LASERS

LASER is an abbreviation for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

of Radiation.

A light emitted from a conventional source like Ne lamp is said to be

incoherent because the light emitted from atomic transitions do not have
same phase. When a light beam from a strong source is incident on a convex
lens, then it can be focused in linear region where the linear dimension is
(λf/a) where ‘f’ is the focal length of the lens, ‘a’ is the beam size and ‘λ’ is
the wavelength of light used. If ‘f=a’ then the light beam can be focused to
an area equal to ‘λ’ i.e. the light beam has a high intensity. Such a high
intensity light beam is capable of drilling a hole in metallic target. Such a
highly coherent light is called LASER.

CHARECTERISTICS OF LASER:-
i) DIRECTIONALITY:-

A conventional light is non directional because it emits light in all

directions. The laser light is highly directional. The directionality is a measure
of divergence given by

Δθ = (r1-r2)/(D1-D2)

Where ‘r1‘ &’ r2‘ are the radii of the laser beam spots and D1- D2 is the
distance between the source and the screen.

For a laser beam Δθ=0.01 mille radians i.e. the laser beam spread is
0.01mm for a distance of 1metre.

In comparison with a conventional light (search light), laser can travel

a distance of several hundred kilometers with a little spread.

ii) MONO CHOROMATICITY:-

The non monochromatic factor is given by (dλ/λ) or (dν/ν). If this ratio is

small then the light is highly monochromatic.

For an ordinary monochromatic source such as a Ne source, (characteristic

‘d1’ and ‘d2’ lines with λ1=5890˚A and λ2=5896˚A and λavg=5893˚A)

d λ=6˚A and λ=5893˚A

Therefore the non-mono chromaticity factor is

d λ/ λ = (50/5x104)≈ of the order of 10-3

For an ideal laser dν=50Hz and ν=5x1014Hz

Therefore (dν/ν) = 10-13

Therefore LASER is highly monochromatic as compared to an ordinary light.

iii) CHORENCY:-

Two light waves are said to be coherent if their phase difference is

correlating. The coherence is a measure of the degree of ordering. Due to
this high coherency a laser can produce an optical power of 1012watts
through a beam size of diameter 1μm there are two types of coherence.

a) Spatial Coherence:-

If the two waves have a correlating phase difference at the same point
along the direction of propagation, then the waves are spatially coherent
or transverence coherence

b) Temporal Coherence:-

The two light waves are said to be in temporal coherence if they have
correlating phase difference over a period to time during their
propagation.

The distance up to which the coherency (spatial or temporal)

Is maintained is called coherence length.

The coherence length is inversely proportional to the non

monochromaticity factor

i.e. (dν/ν) α (1/μ)

or the greater is the monochromaticity greater is the coherence length.

iv) HIGH INTENSITY:-

In a Laser a lot of energy is concentrated in a small region. The power ranges

from 10-3W for a gas laser to 109W for a solid state laser with a beam size of
1mm.

The number of photons emitted by a laser per second per unit area is
 N=(P/hν*∏r2) or N(hν)=(P/area)

Where P=10-3W to 109W; hν=10-19J

For an ordinary source N=1016 relatively for a laser it is 1034. Hence LASER is
highly intense in nature.

SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSIONS:-

i) STIMULATED ABSORPTION:-

A particle in a ground state (E1) when provided with an energy (E2-E1) it gets
excited to the next higher energy level (E2).

This process of transfer of particles from ground state to the excited state
(with an emission of photon) by absorbing the incident energy is called
stimulated absorption

the lower line denotes

E1 and the upper line denotes E2

ii) SPONTANEOUS EMISSION:-

The particle once exicted to the next higher energy state remains in the next
energy state for a short period of time. This is called lifetime and is of the
order of 10-8sec.

b) METASTABLE STATES:-

These are the excited states for which the life time is more i.e. the particle
stays there for a sufficiently long interval of time around 10-3sec.

The particle after remaining for a life time in the exited state comes down to
ground state with an emission of photon of a definite frequency in various
directions. This process is called as spontaneous emission and is random in
character. It is incoherent in nature and has a broad spectrum.
 iii) STIMULATED EMISSION:-

In this process, an electromagnetic radiation forces an atom (particle) in the

excited state to reach a ground state with an emission of a photon which has
the same frequency, same phase and which propagates in the same
direction as the incident radiation. This leads to a highly coherent radiation.

EINSTEINS COFFICENTS:-

In a collection of atoms all the three transition process, viz stimulated

absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission occur
simultaneously.

Consider a quantized atomic system in which the energy levels are denoted
by 1,2,3… with energies E1, E2, E3……… the number of the atoms present at
the each energy level is called the population at the respective energy
levels.

i) For stimulated absorption, the stimulated absorption rate depends

on the number of particles at the ground state and energy density

i.e. stimulated emission per second α N1

α e(ν)

consisting stimulated absorption rate= N1 B12 e(ν)

where B12 is a proportionality constant called the einstein’s

coefficient of stimulated absorption.

Energy density is defined as the total energy per unit volume.

ii) For spontaneous emission:-

The spontaneous emission rate is proportional to the number of
particles in the excited state. Therefore spontaneous emission rate
α N2 A21--------------------------2
Where A21 is the einsteins cofficent for spontaneous emission.
iii) For stimulated emission:-

The transition takes place from excited state to the ground state with the
emission of a photon in the presence of an induced photon of frequency
ν=(E2-E1)/h thus the stimulated emission rate is proportional to the number
of excited atoms in the excited state and which is proportional to the energy
density.

Therefore stimulated emission rate α N2 B21 e(ν)------------------3

Where B21 is the Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission

Under equilibrium conditions,

The net absorption rate = net emission rate

i.e. N2 B12 e(ν) = N2 A21 + N2 B21 e(ν) ---------------------------4

e(ν) = (N2 A21/ N1 B12 - N2 B21)

= [N2 (A21 / B21)]/ [N1 (B12/B21) – N2]

e(ν) = (A21 / B21)/{[ (N1/ N2)(B12/B21)]-1}-----------------5

The population in the various energy levels is given by the boltmann

distribution law given by

Ni = N0e-Ei/kT

Where ‘k’ is the Boltzmann constant

N1 / N2 = e(E2-E1)/kT = ehν/kT----------------------------------------------6

Using eq.6 in eq.5 we get

e(ν) = (A21 / B21)/ {[(B12/B21)x ehν/kT]-1}-------------------7

From plank’s radiation law, we get

e(ν) = (8*∏*h*ν3)/( (c3*( ehν/kT-1))-------------------------8

from eq.7 and eq.8, we get

(A21 / B21) = (8*∏*h*ν3) / c3 and

(B12 / B21) = 1

The above two equations are known as the Einstein relations.

Spontaneous emission dominates over stimulated emission.

Similarly stimulated emission rate / stimulated absorption rate = N2 B21 e(ν)/

N1 B12e(ν) = N2 / N1

At thermal equlibrum N2 <<< N1 the number of particles in the excited state

is always less than in the ground state i.e. stimulated absorption dominates
stimulated emission.

POPULATION INVERSION:-
The heat of a laser system is a certain medium which is either a solid,
liquid or a gas generally called as the active medium that contains atoms,
ions or molecules decaying from their higher energy state. These are called
as the active centres. The number of the active centers ranges from 1015 to
1020 depending on the medium.

Consider a two level system in which the ground state is E1 and the
excited state is E2. Let N1 and N2 be the number of active centers per unit
volume in the respective energy levels.

A photons of energy ν=(E2-E1)/h has an identical probability to induce

either a transition from E1 to E2 or E2 to E1.This if these two transistions will
result will depend on the energy level in which the active centers lies .

If the lower level of the mechanism is more populated than the upper
level then the absorption process dominates and if the upper level is more
populated than the lower level then the stimulated emission is favored.
Under thermo dynamic equilibrium the N2 <N1 hence absorption dominates to
make the stimulated emission dominant we should see that the population in
the excited state is larger than the population in the lower state i.e. N2 > N1.
This process of increasing the population of excited level greater than the
lower level is called ‘population inversion’,

An active system is one in which the population inversion is achieved.

The underlying principle for laser action is population inversion.

This process of raising the particles from lower energy state to the
higher energy state is called pumping.

The principal mechanism of population inversion will depend on the

process through which population inversion is created. The commonly used
processes are

i) Optical pumping
ii) Electric discharge
iii) Chemical reaction
iv) Injection current
In optical pumping process the population inversion is achieved by different
discharge flash tubes. Example Xenon flash lamp. This is a very fast
mechanism. Recently flash lamps are being replaced by the light diodes to
make the laser systems more efficient and more reliable. The electrical
discharge phenomena is used in gas energy is more populated by using high
intense electrical discharge which converts the gas into plasma and causes
predominant population of the upper pumping level. In the chemical
pumping process, the active centers raises into the higher level by a suitable
chemical reaction.

In semi conducting lasers the pumping device by the injection currents

through the junction which creates population inversion among the charge
carriers.

THREE LEVEL SCHEME:-

If the collection of atoms is intensely pumped with a xenon flash lamp, a

large number of atoms are excited through the stimulated absorption to the
excited state E2. If this level has a very short lifetime, they undergo fast
decay to level E1, which is a meta stable state and which has a relatively
longer life period. Therefore the atoms accumulate at E1. Hence the
population at E1 is greater than at E0. The laser transition takes place from E1
to E0. In this situation more than half of the atoms in the ground state will be
pumped into E1. Therefore the three level scheme requires a high degree of
pumping. This system works only in a pulse mode Eg. Ruby Laser.

FOUR LEVEL SCHEME:-

In this scheme, the atoms are excited from the ground state to the highest of
the four levels. Due to the fast decay the atoms reach the metastable state
E2 and get accumulated due to a longer lifetime.

The population inversion is achieved with a moderate pumping the laser

transition takes place from E2 to E1. Since, the ground state is not involves in
laser action, it is easy to maintain population inversion between E2 and E1 for
continuous wave move, the decay between E3 and E2+ must be very fast.

Ex. He-Ne Laser.

TYPES OF LASERS:-
1) Ruby laser:-

This laser was constructed in the year 1960 by Haiman. This comes under
the category of the three level solid state Laser in the pulse mode. The active
medium is a solid material in the form of a cylindrical rod (ruby rod) whose
ewes are optically polished to a high degree. The ruby rod is made of
synthetic sapphire (Al2O3) doped with 0.025% of Cr2O3. The presence of Cr3+
ions gives pink color to the rod.

THE RESENANT CAVITY:-

T obtain the coherent radiation, the spread of the photons should be

narrowed (spontaneous emission). This is done by restricting the number of
possible photon states. Therefore a certain photon states are selected to
establish favorable conditions to develop stimulated emission. The selection
of the same photon states and separation of other states is done by OPTICAL
RESOMETER.

The optical resonating cavity consists of a pair of mirrors arranged in

the optical axis which defines the direction of the laser beam. The active
medium is placed in between these two mirrors the solid active medium will
be in the form of a cylinder whose length is ten times greater than its
diameter is aligned parallel to the axis of the resonometer in the two mirrors
present in the cavity one of the meter should be made semi transperarent so
to reflect the light from the resonator. The arrangement of the mirrors in the
simple cavity is shown in the figure

The active medium is present in between the mirrors M1 & M2. The photons
produced spontaneously in the OOI will travel within the active material a
relatively long waywhich is elongated by multiple reflections from the
resonator mirrors. These photons interact with the excited active centers to
start the laser action. The photons emitted in the other directions will travel
a relatively short part in the material and die out soon.

Therefore the optical resonator cavity provides the DEBYE’S selectivity

of photon states by primarily configuring the possible direction of the photon
propagation and results in the laser radiation. The losing action occurs only
along this direction.

→ Flash light has a wave length of 5600˚A

The ruby (Al2O3 + Cr2O3) is a crystal of aluminum oxide (Al2O3 doped with
0.05% of Cr2O3, such that same of the Al3+ ions are replaced by Cr3+ ions. The
active medium in the ruby rod is Cr3+ ions. The ruby rod is 4cm in length and
5mm in diameter with highly polished ends. Both the ends are silvered such
that the end is fully reflecting and the other end is partially reflecting.

The optical pumping is provided by a helical flash lamp tube

surrounding the rod to raise the Cr3+ ions to higher energy levels. Under the
intense flash which lasts for only a few seconds. The energy levels of Cr3+
broaden up and convert into bands. The Cr3+ ions absorbs strongly in the
blue and green region of the visible light. Only a part of the light energy is
used in pumping the Cr3+ ions and the remaining goes as heat to the
apparatus which should be cooled.

The energy level diagram is shown in figure

The Cr3+ ions are excited from the ground state to the 4T1 or 4T2, the
absorption of energy corresponding to these two absorption bands causes
Cr3+ ions to be excited to these levels.

Cr stay in these levels for a very short interval of time 10-8 sec and
drop to level E2 which is a meta stable state. The level E3is a band which
helps in pumping more effectively.

The transition from E3 to E2 is a non radiative which is accompanied by heat

therefore the rod must be cooled using water circulated around the ruby rod
during the losing action. The life time of level E2 is 105 times greater than E3,
therefore the particles goes on increasing in this state (E2). Thus achieving
population inversion between the level (E2) and the ground state. The laser
transition takes place between E2 and E1. When excited particles passes from
meta stable state E2 to the ground state E1. It emits a photon of wavelength
6943˚A corresponding to laser radiation. Since this is a three level laser
system ground state is involved in laser transition, the efficiency is less and
also requires intense pumping.

The emitted photon travels through the ruby rod and it travels parallel
to the axis, it is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it
stimulates an excited ion in the level E2 and emits a fresh photon in phase
with the induced photon. This stimulation causes a laser transition. This
process is repeated and the photons are multiplied, when the photon beam
gets sufficiently intense, it comes out of the semi silvered end of the rod.

The meta stable state has two energy levels close to each other. The
transition R1 has a wavelength of 6943˚A (low probability and can be filtered
using a normal optical filter).

The rapid pumping flash lasts only for atoms, during this time the
population inversion exceeds a threshold value and stimulated emission
increases rapidly which results in depopulation of upper laser level. Hencr,
the losing action momentarily stops and before the output falls to zero the
population increases and the laser action is initiated. This process repeats
until the pumping flash ends. The opposite consists of a large number spikes
with a duration of 1μsec. The real power has a value of 1kW.