PAPER 4A

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet
Russell D. Kane
President iCorrosion LLC 2318 Huldy St Houston, TX 77019 USA T: 713-454-9400 E: russ.kane@icorr.net

Biography
Dr. Russell Kane is President of iCorrosion LLC and an internationally recognized materials and corrosion consultant with more than 30 years of experience in materials selection and corrosion mitigation for oil and gas and refining operations. He has BS and MS degrees and a PhD in metallurgy and materials science from Case Western Reserve University. A 36-year member of NACE, Kane received the NACE A.B. Campbell Award in 1977 and the ASTM Sam Tour Award in 2001.

Brian Chambers
Lead Engineer Technical Services Honeywell Corrosion Solutions 11201 Greens Crossing Blvd, Suite 700 Houston, TX 77067 USA T: 281-248-0705 E: brian.chambers@honeywell.com

sands. Cases will be presented of sulfidic corrosion and naphthenic acid corrosion and corrosion that involve interactions between these corrosion mechanisms that may decrease or increase corrosive tendencies. This presentation will also examine the alloying requirements for resistance to high temperature corrosion especially where 317L stainless steel and higher alloys may be required.

Keywords
refining corrosion naphthenic acid sulfidic corrosion corrosion prediction AISI 317L stainless steel nickel-based alloys

Abstract
There are few areas of industrial operation where assessment of corrosion is more complex than in refinery distillation. These processes involve multifarious corrosives predominated by sulfur species and naphthenic acid types that decompose and fractionate like the hydrocarbons that contain them. This presentation will review the mechanisms that characterize high temperature sulfidic and naphthenic acid corrosion. It will discuss the various corrosion prediction methodologies that have been developed and used for alloy selection and risk based inspection. Examples will be given that highlight corrosion in distillation of hydrocarbons from conventional crude sources as well as those derived from oil

Introduction
There are few areas of industrial operation where assessment of corrosion is more complex than in refinery distillation. These processes involves multifarious corrosives predominated by sulfur species and naphthenic acid types that decompose and fractionate like the hydrocarbons that contain them. Assessing corrosive severity and defining associated

ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM | CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS

137

PAPER 4A
material selection decisions for conditions that present themselves in refinery distillation circuits was approached for decades primarily based on empirical findings with a heavy emphasis on service experience with certain refinery feedstock crudes and blends in specific refineries and plant conditions. The reasons for this approach were twofold: 1. There was a lack of corrosion data available for well defined (and controlled) conditions that allowed a fundamental understanding of corrosion mechanisms involving combinations of naphthenic acid corrosion (NAC) and sulfidic corrosion. 2. There was also a lack of an accurate predictive model for NAC (as was the case for sulfidic corrosion) stemming from the inherent complexity of the NAC process involving various naphthenic acid species and their interaction with active sulfur species. In previous decades, refineries were run on long-term contracts for specific hydrocarbon feeds. This meant that refinery service experience could be readily utilized for materials selections and the selected material could be expected to resist conditions going forward just as they had done in past operations. However, present-day refineries are being operated with higher throughput and are often run on much shorter crude slate cycles. Refineries are also now presented with new crude oil sources (e.g. North Sea, Brazil, China), opportunity crudes and crudes that are derived from bituminous deposits in the oil sands of western Canada, all with varying levels of impurities (sulfur and/or naphthenic acid), and in some cases, with only limited refining experience. One major issue factoring into the complexity of these corrosion issues revolves around the capability to predict the dominant corrosion mechanism: A) sulfidic corrosion, B) naphthenic acid corrosion or C) corrosion that involves interactions between these corrosive species that may decrease or increase corrosive tendencies. This presentation will focus on defining the mechanisms of refinery high temperature corrosion and their role in defining the alloying requirements for corrosion resistance, and how this mechanistic knowledge can be used in improved methodologies for corrosion prediction and alloy selection. It will also

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

address service experience with AISI 317L stainless steel (the presumed corrosionresisting silver bullet in the eyes of many refinery and corrosion engineers).

Background
Crude corrosivity is non-aqueous corrosion that occurs in a temperature range of approximately 400-750F (204-399C) in the presence of crude oil or oil fractions that contain sufficient quantities of sulfur compounds and/or organic acids [1-5] . Crude corrosivity is controlled primarily by two high-temperature corrosion mechanisms naphthenic acid corrosion (NAC) and sulfidic corrosion. There are several parameters relevant to crude corrosivity including process temperature, vapor / liquid phase behavior, velocity and associated wall shear stress produced by flowing media, naphthenic acid content and characteristics, sulfur compound content and characteristics, and the materials of construction. Naphthenic acids, in terms of strict chemical definition, are a large class of organic acids containing cycloaliphatic rings; however, in the refining industry this class is expanded even further with the term naphthenic acids used to consider all organic acids with thermal stability relevant to crude oil distillation [1,5-8] . The mechanism of NAC is generally accepted as the dissolution of iron in the form of soluble iron-naphthenate from steels [6,8] . NAC is also known to dissolve sulfide or oxide scales from metal surfaces, exposing fresh metal to further naphthenic acid attack [4,5,9,10] . In this way, naphthenic acid attack can continue indefinitely at high rates when protective FeS surface films are removed in the form of ironnaphthenates or ruptured by high velocity flow and droplet impingement. Typically, organic acids with lower molecular weight are more corrosive [7,8,11-13] than higher molecular weight acid species and studies have demonstrated that naphthenic acids tend to be most corrosive as they approach their boiling point [13,14] ; the presence of multiple ring structures has also been shown to result in substantially lower corrosivity [12,13] . Alternatively, sulfidic corrosion occurs by the thermal activation of sulfur species at a given process temperature and the subsequent reaction of sulfur compounds

with materials of construction. The species susceptible to thermal activation under process temperatures are generally referred to as active (or reactive) sulfur and are the sulfur compounds of concern for crude corrosivity. Sulfidic corrosion is generally considered to be a general corrosion mechanism observed by the wastage of the material exposed to the sulfur containing oil, but sulfidic corrosion can be occasionally localized if acting in combination with high velocity flow [5,7,15] . Prediction of sulfidic corrosion by refiners is commonly accomplished using the Modified McConomy Curves for conditions involving low wall shear stress conditions induced by the flowing media [7,15,16] ; there are two general mechanisms that are considered in literature for sulfidic corrosivity. The first is the direct reaction of active sulfur species, like mercaptans, with metallic surfaces to form iron sulfide or iron and chrome sulfide spinels that result in corrosion of the metal [17] . The second is the thermal decomposition of active sulfur compounds to form H 2 S; the H 2 S then reacts with metal surfaces to form iron sulfide or iron and chrome spinels resulting in corrosion [2,7,15,17-19] . Certain papers suggest that active sulfur compounds are more corrosive than H 2 S gas because the active sulfur compounds catalytically decompose at metal surfaces creating locally high concentrations of H 2 S [17,18] . Unlike NAC, in most cases, sulfidic corrosion results in the formation of sulfide scales that have limited solubility in oil and are adherent to alloy surfaces, acting to protect the metal from further corrosion. Sulfide scales have been found to be beneficial for the inhibition of NAC [7,19,20] . At higher concentrations though, naphthenic acids have been found to modify, destabilize, or dissolve protective sulfide or oxide surface layers on metals [4,5,9,10,19,20] . At low sulfur levels, NAC has been noted to be particularly severe since protective sulfide scales are less likely to be present or adequately protective [4,7] . The delicate balance between sulfide scale inhibition and NAC is still not well understood and is a target of ongoing research. An example of a window of sulfidic corrosion inhibition of NAC is presented in Figure 1 which demonstrates the complex nature of the inhibition and dependence on active sulfur present [7,19] .

138

CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS | ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

PAPER 4A

Figure 1. Naphthenic acid corrosion of 9Cr Alloy Steel in a white oil with TAN 3.5 and 200 ft/sec jet at 343C (650F) impingement velocity as a function of active sulfur content [7,19] .

Corrosion Prediction Methodologies

Many refiners rely on prior service experience in processing the same or similar crude oils as the most reliable predictor of corrosion rates in the refining circuit. The limitation of this empirical approach is that the same or similar crude oil must be processed and process conditions need to be the same in order for the experience to be directly applicable. Along with specific processing experience, general rules for TAN and total sulfur values exist to guide the refiner. As refineries increasingly process more opportunity crudes or blends thereof, this experience and these general rules may prove inadequate. Some available prediction methodologies for crude corrosivity include tables available in API 581 [4] , Modified McConomy plots [7,15,16] , and prediction software Predict -Crude. Each of these prediction methodologies has

limitations and are briefly reviewed herein: Modified McConomy Curves The Modified McConomy curves are well established in the refining industry and are considered to be reasonably accurate for crude corrosivity in the absence of NAC or high flow-induced wall shear stress. The curves rely on total sulfur content for prediction of corrosion rates despite the poor correlation between total sulfur content and sulfidic corrosion tendency, a consequence of the variety of sulfur compounds and their extreme variability in thermal stability and driving force for corrosion. As noted, important limitations are that these curves do not address the effect of flow or wall shear stress or naphthenic acid content of the crude or particular oil fraction on corrosion. API 581 Appendix G This industry document presents a comprehensive set of data tables for assessment of corrosion risk (commonly used in the risk based inspection process) although the underlying

basis for those corrosion rates is not fully substantiated. At low TAN values, the bases for the corrosion assessments are the Modified McConomy curves [16] while at high TAN values, there is little or no comprehensive data basis for corrosion rate predictions as noted in the API 581 document [4] . Consequently, this approach in not recommended for use in materials selection (even though it may be useful for prioritizing inspection of equipment in refinery distillation service). The effect of high flow rates is addressed by the use of an over-simplified velocity multiplier for corrosion rate based on limited experiential information. Predict -Crude Model Predict -Crude is a software program and prediction model based on experimental assessment of crude corrosivity conducted under a joint industry program, a research effort that was co-funded and directed by several major petroleum and engineering companies. The model was developed from hundreds of

Predict is a registered trademark of honeywell international, inc.

ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM | CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS

139

PAPER 4A
experiments yielding an extensive database of corrosion rates under various simulated crude corrosivity conditions. In order to provide a comparison between these available prediction methodologies, the methods were used to predict the corrosion rates of several alloys in a vacuum gas oil (VGO) fraction previously evaluated in a hot oil flow loop. Figure 2 presents the results of the experimental hot oil flow loop evaluation and the previously mentioned prediction methods for a VGO with an acid content of approximately TAN 3 mg KOH/g and a total sulfur content of approximately 0.6 wt%. As shown in Figure 2, the prediction methods have varying accuracies compared to the

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

experimental data. The Modified McConomy predictions over-predict the corrosion rate of carbon steel and substantially under-predict the corrosion rates of the non-austenitic alloys; the lack of compensation in the McConomy predictions for acid content is noted as one of the limitations of this approach. The API 581 methodology over-predicts all alloy corrosion rates, providing a conservative prediction of corrosion rates, which explains its limitation in for materials selection. In comparison to the other models, Predict-Crude matches well with the experimental evaluation of VGO and would suggest that for certain crude fractions, important distinctions should be made for materials selection between the three prediction methodologies.

Applications of 317L Stainless Steel

Changes in the refining industry [24] toward new crude sources and opportunity crudes call into question the applicability of previously utilized simplified, time-tested models that have been accepted by users for corrosion prediction, materials selection, and determination of inspection intervals. In the case of oil sand derived bituminous feedstocks for refineries, they are expected to make up an increasing amount of the feed in North American refineries in years to come. Many of these feedstocks under consideration have high TAN values with the simultaneous presence of high

Figure 2. Comparison of laboratory corrosion rate data for VGO (TAN 3, 0.6 wt% S) and prediction methods from API 581, McConomy, and Predict-Crude.

60 163 mpy 50

Corrosion Rate (mpy)

40 Experimental - Crude VGO 30 Predictions API 581 20 Predict-Crude 10 McConomy 0 A182-F9 A182-F5 C1018 304L 316L 317L ANSI 410

Material

Predict is a registered trademark of honeywell international, inc.

140

CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS | ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

PAPER 4A

concentrations of organic sulfur species. A particular aspect of tar sand derived bituminous feedstocks noted in previous studies [6,7] is their different naphthenic acid structure than many of the conventional crudes used by refineries. The naphthenic acids present in these materials are commonly associated with an acidic component with higher molecular weight and boiling point ranges than found in many more conventional high TAN crude oils. Figure 3 [7] shows a comparison of the acids from a conventional crude oil (commonly referred to as Type A or Type acids) with those associated with tar sands derived feedstock materials (commonly referred to as Type B or Type acids). It is believed that the Type A acids are generally the most aggressive and have been the basis of the operating experience generally held by the refining sector that require AISI 317L stainless steel for NAC resistance. The Type B acids, by comparison, are generally considered to be more stable and therefore offer lower aggressivity in refinery distillation processes. Furthermore, there may be added protection from presence of high sulfur contents in the hydrocarbon feedstocks derived from oil sands. The sulfur in these materials appears to be both associated with high sulfur activity and the high molecular weight, Type B, naphthenic acids. Evidence suggests that organic sulfur species may in fact be intimately associated with the Type B naphthenic acids found in Canadian bituminous feedstocks, a situation that may also provide a natural inhibition of the NAC. All of these considerations suggest that the predominant corrosion mechanism in oil sands derived bituminous refinery feedstocks should be sulfidic corrosion; however, confirmation of this has been limited and subject to further work. Do the above-mentioned special qualities of these oil sands derived feedstocks offer an opportunity for the use of alloys lower than AISI 317L? Perhaps, but it is prudent to verify the extent of previously mentioned effects through thorough proper testing under simulated service conditions. By and large, the refining industry experience with 317L has been good. However, there has been documented service experience from multiple sources that highlight situations where 317L equipment has suffered significant corrosive attack. Such equipment

Figure 3. Agressivity vs. stability of napthenic acids as a function of molecular weights.

includes thermowells that protrude into the process flow which were reportedly attacked in vacuum distillation unit heaters and feed lines likely resulting from the highly turbulent flow or droplet impingement conditions [25] . Replacement of 317L thermowells with 904L, AL6XN or alloy 625 was made and reported to have good success. There was also a situation referenced that droplet condensation on vacuum tower internals can lead to corrosion even in 317L under very highly acid conditions. [25] However, the specific conditions resulting in these cases were not indicated. An indication of what type of conditions may cause corrosion in 317L was found in a crude oil from California with TAN 6.1 at 600F (371C) that had caused a failure in the vacuum unit transfer line, heat exchanger and inside the column. The materials were upgraded to 904L (a 4% Mo alloy) and AL6XN (a 6% Mo alloy) and were reported to perform well. [25] The interesting aspect of this situation is that the particular California crude in question, San Joaquin Valley (SJV), is one known from experience to contain highly aggressive Type A naphthenic acids and low levels of active sulfur, and therefore is expected to have a naturally high susceptibility to NAC and only limited inhibiting capability from sulfur species. In another case, a replacement transfer line (following corrosion) was specified to be made from AISI 317L having a minimum molybdenum content of 3.5 wt% (vs. the minimum 3 wt% molybdenum as per conventional 317 SS) and it was welded with the nickel-based alloy 625. There has also been successful experience using AISI 317LM with 4-5 wt% molybdenum for resistance to severe NAC. [25]

There is additional experience where a refinery was processing North Sea crudes with fractions containing TAN values from 2.5-3.0 and low total sulfur levels of 0.5-0.7 wt%. 317 stainless steel was used for the tower and internals for 10-15 years without problems and then experienced a corrosion problem. [25] The 317L was replaced but the corrosion continued. Suggestions were made [25] that the corrosion of 317L could be due to traces of organic salts or chlorides in the process stream that would be very deleterious to stainless steel and accelerate corrosive attack on the 317L. Gallo and Edmondson [23] reviewed the influence of molybdenum on NAC. Material selection of stainless steels with 2% Mo, 2.5% Mo, 3% Mo and 6% Mo were discussed along with available case histories of successes and failures with these alloys (Table 1). They categorized NAC on molybdenum bearing stainless steels (types manifested) as follows: SS Type I corrosion (pure naphthenic acid corrosion: little to no surface film protection) is severe corrosion of an active stainless steel with an insufficient molybdenum content leading to general corrosion, grooving or gouging, over the entire area subject to where the high velocity, turbulence, and/or condensation is observed. SS Type II corrosion (naphthenic acid corrosion: corrosion at defects in surface layer) has rates of attack that are moderate and commonly localized (pitting), resulting from NAC where TAN or temperature is elevated, but velocities are relatively low. An increase in velocity or local turbulence might cause a move to

ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM | CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS

141

PAPER 4A
Type I corrosion. SS Type III corrosion (naphthenic acid corrosion, inhibited by the surface film) is where operating conditions and material selection match and corrosion rates are

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

acceptable. An increase in temperature or TAN might cause a move to Type II corrosion while an increase in velocity or stream condensation might cause a move to Type I corrosion.

It is suspected that some of the cases referenced in Table 1 are from the same database reference previously herein. However, it is interesting to note that many of the failures referenced in Table 1 were from experience

Table 1. Summary of austenitic stainless steel naphthenic acid corrosion failures Location Year Equipment/ Piping Material & Description 316L Vacuum transfer line 316 liner in Vacuum column %Mo Feed TAN Temp. Condensing (Y/N) Velocity Corrosion Rate Corrosion Description

1 2

CA/Vacuum Flasher CA/Vacuum Flasher

SJV SJV

5.0 4.7

750F (399C) 560F (293C)

Yes Yes

100 ft/s <10 ft/s

5 mpy 15-20 in liner, 2040 in weld overlay with diluted Mo Corroded 5 mpy > 30 mpy at welds Used 904L

3 4 5

CA/Vacuum Flasher CA/Vacuum Flasher CA/Lube Oil Distilling

317 liner in Vacuum column 316L Hvy Flash Distillate Vacuum furnace outlet to column inlet reducer 316 Vacuum transfer line 317L Mitered elbow vacuum transfer line 1986 1994 316 vacuum transfer line 317L vacuum transfer line 2.1

SJV SJV SJV

4.7 4.7 1.8

560F (293C) 560F (293C) 645F (341C)

Yes Yes Yes

<10 ft/s 13 ft/s 180 ft/s

6 7

3 5-6

400-500 ft/s

Failed Failed in 4 months

8 9

3 5-6

400-500 ft/s

Failed Failed in 4 months at elbow

10

Vacuum Unit

1997

317 Column, transfer line, HEs

6.1

600F (293C)

Corrosion

Upgrade to AL6XN and 904L are working

11

Vacuum Unit

2007

317L vacuum bottoms pump

Heidrun

1.12.0

700F (371C)

No

Suffered fair corrosion in 6 years

142

CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS | ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

PAPER 4A
under many conditions involving naphthenic acid corrosion, there are conditions where it can be subject to degradation. AISI 317L appears most susceptible to corrosion under conditions of high naphthenic acid aggressivity (Type A naphthenic acids) and accompanying low levels of active sulfur in the process environment. AISI 317L has not shown to be nearly as susceptible to corrosion for conditions of high TAN conditions involving less aggressive Type B naphthenic acids in combination with high levels of active sulfur, a condition more typically found in refining hydrocarbon feeds derived from bituminous oil sands. Failures of 317L equipment used in refinery atmospheric and vacuum distillation service have been associated with conditions where: High TAN fractions have had suspected aggressive Type A naphthenic acids, low sulfur activity and high flow induced wall shear stress from high velocity flow, droplet impingement and local flashing. Excessive salts and organic chlorides were present in the process environment. Where the process environment contained excessive particulates (sand and fines). Some refinery applications involving naphthenic acid corrosion have required alloys with corrosion resistance and alloy content (particularly in terms of Ni, Cr, Mo) beyond conventional AISI 317L. These alloys include: 914L, AL6XN, and alloys 825, 625 and C-276.

with SJV crude oil fractions that are commonly known to be particularly aggressive from the standpoint of NAC (suggesting high natural naphthenic acid aggressivity and/or low sulfur activity) and not associated with conditions of NAC present along with high sulfur activity. To gain further information specifically on the limits of AISI 317L, a survey was conducted. In general, many refinery engineers (particularly those with experience with severe naphthenic acid service) did not believe that 317L was a silver bullet to mitigate all cases of NAC and particularly if it was involved with other degradation mechanisms. It was found that several West Coast refiners have used 904L, AL6XN and even higher nickel-based alloys in high velocity service with high TAN with low to intermediate levels of sulfur activity. This experience involves multiple facilities and multiple oil company sites in particularly aggressive areas such as vacuum transfer lines and feed zones of vacuum flash units involving high flow induced wall shear stress where damage to 317L had previously been observed. To gain further input on the experience with the use of equipment 317L in refinery atmospheric and vacuum distillation, a oneon-one survey was conducted with refinery engineering personal involved with corrosion and materials selection in these applications. [26] On the contrary, service experience gained from multiple refinery engineers dealing with high sulfur and/or TAN fractions combined with conditions of intermediate to high sulfur activity (such as Venezuelan crude oil feedstocks) indicated that AISI 317 L under has been good and in some cases were able to utilize lower alloy materials (9-12 Cr steel). Oil sand upgrader operations also include atmospheric and vacuum distillation units. They have reported corrosion issues with furnace tubing and transfer lines in atmospheric units in lower alloy materials that resulted in upgrades to nickel-based alloys such as alloy 800 or 825 and again later to 317 L at certain failure-prone locations. Some of these systems have experienced leaks and failures of return bends in furnace tubes and at other severe impingement points in vacuum units that employed 317L. This type of service is generally considered as involving high TAN and high sulfur conditions. However, it was found that these failures were not from NAC but from a different issue arising from

operational changes that produced increased piping velocities while also increasing carrythrough of fine particulates from the oil sands bitumen feed going to the unit. It should be noted that in oil sand upgrader applications there is an inherent issue of sand erosion (not found in conventional hydrocarbon refining) that can complicate service conditions and lead to a different mechanism that can accelerate corrosion in the high TAN operating environment. Erosion from fine particles entrained in the process stream is expected to more effectively remove normally protective sulfide films on the surfaces of equipment and piping than in cases involving the flowing liquid/gas media alone. Other potential high temperature corrosion issues associated with refining oil sands derived can arise from inadequate desalting. Bitumen feeds, particularly with TAN levels, cannot be desalted as effectively as conventional crudes leading to the potential for carryover of chloride salts into the distillation process which can also accelerate corrosion of stainless alloys, even 317L SS. More than one operator cited that this problem is something they are experiencing in Canadian oil sands derived feeds but with different interpretations and material recommendations. In some cases, alloy 825 appears to provide adequate corrosion protection, but in other cases, high nickel stainless steels (e.g. 904L, AL6XN) or higher nickel-based alloys (e.g. 625 and C276) may be required.

Conclusion
Based on the information and findings presented herein, the following conclusions were made: Common mechanisms of high temperature corrosion in refinery operations include naphthenic acid corrosion, sulfidic corrosion and interactions which can either accelerate or inhibit corrosion severity. Multiple corrosion prediction models are available with varying methodologies. Some are based on service experience and empirical data (McConomy and API 581) while a newer model is based on extensive data derived from corrosion testing under simulated process conditions. The service experience with AISI 317L suggests that while it is resistant to corrosion

References
3. W.A. Derungs, Naphthenic Acid Corrosion - An Old Enemy of the Petroleum Industry, Corrosion, Vol. 12, 1956, pp 617-622. 4. S. Tebbal and R. Kane, Review of Critical Factors Affecting Crude Corrosivity, Corrosion/96, Paper 96607, NACE International 1996. 5. R. Kane and M. Cayard, Understanding Critical Factors that Influence Refinery Crude Corrosiveness, Materials Performance, p. 48-54, July 1999. 6. RP-581, Risk Based Inspection, Base Resource Document, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 2003. 7. R. Kane, Corrosion in Petroleum

ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM | CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS

143

PAPER 4A
Refining and Petrochemical Operations, Corrosion: Environments and Industries, Metals Handbook, Vol. 13C, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 2006, pp 967-1014. 8. B. Messer, B. Tarleton, M. Beaton, and T. Phillips, New Theory for Naphthenic Acid Corrosivity of Athabasca Oil Sands Crudes, Corrosion/04, Paper 04634, NACE International, Houston, TX 2004. 9. B. Chambers and R. Kane, Refining High Acid Crudes: When is an Opportunity not an Opportunity?, Eurocorr 2008, Edinburgh, UK, September 2008. 10. A. Groysman, N. Brodsky, J. Pener, A. Goldis, and N. Savchenko, Study of Corrosiveness of Acidic Crude Oil and It's Fractions, Corrosion/05, Paper 05568, NACE International, Houston, TX 2005. 11. H. Craig, Naphthenic Acid Corrosion in the Refinery, Corrosion/95, Paper 95333, NACE International, Houston, TX 1995. 12. H. Craig, Temperature and Velocity Effects in Naphthenic Acid Corrosion, Corrosion/96, Paper 96603, NACE International, Houston, TX 1996. 13. M. Zetlmeisl, J. Harrel, and J. Campbell, Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Control, Hydrocarbon Engineering, March 2000, pp 41-45. 14. H. Dettman, N. Li, and J. Luo, Refinery

High Temperature Crude Oil Corrosivity: Where Sulfur and Naphthenic Acid Chemistry and Metallurgy Meet

Corrosion, Organic Acid Structure, and Athabasca Bitumen, Corrosion/09, Paper 09336, NACE International, Houston, TX 2009. 15. K. Lewis, M. Daane, and R. Schelling, Processing Corrosive Crude Oils, Corrosion/99, Paper 99377, NACE International, Houston, TX. 16. A. Groysman, N. Brodsky, J. Pener, and D. Shmulevich, Low Temperature Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Study, Corrosion/07, Paper 07569, NACE International, Houston, TX 2007. 17. L. Piehl, Correlation of Corrosion in a Crude Distillation Unit with Chemistry of the Crudes, Corrosion, June 1960, pp 305-308. 18. H. McConomy - High Temperature Sulfidic Corrosion in Hydrogen-Free Environments, API Proceedings 43, 1963, pp 78-96. 19. A. Couper and A. Dravnieks, High Temperature Corrosion by Catalytically Formed Hydrogen Sulfide, Corrosion 18, August 1962, pp 291-298. 20. A. Couper, High Temperature Mercaptan Corrosion of Steels, Corrosion 19, November 1963, pp 396-401. 21. R. Kane and M. Cayard, A Comprehensive Study on Naphthenic Acid Corrosion, Corrosion/02, Paper 02555, NACE International, Houston, TX 2002. 22. A. Turnbull, E. Slavcheva, and B. Shone,

Factors Controlling Naphthenic Acid Corrosion, Corrosion, 1998, Vol. 54, No. 11, p. 922-930. 23. M. Nugent and J. Dobis, Experience with Naphthenic Acid Corrosion in Low TAN Crudes, Corrosion/98, Paper 98577, NACE International, Houston, TX 1998. 24. D. Johnson, G. McAteer, and H. Zuk, The Safe Processing of High Naphthenic Acid Content Crude Oils: Refinery Experience and Mitigation Studies, Corrosion/03, Paper 03645, NACE International, Houston, TX 2003. 25. G. Gallo and J. Edmondson, The Effect of Molybdenum on Stainless Steels and Naphthenic Acid Corrosion Resistance, Corrosion/08, Paper 08555, NACE International, Houston, TX 2008. 26. Opportunity Crudes Report II: Technologies and Strategies for Meeting Evolving Market & Environmental Challenges, Hydrocarbon Publishing Company, online prospectus, http:// www.hydrocarbonpublishing.com/ ReportP/Prospectus-Opportunity Crudes II_2011.pdf. 27. REFINECOR 9.0 (database of refinery corrosion information exchange), TEG 205X, NACE International, Houston Texas, 2009. 28. R.D. Kane, Private Communication, iCorrosion LLC, Houston, Texas, 2011.
n n n

144

CORROSION SOLUTIONS CONFERENCE 2011 PROCEEDINGS | ATICORROSIONCONFERENCE.COM