. The MSRN number is the information returned by the HLR to the GMSC. It is the latter that routes the call through the MSRN number, to the subscriber's current MSC/VLR. 4.1.4 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM) The OAM component allows the operator to monitor and control the system as well as modify the configuration of the elements of the system. Not only the OSS is part of the OAM, but also the BSS and NSS participate in functions such as: Provide the operator with all the information it needs. This information is forwarded to the OSS to control the network. Perform self-test tasks in addition to the OAM functions. Control of multiple BTSs by the BSS
4.2 Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU) Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit, or TRAU, performs transcoding function for speech channels and RA (Rate Adaptation) for data channels in the GSM network.
Figure 3.2: Location of TRAU in GSM network

The Transcoder/Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU) is the data rate conversion unit. The PSTN/ISDN switch is a switch for 64 kbps voice. Current technology permits to decrease the bit-rate (in GSM radio interface it is 13 Kbit/s for full rate and 6.5 Kbit/s for half rate). Since MSC is basically a PSTN/ISDN switch its bit-rate is still 64 Kbit/s. That is why a rate conversion is required in between the BSC and MSC Analyser is used to non-intrusively monitor TRAU frames at the A-bis interface (BTS to BSC links), and A-ter interface (BSC to MSC links). Application can automatically detect and capture TRAU frames of half rate (HR-8 kbps) or full rate (FR-16 kbps). Various codecs such as FR, EFR, HR and Data are used for compression/decompression of speech. TRAU frames are decoded as per the GSM specifications. Analysis of TRAU calls, including detail statistics, wave graph, oscilloscope, spectral display for various codecs can be done using TRAU Packet Data Analysis (PDA) feature. It also allows users to play voice files to speaker, write speech data to a file, filter calls, detect digits and view graphs such as Active Calls, and Traffic Monitoring to identify Full Rate and Half Rate traffic with traffic type and direction in a pictorial format. A-bis Signalling can be monitored using GSM Analyser. Traffic Analyser Detail View allows the user to have a detail look at one (or two) TRAU sessions that are part of a single call. The view is divided into two parts, which assists in any comparisons to be made between the two sessions.
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CHAPTER FIVE FEATURES OF GSM
5.1 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital radio communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital modulation while still using the spectrum efficiently. GMSK modulation has been most widely used is the GSM cellular technology which is used worldwide. GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of continuous-phase frequency-shift keying. One of the problems with standard forms of PSK is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its derivative GMSK can be used. MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate. This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index.
Figure 5.1: Signal using MSK modulation A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well beyond a bandwidth equal to the data rate. This can be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter prior to applying it to the carrier. The requirements for the filter are that it should have a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse response should show no overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a Gaussian shaped response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal is converted to GMSK modulation.
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5.2 Call Routing Unlike routing in the fixed network, where a terminal is semi-permanently wired to a central office, a GSM user can roam nationally and even internationally. The directory number dialled to reach a mobile subscriber is called the Mobile Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN), which is defined by the E.164 numbering plan. The MSISDN is the dial able number that callers use to reach a mobile subscriber. Some phones can support multiple MSISDNs - for example, a Tanzania-based MSISDN and a Kenya-based MSISDN. Callers dialling either number will reach the subscriber. This number includes a country code and a National Destination Code which identifies the subscriber's operator. The first few digits of the remaining subscriber number may identify the subscriber's HLR within the home PLMN. An incoming mobile terminating call is directed to the Gateway MSC (GMSC) function. The GMSC is basically a switch which is able to interrogate the subscriber's HLR to obtain routing information, and thus contains a table linking MSISDNs to their corresponding HLR. A simplification is to have a GSMC handle one specific PLMN. It should be noted that the GMSC function is distinct from the MSC function. The routing information that is returned to the GMSC is the Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN). MSRNs are related to the geographical numbering plan, and not assigned to subscribers, nor are they visible to subscribers. The most general routing procedure begins with the GMSC querying the called subscriber's HLR for an MSRN. The HLR typically stores only the SS7 address of the subscriber's current VLR, and does not have the MSRN. The HLR must therefore query the subscriber's current VLR, which will temporarily allocate an MSRN from its pool for the call. This MSRN is returned to the HLR and back to the GMSC, which can then route the call to the new MSC.
Figure 5.2: Call Routing
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5.3 Frequency Reuse The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must use different frequencies; however there is no problem with two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the same frequency. The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse factor.
Figure 5.3: Frequency Reuse in Cells 5.4 Mobile Communications Mobile communications are usually allocated bands in the 50MHz to 1GHz band. At these frequencies the effects of scattering and shadowing are significant. Lower frequencies would improve this performance, but HF bandwidth is not available for this purpose. The primary problems associated with mobile communication at these frequencies are: Maintaining transmission in the fading circumstances of mobile communication. The extensive investigation of propagation characteristics required prior to installation.
Mobile communication works by limiting transmitter powers. This restricts the range of communication to a small region. Outside this region, other transmitters can operate independently. Each region is termed a cell. These cells are often represented in diagrams as hexagons.
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Within each cell, the user communicates with a transmitter within the cell. As the mobile approaches a cell boundary, the signal strength fades, and the user is passed on to a transmitter from the new cell. Each cell is equipped with cell-site(s) that transmit/receive to/from the mobile within the cell. Within a single cell, a number of channels are available. These channels are (usually) separated by frequency. Then a mobile initiates a call, it is assigned an idle channel within the current cell by the Mobile-Services Switching Centre (MSC). He/she uses the channel within the cell until he/she reaches the boundary. He/she is then allocated a new idle channel within the next cell. The great strength of this type of network is the ease with which more channels may be introduced. As demand rises, one simply reduces the cell size. Then the same number of channels is available in a smaller area, increasing the total number of channels per unit area. In a well-planned system, the density of cells would reflect the user density. The heart of the mobile telephone network is the MSC. Its task is to acknowledge the paging of the user, assign him/her a channel, broadcast his/her dialled request and return the call. In addition it automatically monitors the signal strength of both transmitter and receiver, and allocates new channels as required. This latter process, known as hand-off, is completely hidden to the user, although is a major technical problem. In addition, the MSC is responsible for charging the call. 5.5 GSM Channel Structure A channel corresponds to the recurrence of one burst every frame. It is defined by its frequency and the position of its corresponding burst within a TDMA frame. In GSM there are two types of channels: The traffic channels used to transport speech and data information. The control channels used for network management messages and some channel maintenance tasks.
5.5.1 Traffic channels (TCH) Full-rate traffic channels (TCH/F) are defined using a group of 26 TDMA frames called a 26-Multiframe. The 26-Multiframe lasts consequently 120 ms. in this 26-Multiframe structure, the traffic channels for the downlink and uplink are separated by 3 bursts. As a consequence, the mobiles will not need to transmit and receive at the same time which simplifies considerably the electronics of the system. The frames that form the 26-Multiframe structure have different functions: 24 frames are reserved to traffic. 1 frame is used for the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH). The last frame is unused. This idle frame allows the mobile station to perform other functions, such as measuring the signal strength of neighbouring cells.
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Half-rate traffic channels (TCH/H), which double the capacity of the system, are also grouped in a 26-Multiframe but the internal structure is different 5.5.2 Control channels According to their functions, four different classes of control channels are defined: Broadcast channels. Common control channels. Dedicated control channels. Associated control channels.
5.5.2.1 Broadcast channels (BCH): The BCH channels are used, by the base station, to provide the mobile station with the sufficient information it needs to synchronize with the network. Three different types of BCHs can be distinguished: The Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), which gives to the mobile station the parameters needed in order to identify and access the network The Synchronization Channel (SCH), which gives to the mobile station the training sequence needed in order to demodulate the information transmitted by the base station The Frequency-Correction Channel (FCCH), which supplies the mobile station with the frequency reference of .the system in order to synchronize it with the network
5.5.2.2 Common Control Channels (CCCH): The CCCH channels help to establish the calls from the mobile station or the network. Three different types of CCCH can be defined: The Paging Channel (PCH). It is used to alert the mobile station of an incoming call. The Random Access Channel (RACH), which is used by the mobile station to request access to the network. The Access Grant Channel (AGCH). It is used, by the base station, to inform the mobile station about which channel it should use. This channel is the answer of a base station to a RACH from the mobile station
5.5.2.3 Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH) The DCCH channels are used for message exchange between several mobiles or a mobile and the network. Two different types of DCCH can be defined: The Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH), which is used in order to exchange signalling information in the downlink and uplink directions.
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The Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH). It is used for channel maintenance and channel control.
5.5.2.4 Associated Control Channels: The Fast Associated Control Channels (FACCH) replaces all or part of a traffic channel when urgent signalling information must be transmitted. The FACCH channels carry the same information as the SDCCH channels. 5.6 Burst Structure The burst is the unit in time of a TDMA system. Four different types of bursts can be distinguished in GSM: The frequency-correction burst is used on the FCCH. It has the same length as the normal burst but a different structure. The synchronization burst is used on the SCH. It has the same length as the normal burst but a different structure. The random access burst is used on the RACH and is shorter than the normal burst. The normal burst is used to carry speech or data information. It lasts approximately 0.577 ms and has a length of 156.25 bits. Its structure is given by:
Figure 5.4: Burst Structure
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The tail bits (T) are a group of three bits set to zero and placed at the beginning and the end of a burst. They are used to cover the periods of ramping up and down of the mobile's power. The coded data bits correspond to two groups, of 57 bits each, containing signalling or user data. The stealing flags (S) indicate, to the receiver, whether the information carried by a burst corresponds to traffic or signalling data. The training sequence has a length of 26 bits. It is used to synchronize the receiver with the incoming information, avoiding then the negative effects produced by a multipath propagation. The guard period (GP), with a length of 8.25 bits, is used to avoid a possible overlap of two mobiles during the ramping time. 5.7 Error Protection and Detection To protect the logical channels from transmission errors introduced by the radio path, many different coding schemes are used. The coding and interleaving schemes depend on the type of logical channel to be encoded. All logical channels require some form of convolutional encoding, but since protection needs are different, the code rates may also differ. Three coding protection schemes: Speech Channel Encoding The speech information for one 20 ms speech block is divided over eight GSM bursts. This ensures that if bursts are lost due to interference over the air interface the speech can still be accurately reproduced. Common Control Channel Encoding 20 ms of information over the air will carry four bursts of control information, for example BCCH. This enables the bursts to be inserted into one TDMA multiframe. Data Channel Encoding The data information is spread over 22 bursts. This is because every bit of data information is very important. Therefore, when the data is reconstructed at the receiver, if a burst is lost, only a very small proportion of the 20 ms block of data will be lost. The error encoding mechanisms should then enable the missing data to be reconstructed.
5.7.1 Interleaving Having encoded, or error protected the logical channel, the next step is to build its bit stream into bursts that can then be transmitted within the TDMA frame structure. It is at this stage that the process of interleaving is carried out. Interleaving spreads the content of one traffic block across several TDMA timeslots. The following interleaving depths are used:
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Speech 8 blocks Control 4 blocks Data 22 blocks
This process is an important one, for it safeguards the data in the harsh air interface radio environment. Because of interference, noise, or physical interruption of the radio path, bursts may be destroyed or corrupted as they travel between MS and BTS, a figure of 1020% is quite normal. The purpose of interleaving is to ensure that only some of the data from each traffic block is contained within each burst. By this means, when a burst is not correctly received, the loss does not affect overall transmission quality because the error correction techniques are able to interpolate for the missing data. If the system worked by simply having one traffic block per burst, then it would be unable to do this and transmission quality would suffer. It is interleaving that is largely responsible for the robustness of the GSM air interface, enabling it to withstand significant noise and interference and maintain the quality of service presented to the subscriber.
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CHAPTER SIX GSM CELLULAR REPEATERS

6.1 Introduction to Repeaters 6.1.1 System Introduction A cellular repeater, cell phone repeater, or wireless cellular signal booster, a type of bidirectional amplifier (BDA) as commonly named in the wireless telecommunications industry, is a device used for boosting the cell phone reception to the local area by the usage of a reception antenna, a signal amplifier and an internal rebroadcast antenna. These are similar to the cellular broadcast towers used for broadcasting by the network providers, but are much smaller, usually intended for use in one building. Modern cellular repeater amplifiers rebroadcast cellular signals inside the building. The systems usually use an external, directional antenna to collect the best cellular signal, which is then transmitted to an amplifier unit which amplifies the signal, and retransmits it locally, providing significantly improved signal strength. The more advanced models often also allow multiple cell phones to use the same repeater at the same time, so are suitable for commercial as well as home use. Most of the Cellular repeaters supports the following mobile systems: GSM, DCS and WCDMA systems. Repeaters overcome the attenuation caused by propagation loss and obstacles. Repeater solutions are used in many different applications, such as basements, apartments, parking lots and highway, mountain areas etc., where mobile phone signals cannot penetrate. Extending radio coverage into these dead zones, using the repeater, allows mobile phones to establish connections. 6.1.2 General Repeater Solutions Outdoor Application
Figure 6.1 Outdoor Application

Above provides a typical installation layout of an outdoor project. The repeater is connected via coaxial cables to donor and service antennas. The donor antenna is placed in one side of the mountain to receive 2G and 3G signals. The service antenna is placed in the other side, pointing to the coverage area to make the coverage. By taking advantage of the mountain between them, the isolation requirement can be met. Mobile signals then can be transmit via the service antenna, repeater and donor antenna to the donor BTS.
Indoor Application Below is the example of repeaters indoor application. The Yagi antenna is used as donor antenna, and it is placed outside of the building where it has easy access to the donor 2G and 3G. Signals from the donor BTS and donor Node B are then introduced into the repeater. After amplification by the repeater, signals are divided into several parts by splitters and sent to the service antennas. The service antennas are placed inside the building where it can extend radio coverage to the dead zones. By the same way, mobile signals are sent back to the BTS.
Figure 6.2 Indoor Application
6.2 GSM Booster or RF Repeater The repeater system is a two-way amplifier that provides booster performance to extend the coverage of a radio communications in buildings, basements and other RF shadow areas. The Repeater receives signals from one antenna, amplifies them and transmits through the other antenna. This enlarges coverage of cellular base stations
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Features such as high linearity amplifier characteristics, and sharp out of band rejection duplexers, assist in avoiding interfering signals & makes it an ideal solution The repeater system is a two-way amplifier that provides booster performance to extend the coverage of radio communications in buildings, basements and other RF shadow areas. The Repeater receives signals from one antenna, amplifies them and transmits through the other antenna. This enlarges coverage of cellular base stations for in-building installation. A RF repeater is a bi-directional amplifier that allows for the reception of RF signals, amplifies the signal and re-transmits into areas where there is no or very low signal level coverage enabling a mobile user to establish a call connection. For outdoor areas, BTSs generally have low utilization of capacity. The surplus capacity can be re-directed to other poor signal coverage area through implementation of a RF repeater. RF repeater can be deployed in towns and rural areas where there are relatively lower numbers of mobile subscribers. In comparison to a BTS installation, a RF repeater can virtually be installed anywhere that provides a suitable mounting area with a power supply, therefore eliminating the need for an equipment room. RF Cellular Repeater system is designed to solve problems of weak mobile cellular signal, which is much cheaper than adding a new Base Station (BTS). Main operation of RF Repeaters system is to receive low-power cellular signal from BTS via radio frequency (RF) transmission and then transmit the amplified signal to the areas where network coverage is inadequate. And the mobile signal is also amplified and transmitted to the BTS via the opposite direction.
According to your requirement for working frequency, you can choose either type of RF Repeaters: Band Selective RF Repeaters System: to amplify all signals in the whole band (Various bandwidth is available depending on your needs) Wireless Channelized RF Repeaters System: to amplify only the signals transmitted by the customized 1 or 2 or 4 or 6 or 8 channel (A narrow band with customized central frequency)
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6.2.1 GSM Booster basic Components
Figure 6.3: Typical GSM Booster Application Donor Antenna Donor antenna communicates with the base station site. This antenna receives the downlink signal from BS and transmit it to the repeater box and vice versa in the uplink. Recommendations: Always use a high gain and a narrow beam antenna. Narrow beam provides both good suppression of unwanted sites and also a strong and clear donor signal from the selected sight. Try to get an antenna with a good front to back ratio. This will help a bit to reduce oscillation chances. Parabolic and Yagi are a good choice for donor antenna.
Coaxial Cable: This is also a key parameter used during the installation of repeater sites. Size of the cable is totally dependent on the installation site and link budget. For small home repeaters usually a thin 1/4 cable is used but for most of the installations 1/2 cable is used. Recommendations: No sharp bends for cable as this will result in bad VSWR. Use special tools for proper connector mounting otherwise this will result in bad VSWR resulting in poor signal quality. Use factory made jumpers if needed. If aesthetic or installation is not an issue then try using the thick cable which will result in low signal losses. This also depends on your link budget.
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Service Antenna Service antenna is usually connected to the output port of the repeater. This antenna is used to receive and send signal to the mobile phones in the repeater coverage area. Selection of the service antenna is purely dependent on the required coverage area. Key selection criteria are horizontal beam width, gain, front to back ratio and size etc. Usually repeaters do not support diversity, so vertical polarized antenna is an obvious choice in most cases.
6.3 Fiber Optic Repeater A fiber optical repeater is a combination of a RF repeater and optical transceiver modules enabling signal transmission through fiber optical cables to achieve coverage into low signal areas over a fiber distance of 20km. Consisting of a master and remote unit(s), the master unit is usually installed at the BTS site where the RF signal is coupled from the BTS. From the master unit, the RF signal is converted to an optical signal for transmission over the fiber cable to the remote unit. The remote unit receives the optical signal and re-coverts the optical signal back to a RF signal. The signal is then amplified to a higher power level for transmission to the mobile in the low signal coverage area. From the mobile, the signal will be transmitted back to the BTS through the reverse process. Fiber Optical Repeater is an ideal solution for areas where the geography does not allow for line of sight between the BTS and repeater, the intended coverage area is far from the BTS or for high-rise indoor coverage extension. Typically application areas include villages or sightseeing areas in the mountains, rural or farming areas, underground subways and high-rise building to building groups 6.4 Frequency Shift Repeater A Frequency Shifting Repeater is a combination of two RF repeaters with built-in frequency translating modules enabling the original frequency to be shifted to a new frequency used as the transmission link between the two repeaters. One of the RF repeater is called Master Repeater and the other is called Remote Repeater. The Master Repeater unit is installed next to the BTS where the signal is coupled from the BTS. Following frequency shifting, the signals are transmitted on a link antenna and received at the remote unit where signals are shifted back to the original frequencies. Finally, the signals are amplified in the remote unit and then transmitted on a service antenna. By shifting the frequency, the isolation requirements are reduced. In other words, the necessary separation between the pick-up and service antennas at remote site can be low, which means short masts can be used. As the isolation is much easier to achieve through operating on two different frequencies, the gain in the remote unit can be significantly increased so that higher output power is easier obtained and allows the use of antenna(s) to cover 360 degrees at the remote area.
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This equipment can be implemented in large areas including lakes, tunnels, highways, small islands, visiting spots, or rural areas. 6.5 Deployment of Frequency Shift Repeaters The deployment of Frequency Shifting repeaters for the most part provides operator with the cost-effective solution for coverage extension of indoor or outdoor applications, or to provide coverage to blind areas where communication cannot be established. 6.5.1 System Overview In GSM mobile communication system, limited by the coverage of base station or by geographic environment, the transmission of signals may be influenced by shadow or semi-shadow in some areas, generally referred to as dead zone or semi-dead zone, bringing serious impact on voice quality or even causing failure to normal communication. To solve this problem, apart from adding more base stations, the deployment of mobile communication repeater, characterized by quick expansion of coverage and reduction of cost, shall be an ideal cost-effective choice of high efficiency. Frequency Shifting Repeater of mobile communications is an important tool to expand network coverage, reduce network cost and realize network optimization. Frequency Shifting Repeater of GSM mobile communications is meant to amplify communication signal, extend network coverage, to improve communication quality by amplifying some weak received signals and expanding the signal coverage and to distribute traffic load in various base stations with efficiency. In the course of network optimization, Frequency Shifting Repeater of GSM mobile communications offers a wide variety of application. In some areas, such as satellite cities of some large cities, remote residential areas, countries and towns or other dead zones or shadow areas formed due to the natural or human obstacles (such as high mountains, large buildings, tunnels or underground stores), Frequency Shifting Repeater of GSM mobile communications shall be the most economical and reasonable solution to the effective coverage of these networks since these areas are demanding a greater coverage rather than capacity. Frequency Shifting Repeater of GSM mobile communications is cheap with easy installation. It will greatly reduce the investment in equipment and running cost to expand the network by Frequency Shifting Repeater. Frequency Shifting Repeater provides operators with multiple solutions that can save the investment in equipment and running maintenance cost without lowering the network quality. As a supplement to GSM base stations, in the areas with some dead zones, the coverage of GSM network can be easily expanded to the dead zones that need covering to solve the problem of coverage. In some areas with tough conditions, Frequency Shifting Repeater of mobile communications is characterized by its strong adaptability, quick construction and high sound quality. It can cover the entire coverage area. Frequency Shifting Repeater of mobile communications can solve the problem remote areas, highways, railways and airport. In the areas where the frequency of the base station is not used, the extra
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communication capacity can be transmitted to other areas so that equipment shall be fully used. 6.5.2 Scope of Application of the Equipment Applicable to airport, stations, mountain area, railway lines, holiday village, tourist areas, large-scale industry and mining enterprises, remote residential areas, countryside and dead zones and shadow areas of mobile communication. Especially it is important for the area where the wireless signal environment is very complex and putting the optical fiber is very difficult. 6.5.3 Basic Principle The style of network grouping of GSM Frequency Shifting Repeater is flexible and in variety according to the real situation. The basic ways are as follows: Using such a repeater, the Master repeater will receive the coupled signal by cable or RF signal by air from Base Station service antenna, and the received signal will be sent into filter to clear out the useless signal. Then the signal will be shifted to the other frequency and amplified to the signal with the same frequency and high power, the power range is from 1W to 30W based on the type of High Power Amplifier (HPA). Then the link antenna will send the signal to the remote unit. The remote unit will shift the signal back to the original frequency and amplify it. By the service antenna of remote repeater, the amplified RF signal will be used to covering the dead zones. Just as the figure 6.4 shown.
Figure 6.4a: The basic principle of Frequency Shifting Repeater
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Figure 6.4b: The basic principle of Frequency Shifting Repeater
6.5.4 Basic System Components Feeder Cable Feeder Cables are used to transfer radio frequency signal between frequency shifting repeater and antenna. There are different sizes of feeder cables. The longer the distance between the equipment and the antennas is, the greater is the loss of signal. In larger dimensioned feeder cables more signal can be carried further. To compensate for the loss, larger dimensioned feeder cables are used. Thus the resistance, and in turn the loss, in the cable becomes lessened.
Figure 6.5: Feeder Cables
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Jumper Cables Jumper cables have the flexible characteristic and they provide an easy way to connect antennas, splitters and repeaters to Feeder cables.
Figure 6.6: Jumper Cables Feeder Clamps Feeder cable clamp (stainless steel hanger) is mainly used for the fixation between RF cable and tower, and cable ladder, which is mainly composed of stainless steel and antiultraviolet plastics and anti-old rubber, and can be used in different ranges of temperatures.
Figure 6.7: Feeder Clamps Splitters Splitters are isolated dividers that split or combine RF power. According to the coverage requirement, splitter can distribute RF power into several paths to achieve coverage of each area. In the meantime, mobile signals from different coverage areas are combined together and transmitted into the repeater.
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Figure 6.8: 3 way Splitter
RF Dummy Load and RF Attenuator RF Dummy Load is a resistive component that absorbs all the output power of a RF Transmitter in order to simulate working conditions for test purposes.
Figure 6.9: 20W Dummy Load RF attenuators reduce the level of the signal. This may be required to protect a stage from receiving a signal level that is too high, an attenuator may be used to provide an accurate impedance match as most fixed attenuators offer a well-defined impedance, or attenuators may be used in a variety of areas where signal levels need to be controlled.
Figure 6.10: 20dB RF Attenuator
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Directional coupler Coupler is a device which two transmission lines pass close enough to each other for energy propagation on one line to the other line. A directional coupler normally splits an input signal into two unequal amplitude outputs.
Figure 6.11: Directional Coupler 6.6 Repeater Installation 6.6.1 Preparation 1. Ensure the power to be accessed is within the repeaters working range: AC 220V for remote unit and DC -48V for Master unit. A separate circuit breaker is recommended. 2. Ensure theres sufficient isolation between the donor and service antennas. 3. Ensure there are adequate resources to handle the weight of the repeater. 4. Its recommended to prepare some jumper cables. 5. Repeater used for outdoor installation is water resistant, but it is possible that the repeaters performance may be influenced by weather factors such as temperature and humidity. It is suggested to install the repeater in an indoor location with good draught. If the repeater needs to be installed outdoor, ensure that there is good draught and will not face direct sunlight and in a location that stays within - 25 to 55 . 6.6.2 Antenna Installation 6.6.2.1 Donor Antenna Donor Antenna Selection There are many types of antennas but the following general characteristics should be met in selecting any donor antenna: 1. Working frequency: The donor antenna needs to be compatible with the repeaters operating frequency range. 2. Directivity characteristic: An antenna with good directivity is recommended, it is essential for the repeater to introduce a clean donor signal to amplify. 3. Waterproof: The donor antenna needs to be waterproof to prevent rainwater from affecting the antennas characteristics, ultimately affecting the performance of the repeater. 4. For outdoor repeater, antennas front to back ratio must be higher than 20dB to assure excellent isolation on the site.
5. Recommended donor antennas: Indoor Coverage: Yagi Antenna Outdoor Coverage: Parabolic Antenna, Corner Reflected Antenna Donor Antenna installation In most cases the donor antenna is installed against a wall, outside of the building, directed in the direction of the donor BTS for best reception of the receiving signal. When installing the donor antenna, the following conditions need to be considered: 1. The antenna is recommended to be installed where donor BTS is in line of sight. 2. The donor antenna should be installed at least 3 meters above the ground to avoid shadowing when objects pass in the front of the donor antenna. Its recommended to install the donor antenna lower than 7th floor of any building. The antenna located in a high floor will be difficult to obtain a dominant BTS signal nearby. 3. A lightning rod is necessary when the donor antenna is located at a relative high position. 4. On the other hand, an arrestor could be connected between repeater and donor antenna for better protection. The lightning rod and arrestor can be neglected only if the donor antenna is located at a relative low position, comparing with the height of nearby lightning rods of buildings. If the input signal of donor antenna is sufficient, it's recommended to mount the donor antenna as lower as possible. 5. Waterproofing of the antenna installation can be achieved by following process: Take care to form a half loop at the cable point of entry into the house so that rain water will drop off than flowing inside down the cable length. Also form a half loop for the coaxial cable before connecting to the repeater. Secure the cable entry point, donor antennas connector and repeaters connector by sealing it with a waterproof sealant is recommended. 6.6.2.2 Service Antenna Service Antenna Selection There are many types of antennas but the following general characteristics should be met in selecting any service antenna: 1. Working frequency: The service antenna needs to be compatible with the repeaters operating frequency range. 2. Half-power Beam width: Select the antenna with suitable half-power beam width according to the coverage area. 3. For outdoor coverage, the service antenna need meet the other two conditions below: Waterproof and excellent Front-to-back Ratio. The antenna needs to be waterproof to prevent rainwater from affecting the antennas characteristics, ultimately affecting the performance of the repeater. At the meantime, the front to back ratio needs to be higher than 20dB to assure enough isolation of the site.
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4. For indoor coverage, a broadband antenna, which can support the frequency range of 824~2200MHz, are selected to be compatible to all systems. 5. Recommended service antennas: Indoor Project: Indoor omni-directional antenna, indoor panel antenna Outdoor Project: Parabolic Antenna, Corner Reflected Antenna, Outdoor Panel Antenna Service Antenna Installation It is necessary to find a good location for the service antenna in order to achieve best coverage. For indoor coverage, the following conditions needs to be considered: 1. Avoid installing near metal or obstacles that may influence its coverage performance. 2. Install the antenna at least 2m above the floor for the best coverage and for the convenience of passers-by. 3. The service antenna should not be installed close to the donor antenna to avoid isolation issues. For outdoor coverage, the conditions below need to be considered: 1. Avoid installing near trees or other obstacles that may influence its coverage performance. 2. The service antenna should not be installed too close to the donor antenna to avoid issues with isolation. The angle between donor antenna direction and service antenna direction needs to be greater than 90 degrees. The best condition is when the donor and service antennas are installed in opposite direction. 3. When installing the service antenna in a relatively high location, lightning arrestors are necessary. Grounding of arrestor and antenna is essential. 4. Waterproofing of service antennas connector with sealant is highly recommended. Also form a half loop for the coaxial cable before connecting to the repeater. 6.6.2 Isolation Isolation is an important concept when it comes to implement a repeater system, especially for outdoor project. There must be sufficient isolation within the repeater system, which means there must be enough distance and obstacles between the donor and service antennas, and their direction is recommended to be opposite. The propagation loss between the antennas needs to be at least 15dB above the gain value used by the repeater. Non-compliance to this criterion can result in poor signal to the coverage area and may damage the amplifier of the repeater. 6.6.2.1 Self Oscillation Isolation is the attenuation value from the repeaters output port to its input port. For a wireless repeater, insufficient isolation between donor and service antennas will result in self-oscillation.
Figure 6.12: Self Oscillation As shown in the above diagram, the donor antenna receives a RF signal f1 from the Donor BTS, after amplification by the repeater with a gain G, the signal radiates out via the service antenna. Part of f1 (f1) radiates back towards the donor antenna (due to side lobe characteristics of antennas) and is picked up by the donor antenna again and goes through the amplification process again. Severe self-oscillation issue result in poor signal quality and at times it can damage the repeaters amplifiers. To prevent self-oscillation from occurring, the isolation value must be at least 15dB above the repeater gain.
6.7 Advantages of Repeaters Optimization During BTS coverage optimization, full coverage cannot always be achieved because of shadowing and blind spots. If optimization is carried out by simply adjusting antenna direction or height, the process can be tedious and a long process of trial and error until the required coverage is achieved. The process can be time consuming and most times indoor coverage are not achieved. With repeaters, separate optimization is carried out while the whole interrelated parameters between systems remain unaffected. Same Service Quality with Low investment When coverage needs to be extended or optimized, installing a new BTS or micro cell may not be always the best solution and economical. In most cases a repeater will be the best solution that will provide the same service quality at a relatively lower cost. Fast & easy Installation Compared to a Base Station, wireless repeaters is space saving and does not need additional wiring. Its installation simplicity and operational user friendliness appeal greatly to many operators for the purpose of rural coverage or use of temporary coverage during network optimization.
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CONCLUSION
During the period of Evolution of mobile communication technologies various systems were introduced and deployed to achieve standardization in mobile industry, but all the efforts were failed. Multiple issues were sustained like incompatibility of systems, development of digital radio frequency. That is, when GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) Technology was introduced and problems like standardization, incompatibility etc. were overcame. GSM is now the largest mobile communication technology worldwide, all manufacturers of Mobile phones develop their products based on GSM, and all mobile companies provide their subscribers GSM networks. GSM technology facilitates with high speed integrated data, voice data, fax, mail, voice mail and mostly used SMS feature. GSM also make sure that all the communication made between networks are secured and protected from intruders and frauds. GSM actually brought the concept of being Mobile way beyond the limits. It enabled us to communicate across the continents. GSM supports multiple frequency levels like 900 MH and 1800 MHz which are used in Tanzania. Different frequency bands are used by different mobile phone operators. Moreover, there are over 700 GSM networks available in the world operating in their respective countries and providing international roaming services courtesy GSM technology. There are over 2 billion GSM subscribers in the world. Countries which are using GSM networks on larger scales are Russia, China Pakistan, United States and India. Given the above facts and very good voice quality, support useful services and standards, delivered by GSM, it is expected that GSM shall remain the prominent technology for offering the mobile telephony.
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APPENDIX
Abbreviations BDA BTS BSS CDMA DCS EDGE EMS GMSK ISDN MSIDN MSRN PLMN PSTN RF TRAU WCDMA WiMAX Bi directional Amplifier Base Transceiver Station Base Station System Code Division Multiple Access Digital Communication System Enhanced Data for Global Evolution Enhanced Messaging Services Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying Integrated Services Digital Network Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number Public Land Mobile Network Public Switched Telephone Network Radio Frequency Transcoder Rate Adaptation Unit Wideband Code Division Multiple Access Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
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Burst Structure42 Error Protection and Detection...43

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO ALNO TECHNOLOGIES LTD

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CHAPTER TWO GSM NETWORK SYSTEM

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CHAPTER THREE GSM ARCHITECTURE

Figure 3.1: General architecture of GSM network

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Figure 3.3 Typical Layout of BSS

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InterWorking Function IWF Echo Canceller EC

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