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CONTRIBUTIONS OF EARLY MUSLIMS TO

THE FIELD OF EARTH SCIENCES


By: Dr. / Zaghloul El-Naggar

Despite the magnificent contributions of Early


Muslims to the field of Earth Sciences, it has been
wrongly assumed that the birth of such sciences did
actually take place in 1830 A.C. by the publication of
Charles Lyell’s book “Essentials of Geology”.

It is true that the field has since been broadened to


accommodate many specializations, has gradually
advanced with big leaps and great strides, has been
met with world-wide recognition and placed to
widespread economic applications, but contributions
of generations before Lyell cannot be ignored. Some knowledge of the earth and of
its resources must have been flourishing long before Lyells time, as quarrying for
building and decorative stones, ore-mining and metal extraction, exploration for
gems and gemstones as well as their industries were developed in all ancient
civilizations. The techniques used must have been simple and primitive, but were
definitely based on some knowledge and experience, particularly with miners
gemologists, quarrymen, professionals in ore prospection and extraction, specialists
in other industries and trades dealing in minerals and rocks, scientists, philosophers
and even clergymen. As mentioned above, most of the civilizations prior to the
advent of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had already lost their divine guidance, and
hence, deviated to irrational thoughts and misconceptions, and their legacies were
flooded with such as methologies, magic, mysticism, superstitious and skeptic views
about the universe, peculiar ideologies, queer dogmas and strange beliefs.

Consequently, the synthesis and theorization of the collected information about


the earth were distorted by such strange beliefs, despite marked successes in the
applied field. Tracing the origin of Geological knowledge in such peculiar
explanations of classic times, or jumping from there to Renaissance, overlooking the
“Golden Age” of the Islamic civilization is a gross historical and scientific mistake.
Ancient Greek and Roman writers - like their predecessors in ancient Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China - pondered about the origin of the earth and of the
rest of the universe, but their conclusions were nothing more than a number of facts
borrowed from previous revelations, highly twisted and corrupted by conjectural
speculations and presumptions, without much observational or experimentational
deductions. Luckily enough most of their writings are lost and-indeed-what is left
makes such a loss unregretable. It was described by Schwarz ( 1968) under the
correct title “The Failure Of Geological Attempts By The Ancient Greeks From Old
Ages To The Reign Of Alexander". Indeed some ancient Greek and Roman writers
assumed the presence of fire at the earth’s center and recognized the remains of
animals and plants in rocks of the earth’s crust, the rise and subsidence of land
areas and a number of other geological phenomena, but failed to rationalize their
explanations for such assumptions and observations as myths normally pre-
occupied any systematic thinking in their minds.

Consequently, their contribution to Earth Sciences


is, indeed scanty and of little worth. Zittel mentioned
this in what is translated in the following lines: Not a
single writer on these subjects in the ancient world had
examined the rocky crust of the earth with a view to
ascertain its composition, nor conceived that fossils in
the sedimentary succession can afford clues to the
history of the earth. The aims and objectives of
modern geological and paleontological studies were
absolutely unknown to the ancients, for baseless hypotheses and haphazard
observations cannot be considered as a foundation for scientific achievement.
However, if such generalization applies to the legacy of the Greco-Roman
civilization, it definitely does not apply to the contributions of the Early Muslims.
These contain a wealth of scientific knowledge experiences and procedures for the
identification of minerals and rocks, including physical and chemical properties
(such as specific gravity, colour luster, transparency, impurities, streak, hardness,
fractures, cleavage, fusibility, refractivity, crystallinity and crystal form, reaction to
both heat and acids, etc.); as well as certain pertinent information about the
occurrence, association, genesis, classification, extraction and uses of economic
minerals and rocks ( such as gems and gemstones, gold, silver copper mercury; ,
lead and zinc, iron, borax, alum, rock salt, corals; crude oil and oil seeps, tar, coal,
asbestos etc. The tables constructed by Muslim scholars for the classification and
physical properties (such as specific gravity) of minerals and rocks hardly differ
from modern readings. Muslim scholars also carried elaborate experimentation in
chemical reactions, acid treatment, heating and calcinations, etc. And hence were
pioneers in introducing experimentation in the examination and extraction of
minerals and ores. Early Muslims’ contributions to Earth Sciences also include the
description of the shape of the earth, proving its sphericity and rotational
movements; the measurement of its dimensions (radius, circumference and volume
with an error of no more than 3% ), the notion to the presence of most of its mass at
its center; description of the geomorphological features of its surface and the
processes shaping such features; the distribution of land and sea and the description
of many oceanographic characteristics (such as shoals and shoal deposits, islands
and peninsula, coral reefs, tides and tidal effects, etc.) ; the rational description of
both internal and external forces of the earth and their associated processes and
phenomena ( e.g. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, orogenic movements, faults and
surface collapses, other catastrophic events, the processes of both weathering and
erosion and their products etc.); the rising of temperature towards the center of the
earth and the rising of mountains from within oceans and seas (an early notion to
the ocean/continent’ cycle); the recognition and classification of both meteors and
meteorites; the suggestion of a scale of hardness for determining the relative
hardness of minerals [ 8 centuries before Fredrich Mohs ( 1773-1839) introduced his
scale] ; the rock cycle or the formation of igneous rocks from molten magma and
their disintegration by weathering into sediments and sedimentary rocks, the
precise definition for the textural characteristics of both sediments and the later
compaction of such. Sediments into sedimentary rocks; the recognition of beds,
bedding planes and the law of superposition of strata [ centuries before both James
Hutton ( 1726 - 1797) and William Smith ( 1769 - 1839) who are wrongly acclaimed
as the fathers of Geology]; the understanding of metamorphism and its processes;
the rational explanation of a large number of geological phenomena ( e.g. the
transgression and regression of seas and oceans; the water cycle and the gushing of
fresh, saline and hot-water springs; the formation of sabkhas, salt pans and playas;
evaporation of water from the earth’s surface, cloud formation, and condensation,
rain, hail, snow, lightening, thunder storms, rainbow formation, and other
meteorological observations; the river cycle, desertification, etc.); the correct
interpretation of the true nature of fossils and the process of fossilization, as well as
the use of such information for paleogeographic reconstructions and paleoecologic
interpretations; the recognition of the very slow pace of the geologic processes and
the gradual development of creation with time from matter to plant life, then animal
life and finally humans; recognition of the antiquity of the earth and providing a
sound basis for the estimation of its age; the development of instruments of such
extraordinary power such as the telescope, the microscope, the alidade, the compass
etc., which opened the gates of knowledge in front of the human eye; precise
geographic descriptions, measurements and mapping, geodetic surveying
techniques, etc. All this wealth of information was written in a superb language
where scientific terms are precisely defined to the extent that linguistic dictionaries
such as that of Ibn Sayydeh (D. 458 A.I-I. = 1066 A.C.) contained a whole chapter on
geologic terminology. These contributions are well within the core of Earth Sciences,
and hence cannot be overlooked or credited to others, as wrongly practiced by
European scholars who have - undoubtedly - made some use of this sound scientific
knowledge, and ascribed it to Greek authors. Such wealth of geologic information is
not only ignored in writings about Earth Sciences or about the History of Sciences,
but the names of eminent Muslim scholars have been Latinized to mystify their
identity.

Indeed, numerous Arabic manuscripts have been translated into Latin and Greek,
and referred to other European authors. The case of Ibn Sina’s section on
“Minerals” in his famous book “Al-Shifaa” (or the Book of Remedy) is only one of
the many shameful practices by Europeans during Renaissance. This chapter was
partly translated and partly abridged under the Latin title “De Mineralibus” and
wrongly attributed to Aristotle. Another manuscript in the same field by Jaber bin
Hayyan was also translated into Latin under a similar title and attributed to
Garlandius. For the names of distinguished Muslim scholars who have contributed
elaborately to the field of Earth Sciences, for the titles of their works and to the
analysis of their contributions reference is made to Al-Sukkary (1973), Ahamd
(1978), E1-Naggar & Al-Daffaa (1988) and other references on the history of
sciences, but the names in the following list are only given as selected examples:

SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS


DISTINGUISHED IN THE AREA OF EARTH SCIENCES

1- Imam J’aafar Al-Sadeq (died 148 A.H - 765 A.C.)


who wrote a manuscript on mineralogy, that was
published by Ruska (1924). Original Arabic Name
Latinized Name Ibn Rushde Ibn Bajah Ibn Zuhre Ibn
Sina Ibn al-Haytham Jaber bin Hayyan Al-Razy Al-
Zerqaly Abu Ma’ashar Al-Khuwarazrny Al-
Farghany A1-Battany Al-Bitujy Bin Maymoun Al-
Faraby Averroes Avempace Avenzoar Avicena Al-
Hazan Geber Rhazes Arzachel Albumasar Algorithm
Alfraganus Albertagnius Albetragnius Maimonides Al pharahius : Examples of
Muslim Scholars’ names which have been Latinized by Westerners in an attempt to
mystify their identity.

2- Jabir bin Hayyan (died 160 A.H. - 776 A.C.) who was basically a chemist, and a
medical scientist, was the first to synthesize minerals from natural ingredients (e.g.
Cinnabar from mercury and sulphur), and to classify them on the basis of their
physical properties. He suggested the possibility of transformation of base metals
such as tin, lead and iron into precious metals such as gold and silver, and described
in a professional manner the operations of calcinations, oxidation, evaporation,
filtration, sublimation, melting, distillation and crystallization, as well as the
solubility of gold in a mixture of acids (aqua regia). Jabir innovated a theory on the
geological formation of metals, observed the imponderability of magnetic force, and
emphasized the importance of experiment in scientific research. He wrote a number
of treatises on chemistry and mineralogy of which we know at least 3, selections of
which have been translated by Julius Ruska & Paul Kraus (1935). Many of his
works were also translated into Latin and referred to Greek authors such as his
manuscript on minerals (Mineralibus) which was wrongly ascribed to Garlandius.

3- Al-Haseb (died 206 A.H - 821 A.C.) who wrote a book on the uses of rocks.

4- Ibn Masaweeh (died 215 A.H. - 830 A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks.

5- Al-Khuwarizme (died 235 A.H. - 852 A.C.) who wrote 3 treatises on the shape of
the earth and its geography. A manuscript copy of his book “The Image Of The
Earth” is preserved at Strassbourg, France and was edited and translated into
Italian by Nallino and into German by Hans Mzik.
6- Al-Kindy (died 252 A.H. - 866 A.C.) who wrote 7 treatises on geological issues
including one on gems and semi-precious stones, a second on tides and a third on
thunder storms, lightening, snow, hail and rain.

7- Al-Razy (died 320 A.H. - 932 A.C.) who wrote 7 treatises on minerals, rocks and
the origin of the earth. His book
” The Secret of Secrets” was fully translated by Ruska and reviewed by Mieli
(1938).

8- Al-Hamadany (died 334 A.H. - 945 A.C. ) who wrote a treatise on gold and silver
that was revised and published in Uppsala, Sweden by C. Toll (1968), another on
“The Description Of the Arabian Peninsula, And A Third On Routes and
Kingdoms”.

9- Al-Masaudy (died 346 A.H. - 957 A.C.) who wrote 4 treatises on subjects related
to the earth, including one on gold and gemstones, that was translated into English
by Springer (1841) and into French by Barbier de Meynard & Pavet de Corteille (
1861-1877).

10- Al-Maqdisy (died 381 A.H. - 992 A.C.) who wrote a wonderful book on
geographic provenance.

11- Ikhwan Al-Safa (4th century A.H. - 11th A.C.) who wrote three theses on Earth
Sciences out of a collection of 52 (the 4th, the 5th and the 19th). These theses were
translated completely into Persian, Hindostani and Turkish and partly into German
and French by Dieteric (1861- 1886) and Forbes & Rieu (1861), respectively.

12- Al-Yanbuay, Abou Dilfe (4th Century A.H. - 11th A.C.) who wrote a treatise on
minerals that was revised by Minorsky and published in Cairo (1955).

13- Ibn Al-Jazzar (died 400 A.H. - 1009 AC.) who wrote a book on rocks.

14- Ibn Sina (died 428 A.H. - 1037 A.C.) who wrote 3 chapters on geological subjects
in his treatise entitled “The Book of Remedy”, one on minerals and meteorological
phenomena, a second on natural forces and a third one on properties of the equator.
The chapter on minerals was translated into Latin and ascribed wrongly to
Aristotle. It was translated into German by Ruska (1912) and into French by
Holmyard & Mandeville (1927).

15- Al-Bayrouny (died 443 A.H. - 1051 A.C.) who wrote at least 13 treatises on
subjects related to the earth, including: gems and gemstones, minerals, specific
gravity of minerals and precious stones, the relationship between metals and gems,
shadows, the determination of the direction of Qiblah, the determination of
locations by means of the intersection between latitudes and longitudes and a
scientific discussion on both the formation of mountains and the estimation of the
age of the earth. His book on gems and gemstones was reviewed by Clement -Mullet
( 1858), revised and published by Stapleton (1905), Kramkov (1907), Sachau (1898,
1910), and was translated into German by Wiedemann and published serially since
the beginning of the 20th century A.C. The book was also translated into Persian by
an anonymous person and this translation was rendered into English by Ahmad
(1929). This last translation was reviewed by Lippmann (1931). The book was also
translated into Russian by Byelenskiy.

16- Al-Jirjany (died towards the end of the 5th century A.H. - beginning of the 11th
century A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks that was reviewed by Ritter (1935).

17- Al-Bakry (died 487 A.H. - 1095 A.C.) who wrote an encyclopedic work on the
geography of the earth and a glossary to explain the necessary terminology.

18- Al-Tughr’aiy (died 515 A.H. - 1121 A.C.) who wrote two treatises on the
transformation of minerals, that were translated into Latin.

19- Al-Zamakhshary (died 538 A.H. - 1151 A.C.) who wrote a treatise on
“Mountains, Places and Water”.

20- Al-Idreesy (died 560 A.H - 1164 AC.) who wrote 4 treatises on the earth, its
shape, morphologic features, maps, routes and kingdoms.

21- Al-Hamawi Al-Baghdady (died 627 A.H. - 1230 A.C.) who wrote two geographic
glossaries, one on countries and the other on places.

22- Al-Demashquy, Al-Misri, Ibn Al-Awwam (the last half of the 6th century A.H. -
12th A.C.) who wrote elaborately on minerals, rocks and soils; most of their original
writings could not be located but has been reviewed by a large number of
subsequent writers.

23- Al-Sweedy (died 601 A.H. - 1291 A.C.) who wrote a book on gems and gemstones.

24- Al-Teefach (died 651 A.H. - 1253 AC.) who wrote two elaborate treatises on
geology, one dealing with minerals and rocks ( mainly with gems and gemstones)
and the other on the observations of natural phenomena. The mineral book was
abridged and published by Raphius (1784) in Utrecht, Holland. The book was
previously translated into Latin and a number of other European languages since
the early days of the Renaissance. A copy of the Arabic text with an Italian
translation was published in Florence, Italy in the year 1818 A.C. under the auspices
of Count Antonio Reineri, and was reprinted in Bologne, Italy in 1906 A.C. Copies
of the manuscript are kept in Leiden, Paris, Guteh, Cairo and Kuwait.

25- Al-Khaziny (died in the 6th century A.H. l2the century A.C.) who wrote a book
on mechanical contrivances, but it contains tables and methods of determinations of
specific gravity for a large number of gems, minerals and rocks, with great
precision. The book was reviewed by Koenikoff (1879), Wiedemann (1911) and by
Mieli & Brunet (in Mieli, 1938).

26- Al-Toosy (died 672 A.H. - 1274 A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks.

27- Al-Qabajaky (died towards the end of the 7th century A.H. - 13th century A.C.)
who wrote a book on rocks, recognizing the magnetite mineral and advocating the
use of the magnetic needle.

28- Al-Qazweeny (died 682 A.H. - 1283 A.C.) who wrote at least 6 treatises in areas
related to Earth Sciences including: gold and gemstones; on the geologic profession;
on the order of the universe; countries and geographic provinces; archaeology and
history; strange creatures and peculiar creations. The latter is an encyclopedic work
that discusses many things on Earth and in the universe. It was published by
Wustenfeld (1848) in Germany, was partly translated into German by Hermann
Ethe (1878), by Ruzka (1896) and by Wiedmann (1911), and into French by
Mercier, and by both Chezy & De Sacy.

29- Al-Iraquy ( the 7th century A.H. - the 13th A.C.) who wrote elaborately on
geological topics including two manuscripts, one on precious stones and the other on
gold. His works were reviewed by Ruska (1929) and translated into English by
Holmyard (1923).

30- Al-Kamily (the 7th century A.H. - the 13th A.C.) who wrote monumental work
on minting the Egyptian coins, where various metallurgical aspects are discussed.
The book was reviewed by Holmyard (1931).

31- Al-Kashany (died 700 A.H. - 1301 A.C.) who wrote a manuscript on precious
stones, essences, pottery ceramics and china, where a large number of minerals and
rocks are discussed. The book was reviewed by Mieli (1938).

32- Al-Demashquy, Al-Soufy (died 726 A.H. - 1326 A.C.) who wrote a selection on
peculiarities of both land and sea, where 700 minerals and rocks are described.

33- Al-Jaldaki (died 743 A.H. - 1342 A.C.) who wrote a manuscript on rocks.

34- Ibn Al-Akfany (died 749 A.H. - 1348 A.C.) who wrote a treatise on gems and
gemstones.

35- Al-Telemsany Al-Miqury (died 1041 A.H. - 1631 A.C.), who wrote a book on
minerals in Andalusia. These names are only a selection from a long list that cannot
possibly be included here. Other scholars mentioned under Astronomy, as most of
the Muslim astronomers had interest in the Earth, and their names need not to be
repeated. Each of these authors also quoted, in his preserved manuscripts, a much
larger list of references and of authors of whose works we know absolutely nothing
today, either due to their loss during the sacking of Baghdad and of many other
centers of learning throughout the Islamic World, or due to the fact that such
manuscripts are still lying in the darkness of library cellars in both Western and
Eastern countries. However, this modest list shows clearly the great interest of
Muslims in sciences of the earth and its applications for exploring, prospecting and
exploiting its wealth, as well as for discovering the properties of our planet and
forces influencing it.

CONTRIBUTION OF EARLY MUSLIMS TO


THE FILED OF ASTRONOMY
By: Dr. / Zaghloul El-Naggar
Out of numerous contributions by Early Muslim
scholars to the field of astronomy, the following can be
listed:

Early Muslims precisely defined astronomy as a


definite field of scientific research; translated available
information and critically reviewed it; developed
observing equipments (such as the telescope, the
celestial mirror or armillary sphere, the quadrant, the
astrolabe, etc.), astronomical tables, calculations and techniques; established a large
number of observatories; innovated algebra and introduced applied mathematics
for the first time to astronomy; invented the sciences of trigonometry, spherical
trigonometry, algorithm, geometrical optics, spherical graphics and its applications
in celestial observations; proved the spheroidal and the rotational movement of the
Earth; invented longitudes and latitudes and very precisely measured the distance
of a longitudinal degree; calculated the circumference, diameter and size of each of
the Earth, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn with great precision; introduced the
Helio-centric of our solar system; estimated the mean orbit and the different
altitudes of the sun; defined the nature and movements of many celestial bodies,
calculated the degree of obliquity of the ecliptic; catalogued and named many stars
and constellations, giving their coordinates and magnitudes, discovered the nebula
Andromida, determined with wonderful accuracy the precession of equinoxes and
the movements of both the solar apogee and the summer solstice, demonstrating
that it is subject to the precession of the equinoxes and that, in consequence, the
equation of time is subject to a slow secular variation; recorded the movements of
the planets, and the condition of visibility of ~he new moon, and its distance from
the earth, described the eclipses, the apparitions of comets; defined the exact
movement of the sun with respect to other celestial bodies; marked for the first time
the variations in the lunar altitudes in its orbit around the earth; calculated the
length of both the solar and lunar years, of the seasons, the month and the day;
named the constellations and the position of the Sun with respect to each one of
them, designed various chronometers (sundials, sand glasses, candle-water -
mercury - and mechanical - clocks), constructed elaborate astronomical tables and
treatises, described and explained many phenomena such as the Zodiacal light,
rainbows, lightening and thunder storms; constructed calendars 600 years before
the Gregorian calendar, and are said to be even more accurate, introduced many
Arabic names to the science of Astronomy which are still in use, etc. The names of
distinguished Muslim astronomers and the titles of their works and analyses of their
contributions can be found in books dealing with the “History of Science”, but I
quote the following as example:

SELECTED EXAMPLES OF DISTINGUISHED MUSLIM ASTRONOMERS

1- Al-Fazzari Ibrahim (D. 160 A.H.) and his son Muhammad (D.180 A.H.) who
constructed the first Astrolabe wrote on the use of the armillary sphere and
prepared tables according to the Hijri Calendar. At least six treatises written by
Ibrahim Al-Fazzari in Astronomy are still intact.

2- Al-Baghdady (2nd Century A-H.).

3- Ibn Hayyan (D. 197 A.H.) who wrote 19 treatises about celestial bodies and 16 in
astronomy.

4- Sanad bin Aly (3rd Century A.H.) who wrote 5 books on mathematical
astronomy.

5- Al-Firghany (3rd Century A.H.) who developed and modified the sundial, and
calculated the diameters of each of the Earth, the Moon, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn with great precision... At least 3 of his written manuscripts on astronomy are
still intact.

6- Al-Khuwarizmy (D. 235 A.H.) The great astronomer, mathematician,


geographer, historian, and the innovator of the science of ‘Algorism'. His book
entitled Hisab AI-Jabre wa Al-Muqabalah” was translated into Latin by Gerard of
Cremona, Robert of Chester and Adelard Bath and much later into English by
F.Rosen (1831). This book introduced the science of Algebra to the Europeans and
was used as the principal textbook for mathematics in their universities until the
end of the 16th century A.C. Al-Khuwarizmy wrote 7 treatises on astronomy which
have all been translated into Latin.

7- Al-Marwazi (D. 250 A.H.) who wrote many treatises in astronomy, of which only
11 have survived.

8- Al-Kindi (D. 252 A.H.) who wrote more than 265 manuscripts on different
subjects, including astronomy and mathematics. At least 20 treatises on astronomy
are still intact including one on calculating the distance between the Earth and the
Moon, another on telescopes, a third on the engineering of the Astrolabe, a fourth
on the Zodiacal light and a fifth on moving bodies and the true nature of light and
darkness.

9- Abou Ma’ashar (D. 264 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated astronomical treatise which
remained for centuries one of the main sources of astronomical knowledge. Four of
his works were translated into Latin by Johannes Hispatensis and Adelard of Bath.

10- Al-Sarkhasi, lbn Al-Tayyeb (D. 286 A.H.) who wrote an astronomical treatise
entitled “The Introduction to the profession of stellar observation".

11- Thabit bin Qurrah (D. 287 A.H.) who wrote more than twenty memoirs on
astronomy and geometry, invented the sundial, the balance and wrote elaborately
on the altitude of the Sun and the length of the solar year. His treatise on the
balance was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona. He was followed in his
profession (Astronomy, Geometry and Mathematics) by his Sons Ibrahim and
Sinan, his grandsons Thabit bin Sinan and Ibrahim bin Sinan, and great-grandson
Abou Al-Faraj. Besides his interest in Astronomy, Geometry and Mathematics,
Thabit was a skillful physician, while Ibrahim showed his distinction in geometry.
His quadrature of the parabola was the simplest ever made before the introduction
of integral calculus.

12- Al-Balancy (D. 296 A.H.) who wrote a large number of astronomical tables.

13- Banu Musa Bin Shakir (Muhammad, Ahmad & Hassan) who lived during the
3rd Century A.H. and were outstanding researchers in the field of astronomy,
geometry, mechanics and engineering. They calculated the mean movement of the
Sun and other celestial bodies, ascertained with remarkable precision the obliquity
for the ecliptic, and marked for the first time the variations in the lunar altitudes.
They also determined with great accuracy the precession of the equinoxes and the
movement of the solar apogee, calculated the size of the earth, invented the
telescope, recorded the movements of heavenly bodies and wrote about the
measurements of plane and spherical surfaces. This last work of theirs was
translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona, and their treatise on mechanics is still
preserved in the Vatican.

14- Al-Baalabakky (D. 300 A.H.) who has at least 2 preserved manuscripts on
astronomy and orbits and the other on “the use of the armillary sphere”.

15- Al-Tibreezy (D. 310 A.H.) of whose works at least 5 manuscripts on astronomy
are still intact.

16- Bin Hameed (Al-Aadamy) who lived towards the end of the 3rd and the
beginnings of the 4th centuries A.H., and of whose works we know at least one
astronomical treatise with tables (Zeej).
17- A1-Madainy (Al-Alawi) who also lived towards the end of the 3rd and the
beginnings of the 4th centuries A.H. and also has a large astronomical treatise with
tables (Al-Zeej Al-Kabeer).

18- Al-Battany (D. 318 A.H.) was the greatest astronomer of this time, and lived at
Al-Raqqah (on the left bank of the Euphrates). His works on astronomy and
spherical trigonometry influenced the whole of Europe during the middle Ages and
the Renaissance and were repeatedly quoted by Copernicus in his book “De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium". According to Ibn Al-Nadeem (1871-1872) we
only know one of his numerous works that is still intact which is a treatise on
astronomy with detailed tables (al-Zeej). This work was translated into Latin by
both Robertus Retinensis and Plato Tiburtinus (in the first half of the 12th Century
A.C. and was published in Nuremberg in 1537). It was later edited and translated
into Italian by C.A. Nallino and J.M. Millas. In this book, Al-Battany determined
with great accuracy the inclination angle of the ecliptic and the possibility of the
annular eclipse, , die length (If the tropic year and of the seasons, the true and mean
orbits of the sun; discovered the mobility of the solar apogee, as a result of the
precession of the equinoxes which he accurately measured ( and mentioned that, in
consequence, the equation of time must he subject to a slow secular variation),
calculated the variation of the apparent angular diameter of the Sun, rectified orbits
of the Moon and planets, and suggested a new, ingenius theory for the
determination of the conditions of visibility of the new Moon. His excellent
observations on lunar and solar eclipses were used by Dunthome 1749 A.C to
determine the secular acceleration of motion of the Moon.

19- Al-Harrany Al-Sabi’ey (D. 384 A.H.) of whose works we only know one
tabulated treatise on astronomy.

20- Al-Balkhy (D. 323 A.H.) who wrote more than 70 treatises on astronomy and
geography.

21- Al-Jealy (D. 350 A.H.) who wrote 6 known treatises and tables on astronomy.

22- Al-Shareef AI-Baghdady (D. 375 A.H.) of whose astronomical works we only
know one treatise with tables.

23- Al-Soufy (D. 364 A.H.) who wrote an illustrated treatise on fixed stars, giving
their magnitudes and coordinates, based on his own observations. It is considered
the first star atlas to take cognizance of the nebula in the constellation Andromeda,
and was translated into French. The book is of great importance even today, as it
reveals the changes in magnitude undergone by a number of prominent stars in the
course of ten centuries.

24- Abou Al-Wafaa Al-Buzjany (D. 376 A.H.) who wrote extensively on algebra,
mathematics, geometry, spherical trigonometry, and astronomy, introduced the use
of the secant and the tangent in astronomical observations, and defined methods for
finding the value of chords of arcs, and for constructing sine tables. At least 4 of his
valuable works are still available, including a large treatise on astronomy.

25- Abou Saqre Al-Qubaissy (D. 380 A.H.) who revised AlFirghanys work and
wrote at least three astronomical treatises.

26- Al-Majreety (D. 385 A.H.) who was one of the most eminent astronomers of
Cordova. He revised and edited the works of both Al-Khuwarizmy and Al-Battany,
and left at least 3 valuable works on astronomy.

27- Ibn Younus Al-Sadafi (D. 399 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated treatise on
astronomy that was translated into Persian, Greek, Mangolian and Chinese
languages. He also invented the pendulum which was successfully used in measuring
time during his celestial observations and in constructing mechanical clocks.

28- A1-Kouhy (D. 405 A.H.) who wrote elaborately on the astrolabe geometry,
spherical geometry and astronomy. He studied the movements of the planets,
discovered the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox, and left at least 3
valuable works.

29- Ibn Al-Samhe Al-Ghirnaty (D. 426 A.H.) who left behind 3 treatises on
astronomy.

30- Abou Al-Qasim Bin Al-Saffar (D. 426 A.H.) of whose work we know two major
treatises on astronomy.

31- Al-Kirmany, Abu Al-Hakam (D. 458 A.H.), who was an eminent mathematician,
astronomer, engineer and surgeon. He studied astronomy at the hands of A1-
Majreety and left a number of manuscripts in that area.

32- Ibn Iraq (who lived during the late 4th and the early 5th centuries A.H.) and left
a wealth of literature on astronomy of which we know at least 9 treatises.

33- Al-Bayrouni (D. 443 A.H.) who is considered the most profound and original
scientist in human history, with contributions in very many disciplines that were
centuries ahead of his time. Among his astronomical contributions is the precise
determination of the magnitude of both the earth’s radius and circumference, the
scientific discussion of the then controversial rotation of the earth on its own axis,
the accurate definition of latitudes and longitudes, the correct explanation of
numerous astronomical phenomena like the Zodiacal light, the excessive speed of
light as compared to sound and the much greater radius of the sun as compared to
both moon and earth, among his comprehensive treatises are the one entitled “Al-
Qanoun Al~Masa’udi Fi Al-Haya’at Wa Al-Nujoum”, and “Kitab Al-Tafheem Li
Aw’ail Sanat Al-Tanjeem”. An English translation of the latter book, facing the
Arabic text was published 1939 in London by Ramsay Wright. (His written works
amount to about 180 manuscripts, some of which has been translated into many
languages.

34- Ibn Hayy (D. 456 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated treatise on astronomy.

35- Al-Zarqaly (D. 480 A.H.) who was reputed for his talent in inventing and
constructing astronomical equipments and tables, as well as contributions to the
field of astronomy. He correctly determined the degree of inclination of the ecliptic
within one minute of arc, and his works were translated into Latin, and were quoted
by Copernicus in his book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.

36- Al-Isfizary (D. 480 A.H.) who critically reviewed the works of Euclid and of
Banu Musa Bin Shaker and wrote 3 manuscripts on geometry, surveying and
mechanical contrivances.

37- Bin Aflaj (who lived during the later years of the 5th and the earlier years of the
6th centuries A.H.) and wrote 9 manuscripts in the area of Astronomy.

38- Omar Al-Khayyam (D. 516 A.H. 1123 A.C.) who together with Abd Al-Rahman
Al-Khazini supervised the Nishapur observatory, collaborated in the reformation of
the Persian calendar (which preceded the Gregorian calendar by 600 years and is
said to be even more exact), and was one of the greatest mathematicians,
astronomers and poets of his time.

39- A1-Hakeem A1-Dany (D. 529 A.H.) who wrote on geometry (2 manuscripts),
astronomy and astronomical equipments (2 manuscripts).

40- Ibn Bajah (D. 530) who was an outstanding physician, philosopher,
mathematician, botanist and astronomer. Some of his works are translated into both
Spanish and English.

41- Al-Badeea Al-Astrolaby Al-Baghdady (D. 534 A.H.) who wrote on astronomy
and astronomical equipments two manuscripts at least.

42- AI-Batroujy (D. 582 A.H.) who wrote a treatise on astronomy that was
translated into Latin by Kalonymos ben David and into Hebrew by Moses bin
Tibbon. Some of his original contributions were the discovery of the spinning
movements of the planets.

43- Al-Mosely (D. 639 AM.) of whose work we know two manuscripts on astronomy.

44- Al-Asfouny (D. 649 A.H.) who wrote on both geometry and astronomy invented
both the armillary sphere and the water-wheel and wrote in other fields.
45- Al-Morrakeshy (D. 660 AM.) of whose astronomical writings we have at least
two manuscripts: one on viewing the moon and the other on the measurement of
time.

46- Al-Saheb Al-Labboudy, Najm Al-Deen (D. 670 A.H.) who wrote two lengthy
treatises on astronomy.

47- Al-Tousi (D. 672 A.H. -1274 A.C.) the famous astronomer, mathematician,
physicist, geologist, natural scientist, physician, philosopher and theologian, who
wrote the "Al-khanian Astronomical Tables”, constructed the famous Maraghah
Observatory and the one at Samarqand These were equipped with the best available
instruments of the time, e.g. ecliptical, solisticial and equatorial armillary spheres,
Mural quadranis, etc. The Maraghah Observatory also housed a very big library,
which was described to contain more than 4,000,000 manuscripts. He wrote a
number of astronomical treatises of which the most important is “Kitab Al--
Tathkirah Fi ‘Ilm Al-Haya’ah” or “The Memoir of Astronomy”, which is a
complete survey of astronomical knowledge until his time. This manuscript was a
landmark in the development of astronomy, and hence was reviewed by a large
number of authors and translated into several Eastern as well as Western
languages. In the field of astronomy, Tousi also wrote:

(i) “The Cream of Astronomy” which is still extant in


both Arabic and Persian. (ii) “The Stars Made Easy”.

(ii) “On the Trajectory, Size and Distance of


Mercury".

(iv) “Rising and Setting”.

(v) “On The Moving Sphere”.

(vi) “On the size and distances of the Sun and the Moon".

(vii) “On the ascension of Stars”.

(viii) “Spherics”.

(ix) “Days and nights”.

(x) “Tazheer Al-Majesty”.

(xi) “Research on the reflection and deflection of light rays".

(xii) "The Book of optics".


48- Al-Hakeem Al-Maghriby (D. 680 A.H.) who wrote elaborately on astronomy,
and left at least 10 manuscripts in that area.

49- Al -Shirazi (D. 709 A.H. - 1311 A.C.) who was Al-Tousi’s student and wrote a
manuscript on Astronomy with the title “Nihayat Al-Idrak Fi Dirayat Al-Aflak” (or
The Latest Knowledge in the Science of Planetary Orbits). Besides its main theme,
astronomy, the book contains a wealth of knowledge on geometrical optics, like the
nature of vision and the formation of the rainbow.

50- Ibn A1-Shater (D. 777 A.H.) who wrote an elaborate, tabulated treatise on
astronomy (Al-Zeej Al-Jadeed) from which Copernicus drew most of his
information without acknowledging that. He is also credited for measuring the angle
of inclination of the Zodiacal Sphere with great precision, and inventing a
chronometric instrument for defining the exact time of prayer.

51- Al-Majdy (D. 850 A.H.) who wrote 15 manuscripts on astronomy and elaborated
on sighting the Moon, on Saturn, the luni-solar calendar, and the application of
geometry in astronomy.

52- Ulugh Beg (D. 853 A.H. - 1440 A.C.) who was interested in astronomy, published
a stellar catalogue and tables, comparing his observations with those of previous
workers such as AI-Sufi, and erected a large observatory at Samarquand, where a
group of distinguished astronomers did work.

53- Badre Al-Deen (D. 907 A.H.) who wrote 6 manuscripts on astronomy and
geometry.

54- Salah Al-Deen Qadhi Zadeh (D. 940 A.H.) who revised the astronomical work of
Ulugh Beg and published his astronomical tables.

55- Al-Kaslii (D. 851) LII. - 1436 At.) Who was the first director of the observatory
at Samarquand, a great astronomer and mathematician, prepared a number of
astronomical tables and maps including “Zeej Al-Khaqani”.

56- Al-Qashji (D. 878 A.H. - 1474 A.C.) who prepared the astronomical tables of
Ulugh Beg. These tables were edited, translated and published into both the Persian
and Latin languages by J. Greaves & T. Hyde (1650-1665), and its introduction was
translated into French by Sedillot (1846). Such work was highly treasured in Europe
as an excellent source for astronomical information until the mid-nineteenth century
A.C.

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