~ Pergamon

0273-1223(95)00227-8
War. Sci. Tech. Vol. 31, No. 3-4, pp. 327-340.1995.
Copyright 1995 IAWQ
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved.
0273-1223/95 $9'50 + 0'00
RECENT APPLICATIONS OF DISSOLVED
AIR FLOTATION PILOT STUDIES AND
FULL SCALE DESIGN
Steven R. Arnold*, Thomas P. Grubb* and
Peter J. Harvey**
* Purac Engineering, lnc., 5301 Limestone Road, Suite 126, Wilmington,
Delaware 19808, USA
Purac Rosewater Ltd, Purac House, Birmingham Road, Kidderminster,
Worcestershire DYIO 2LH, UK
ABSTRACT
The use of Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) as a solids/liquid separation process in water treatment has been an
effective alternative to sedimentation for 70 years. The process was initially applied for removal of materials
which had a specific gravity less than water, such as fats, oils, fibers, and grease. DAF installations expanded
in the late 1960s to wastewater and potable water treatment. Today, Dissolved Air Flotation is utilized for a
wide variety of water and wastewater applications. DAF is applied extensively for wastewater sludge
thickening and it is widely accepted in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom for potable water treatment. It
has also gained a foothold in the United States with the stan up of a 7.5 mgd (28.4 Ml/d) potable water
flotation plant at New Castle, New York. The goal of this paper is to present recent applications of Dissolved
Air Flotation technology on a variety of raw water sources. Descriptions and general design parameters of a
typical flotation and a proprietary combined flotation and filtratrion process will be discussed.
KEYWORDS
Dissolved Air Flotation (OAF); industrial wastewater; potable water treatment; retrofits.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Dissolved Air Flotation
The modern pressure OAF process is based on the same principles as those patented by Peterson and Sveen
in 1924. Figure I presents a cross-section of a typical DAF treatment train. Raw water enters the plant
through a rapid mixer where dosing of selected chemical coagulant occurs. Treated water flows to the
flocculation tanks which are designed with a hydraulic residence time of 20 minutes, split evenly between
two tanks to minimize short circuiting. Flocculation energy is produced by mechanical agitation, typically a
vertically mounted, paddle-type mixer. The design should emphasize control of velocities and proper
baffling to prevent floc shear or short circuiting through the flocculation tanks. Energy input is variable for
different raw water qualities, but some studies have shown a G-value of 70 s-1 to be optimum (Gregory and
Zabel, 1990). Flocculated water overflows into a recycle dispersion chamber where the air saturated recycle
stream is continuously introduced through a system of proprietary nozzles, valves, or orifices. Instantaneous
327
328 S. R. ARNOLD et al.
Ffcceutaror
decrease of the recycle flow pressure from 70-90 psi (485-620 kPa) to atmospheric pressure causes
formation of air microbubbles ranging in size from 10 to 100 urn, with mean value of 40 urn (Zabel, 1984).
Microbubbles attach to flocculated particles and form an air/solids aggregate which displays a low apparent
density relative to the density of water. Charge destabilization is necessary for the attachment of bubbles to
flocculated particles and is dependant upon proper pH, water quality, and addition of coagulants (Malley and
Edzwald, 1991). Bubble size is also of importance, since large air bubbles result in high rise rates which may
exceed laminar flow requirements and cause poor performance due to floc breakup. Larger bubbles also
have less surface area per unit volume, which decreases the number of bubbles and the chance for random
bubblelfloc collision. Consequently, proper design of the air dispersion system is an important factor for
successful DAF clarification.
,_I- J Compreuor
S"".."on Tonk f (_. C. _\)
_ __ -- Eduetor
- - J SUflace Skimmer
/Bccycte Pump
n / .: t n ,
SlUdge
Fig. 1. Cross section of a typical DAF unit.
The bubblelfloc aggregates rise to the surface. where they form a stable layer of float (sludge). On the
surface, float will continuously thicken and is mechanically skimmed onto a sludge beach where it
overflows into a sludge trough or hopper for further dewatering or disposal. Mechanical skimmers may be
operated either intermittently or continuously, depending on the volume of sludge generated. Dry solids
content of the sludge varies between 2 and 6%. Raw water quality, the type and dose of coagulant and/or
polymer used, and the method of float skimming are key factors that determine the percentage of dry solids.
Purac's experience indicates that the replacement of rubber skimmer squeegees with specially designed
nylon brushes improves dewatering of float on the sludge beach, which may result in up to a I% increase in
dry solids content.
Clarified water is collected at the bottom of the unit by a series of slotted pipes which connect to an
adjustable weir. The weir is used to adjust operating water level on the sludge beach for optimization of
sludge removal and sludge solids content.
A portion of the clarified water, typically 5 to 10% of the throughput flow, is recycled into an air saturation
system by recycle pumps. The system is designed to operate at a pressure range of 70-90 psi (485-620 kPa).
Recycle water is pumped through an eductor, which introduces air into the water stream from the air cushion
of the separation tank. A float switch in the separation tank maintains level by controlling addition of
compressed air. Tank design increases air/water contact time and separated undissolved air to maximize air
saturation. Operation efficiency of the eductor/saturation vessel combination has been measured at 75 to
80%. Air saturated recycle flows from the separation tank to the recycle dispersion system. Microbubbles of
air are released from solution, when pressure is dropped to atmospheric across the dispersion valve.
Dissolved air flotation
Combined Flotation and Filtration - Flotation over filtration
329
The FLOFILTER is a proprietary system combining two processes (flotation and filtration) into one unit.
The flotation process is operated identically to that described previously with a constant level filter placed in
the flotation tank. Figure 2 presents a cross section of a typical treatment train. The flow is regulated by a
modulating filter effluent valve controlled by a level switch on the flotation tank surface.
I . ICompressor
S.t"'.'on Yon. r: ( c. .=0
_. , - - Educ lor
--- --.1 Surf dce Skimmer
/ Recycle Pump
11 / n

...,.. .
Air
/
Fil le r Medlil
S ludge
Fig. 2. Cross section of a typical combined flotation and filtration unit.
The standard design will accept up to 3 ft (0.9m) of filter media. Any type of filter media. including GAC.
may be used to match the site-specific needs. If conditions require. modifications of the design can
accommodate increased filter media depth. Filter media rests on a nozzle-type underdrain system. Filtered
water then flows to a clearwell where process pumps recycle flow through the air saturation system.
A typical filter run lasts between I and 3 days. Filter backwashing may be initiated manually or
automatically by timer, headloss measurement. or by filtrate quality. Prior to the backwash cycle. float ing
sludge is skimmed and water level is dropped below the backwash trough. Backwashing can be achieved by
separate or combined air scour and water wash. Depending on the application. the backwash may be
returned to the head of the plant for reuse.
SURFACE WATER APPLICATIONS
DAF technology may be successfully applied to treatment of most surface waters with average turbidities up
to 100 NTU. Occasional turbidities above 100 NTU do not disrupt the process or cause significant
deterioration of effluent quality. A DAF system can exhibit significant advantages over other technologies
on a variety of water qualities including:
- Algae laden waters;
- High colored waters ;
- Low turbidity-low alkalinity waters ;
- Waters supersaturated with air;
- Cold waters.
The advantages DAF offers for treatment of the above raw water qualities can be explained through an
investigation of coagulated particles characteristics. Sedimentation removes particles which exhibit settling
velocities greater than the settling basin overflow rate. A particle which is large and has a high density will
produce a higher settling velocity than the overflow rate of the basin and will be subsequently removed by
sedimentation. Low density particles with settling velocities less than the overflow rate of the basin will not
330 S. R. ARNOLD et ai.
be removed. Chemical coagulation of waters with algae, low temperatures, low turbidities, and high color
typically produce small particles which exhibit a low density, making them difficult to remove by
sedimentation. OAF removes these particles by forming bubble/particle aggregates which rise to the surface
of the flotation tank.
The authors have been involved in many pilot scale testing projects which demonstrate advantages of the
OAF process. Examples of selected pilot plant results will be discussed below to emphasize the use of OAF
on natural and simulated water conditions.
Table I demonstrates the effectiveness of OAF during a pilot study of paper mill process makeup water.
Treatment goals require a turbidity less than I NTU and apparent color less than 10 Pt/Co units 80% of the
time. The raw water source exhibits high color, low turbidity and low alkalinity. Raw water temperatures
ranging from 0-3.5C were present during the study period. The formation of low density particles due to
low turbidity and high color, combined with increased cold water viscosity, produce a particle difficult to
remove by conventional sedimentation. Treatment utilized alum for coagulation, a cationic polymer as a
flocculation aid, and NaOH for pH control. The test met all treatment requirements and yielded a filter run
time of approximately 24 hours. Color removal was ,=96%.
Table I. Low Temperature, Low Turbidity Pilot Run
RAW FLOATED FILTERED
DATE TIME LOADING RECYCLE TEMP TURB APP TURB APP TURB APP HEADLOSS
RATE RATE COLOR COLOR COLOR
hours gpm/ft? % Recycle C NTU PlICo units NTU PlICo units NTU PT/Co units ft/hour
1-21 0 5.0 6.6 1.0 2.06 67 0.83 27 0.27 2
1-21 1.5 5.0 6.6 1.0 2.06 67 0.83 27 0.27 2 0.13
1-21 3.5 5.0 7.1 1.0 2.41 81 2.20 33 0.23 4 0.19
1-21 5.5 5.0 7.1 1.0 4.76 76 1.47 22 0.14 4 0.15
1-22 19.5 5.0 6.7 l.l 2.69 63 1.98 25 0.12 0 0.31
1-22 21.5 5.0 6.7 I.I 4.42 63 2.15 26 0.15 I 0.32
River water color occasionally reaches 200 Pt/Co units and an effort to simulate this was undertaken during
the study. A commercially prepared humic acid solution was fed into the raw water to achieve an average
apparent color of 184 Pt/Co units. Alum with a cationic polymer and NaOH for pH control was also used for
this run. Process goals were met and color removal reached 99%. Table 2 summarizes the results.
Table 2. High Color Pilot Run
RAW FLOATED FILTERED
DATE TIME LOADING RECYCLE TEMP TURB APP TURB APP TURB APP HEADLOSS
RATE RATE COLOR COLOR COLOR
hours gpm/ft? % Recycle C NTU PlICo units NTU PlICo units NTU PT/Co units ft/hour
1-23 0 5.1 6.0 I.I 3.0 139 1.l0 31 0.18 3 0.1
1-23 2 5.0 6.2 1.4 159 1.50 33 0.19 2 0.1
1-23 4 5.0 6.2 I.8
*
176 1.59 40 0.15 3 0.1
1-24 18 4.8 6.9 2.3 243 3.34 50 0.23 I 0.1
1-24 22 5.0 6.4 2.6 264 4.45 59 0.15 I 0.1
1-24 26 5.0 6.6 3.5
*
223 2.45 45 0.12 2 0.1
1-25 34 5.0 6.6 3.2 10.3 197 2.19 51 0.10 2 0.2
Algae, which adversely affects other water treatment processes, can be effectively removed by OAF
clarification. Studies preformed by the South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority (SCCRWA) in
Dissolved air flotation 331
New Haven, Connecticut (Kaminski, et al. 1991) investigated algae removal. The results indicate excellent
algae removal during a moderate bloom. Table 3 summarizes algal data produced during several SCCRWA
treatment runs.
Table 3. DAF Algae Removal
Date Dominant Raw Water DAF Removal %
Plankton Count Effluent
(#/ml) (#/ml)
9-13-90 Asterionella 2616 1 99.96
9-14-90 Asterionella 1868 0 100
9-20-90 Asterionella 2012 1 99.95
9-27-90 Asterionella 3304 1 99.97
10-1-90 Asterionella 1374 2 99.85
10-3-90 Aphanizomenon 686 1 00.85
10-4-90 Chlamydomonas 364 2 99.45
Table 4 shows the effect of DAF treatment on a typical low turbidity, low alkalinity, and low color New
England water. Flotation tank and filter surface loading was 5 gprn/ft (12m/h). Recycle was set at 8% of the
throughput flow. Alum was dosed at 15 mg/l during the entire run. The test run produced a consistent
clarified water quality and a filter run of approximately 60 hours in duration.
DAF systems have been shown (Schneider, et al. 1991) to produce a consistent effluent during episodes of
changing raw water quality and variations in flow. Investigations by Kaminski (1991) demonstrate that
without changing any other process parameters surface loading rate increases from 3 gpm/ft to 5 gpm/ft (7 to
12 m/h) did not significantly affect effluent water quality. Recent studies (Gong, et at 1993) have used an 8
gprn/ft (19.5 m/h) DAF loading rate for pilot testing on the Wachusett Reservoir, the Boston Massachusetts
area water supply.
Data obtained (Figure 3) during a pilot study performed by Purac Engineering for the Carmel Water District
#8 (Lake Mahopac, Mahopac, New York) presents the systems response to a simulated raw water turbidity
increase at constant process parameters.
Turbidity Event
OAFTreatment
Turbidity (NTU)
10
8
6
4
2
o e : : : : ~ : : : : ~ = = = : = = = : ~ =
2 3 456
Time (Hours)
Raw Floated Filtered
---- - ----
Fig. 3. Turbidity event DAF treatment.
332 S. R. ARNOLD et at.
Table 4. DAF pilot, New England
DATE TIME RUN FLOAT TURBIDITY APP COLOR FILTER
TIME pH
RAW FLOAT FILTER RAW FLOAT FILTER HEADLOSS
(hours) (units)
NTU PtICo Units ft
10-4 21:30 0.0 6.7 0.87 0.58 0.17 0.5
10-5 7:30 10.0 6.7 0.81 0.61 0.05 27 11 3 1.2
10-5 8:30 11.0 6.7 0.79 0.57 0.04 2 1.4
10-5 9:30 12.0 6.7 0.83 0.56 0.04 9 1.4
10-5 10:30 13.0 6.7 0.80 0.54 0.04 11 2 1.6
10-5 11:30 14.0 6.7 0.81 0.56 0.04 10 2 1.6
10-5 12:30 15.0 6.7 0.81 0.54 0.04 11 2 1.8
10-5 13:30 16.0 6.7 0.89 0.53 0.04 9 2 1.9
10-5 14:40 17.2 6.7 0.77 0.54 0.04 2.0
10-5 15:37 18.1 6.7 0.74 0.54 0.05 8 2 2.1
10-5 16:35 19.1 6.7 0.74 0.53 0.04 2.2
10-5 17:30 20.0 6.7 0.78 0.56 0.04 8 2 2.4
10-6 8:00 34.5 6.6 0.85 0.65 0.05 26 11 3 4.3
10-6 9:00 35.5 6.7 0.84 0.63 0.05 4.4
10-6 10:00 36.5 6.7 0.84 0.55 0.07 10 2 4.5
10-6 11:00 37.5 6.7 0.84 0.61 0.06 4.7
10-6 12:00 38.5 6.7 0.85 0.59 0.07 9 2 4.9
10-6 13:00 39.5 6.8 0.84 0.55 0.06 5.1
10-6 14:00 40.5 6.7 0.84 0.56 0.07 11 2 5.2
10-6 15:00 41.5 6.8 0.83 0.57 0.08 5.4
10-6 16:00 42.5 6.7 0.83 0.59 0.09 8 2 5.6
10-6 17:00 43.5 6.8 0.82 0.56 0.09 5.8
10-6 18:00 44.5 6.7 0.85 0.55 0.10 9 3 5.9
10-6 19:00 45.5 6.7 0.89 0.59 0.10 6.1
10-7 7:00 57.5 6.6 0.84 0.63 0.19 8.1
10-7 8:00 58.5 6.6 0.85 0.53 0.17 26 7 2 8.3
10-7 9:00 59.5 6.6 0.85 0.54 0.15 8.4
10-7 9:30 60.0 6.6 0.85 0.55 0.17 8.5
Locally obtained clay was added to the raw water stream before the pilot headworks to simulate a natural
turbidity spike. No adjustments to chemical dosing, flocculation, recycle rate, or surface loading rates were
made. Despite an increase in raw water turbidity, floated water quality remained below the typical treatment
goal of 0.5 NTU and filtered water turbidity remained below 0.05 NTU. This exemplifies a general tendency
observed at other locations, including full-scale plants, that changes in raw water characteristics are handled
well by DAF systems. In other words, a DAF system provides ample time for an operator to adjust the
process to changing conditions without loss of effluent quality.
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Flotation is also used in the treatment of municipal wastewater and sewage. Chemical treatment of sewage
with flotation has been used in Sweden since construction of the first plant in 1961. Since then numerous
plants have been built including a 40 mgd combined flotation and filtration plant in Hoboken New Jersey for
treatment of trickling filter effluent.
Dissolved air flotation 333
The DAF process offers a number of advantages compared to sedimentation. High solids removal rates, low
volumetric sludge content, low sensitivity to variations in water quality and flow, and space savings are the
main features. High oxygen content in the effluent is another important factor. In cases of increased solids
loadings the flotation stage is capable of removing a large part of the impurities, which would otherwise be
discharged untreated. In this way, the flotation system acts as a safety barrier to discharge permit violations.
In a conventional municipal sewage treatment plant, sludge is obtained from the different stages of the
process. Sludge treatment is most economical if the dry solids content of the sludge is the highest attainable.
Higher dry solids content equates to smaller sludge volumes for stabilization and dewatering.
Flotation will provide sludge with a dry solids content of about 3 to 6%, allowing direct dewatering without
the thickening step. This provides cost savings in equipment capital expenditures, space, and reduced
chemical consumption required in the thickening process.
For biological sludge, a gravity thickener provides a dry solids content of about 2%. For this type of sludge,
a flotation type thickener can raise the dry solids content to 4 to 6% with high operational reliability. Thus a
flotation thickener will reduce sludge volumes one half to one third that of a gravity thickener. This results
in substantial savings in digester volume and reduced dewatering or disposal costs.
The separation efficiency of a flotation type thickener yields a suspended solids content of less than 100
rng/l in the subnatant. The retention time for a given volume of sludge in the flotation thickener is only one
twentieth of a sedimentation thickener. This, together with the input of oxygen by recirculation, means there
is less risk of odors. The capacity of a flotation thickener is 0.8-1.2 lbs/ft
2/hr
without polymer addition. With
such additives, capacities of up to 2 lbs/ft
2/hr
are possible.
RECENT FULL SCALE APPLICATIONS
Millwood Water Treatment Plant
The town of New Castle, New York obtains water from New York City's Catskill and Croton Aqueduct. The
USEPA's Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) required these sources to be filtered by June 29, 1993. To
comply, the town performed detailed pilot studies (Nickols, 1989) to select the most effective technology
from the following processes; conventional horizontal sedimentation, inclined plate sedimentation, roughing
filters, DAF, sludge blanket and solids contact clarifiers. Due to wide variations in raw water turbidity and
occasional supersaturated dissolved oxygen in the water supplies, DAF was the recommended process. This
led to construction of the 7.5 mgd Millwood Water Treatment Plant.
Raw water is drawn by gravity from the Catskill Aqueduct. Two rapid mix basins equipped with variable
speed mixers are placed in series to provide one minute of rapid mixing. Each basin contains chemical
injection points for polyaluminium chloride, alum, chlorine, caustic soda, polymer, and potassium
permanganate.
Chemically dosed water is distributed to five identical treatment trains containing flocculators and DAF
clarifiers. Three flocculation basins placed in series provide 30 minutes of detention time. Each basin
contains a variable speed mixer for control of flocculation energy.
Each DAF clarifier is 29 feet long by 14'11" wide (8.8 x 4.5 metres), resulting in approximately 2160 ft
2
(200 m
2)
of surface area. The design surface loading rate is 2.4 gpm/ft? (6 m/h) at 7.5 rngd and a maximum
of 4.0 gpm/ft
2
(10 m/h) at 12.5 mgd. Detention time in the DAF clarifier is about 30 minutes at design flow.
The recycle system is designed for 8 to 12% recycle flows but also allows for the selection of recycle rates
outside of that range. The flow variation needed for an adjustable recycle system is achieved by varying the
number of recycle pumps in operation. Five 25% duty recycle pumps are controlled by the system computer.
The computer monitors plant flow and computes the required recycle by utilizing a recycle rate value
JWST 3/4-W
334 S. R. ARNOLD et al.
entered in its memory. Recycle pumps are turned on/off automatically according to the required recycle
flow. Each pump has its own dedicated eductor to introduce and mix air prior to entering the air separation
tank. There are two air separation tanks supplied with the system, one duty and one standby. Air saturated
recycle leaves the separation tank through a header pipe for distribution to the OAF trains. Each OAF basin
is connected to the main header by two vertical downleg. The primary vertical pipe has a manual stainless
steel butterfly valve, and the secondary pipe has a motorized butterfly valve to be put into service when
recycle demands are high. Each downleg pipe has a bottom lateral supplying evenly spaced stainless steel
dispersion valves, each with an extended stainless steel stem and handwheel for manual adjustment
Each clarifier includes an adjustable speed chain and flight skimmer controlled by an on/off timer for the
removal and thickening of sludge. Each skimmer flight is equipped with nylon brushes to assist sludge
dewatering on the sludge beach and to push sludge into a sludge hopper . Sludge is collected from each train
in the sludge tank and pumped to two drying lagoons for storage. Each clarifier is equipped with slotted
pipes on the tank bottom to draw clarified water to an adjustable effluent weir. The weir is used to adjust
clarifier water level to an optimum position on the sludge beach. Water passing over the weir is combined
with water from other treatment trains and flows to the ozone contractors.
Ozone is generated on site and injected into the flotation clarified water in two ozone contact chambers. The
chambers provide about 4.5 minutes of detention time before water enters the filters.
Six declining rate, rapid gravity type filters contain 18" of anthracite over 12" of sand. Ozonated water flows
down through the media and exits via a plastic nozzle underdrain system. Backwashing utilizes.an air scour
and separate water wash. Filtered water receives a low dose of chlorine before entering the town's
distribution system.
During start-up in August 1993, the raw water turbidity was approximately 2 NTU in the Catskill aqueduct .
An 8% recycle rate and 4 mg/I dose of Westchior FA 700S (polyaluminum hydroxychlorosulfate) resulted in
clarified water turbidities < 0.5 NTU and filtered effluent turbidities < 0.1 NTU. Flotation surface loading
rates were varied during the start-up/shakedown process. Loadings up to 4 gprnlft
2
produced no deterioration
of effluent quality.
OAF - Retrofits & Plant Conversions
OAF was introduced into the UK for potable water applications in the early 1970s. Initial interest was for the
treatment of impounded water especially those with algal problems or water which produced a light
chemical floc. Early schemes were awarded for both new sites and also for bolt-on pretreatment facilities on
existing overloaded works or works where an increased throughput was required. The ability of OAF to
provide a compact bolt-on pretreatment stage was enhanced by retrofitting existing sedimentation basins to
provide DAF pretreatment Since the mid 1970s, several works have been retrofitted by incorporating DAF
into existing structures. Future retrofit designs are currently underway for several UK and Far Eastern
schemes.
The first retrofit plant for Wrexham Water in the UK upgraded the works from 5 to 10 mgd by retrofitting
two of the existing horizontal flow sedimentation tanks with OAF. This conversion has run very successfully
for some 16 years treating River Dee water with turbidities in the range 5 to 30 generally to less than I NTU.
Floated sludge from the units is dewatered directly by centrifugation. The established success of this
conversion and experience uprating a 9 mgd works at EI Bustan in Egypt, laid the foundation for the more
recent work undertaken in Malaysia.
Metropolitan Utilities Corporation. Sultan Idris Shah II (SIS II) Water Treatment Works
The Metropolitan Utilities Corporation holds the concession to supply water to the Ipoh area of the central
Malaysian state of Perak. MUC is a joint venture operation comprising a number of companies including
North West Water International of the UK who are responsible for operations and maintenance.
Dissolved air flotation 335
The SIS II works was originally constructed in 1978 and comprised six horizontal flow sedimentation tanks
and 6 rapid gravity filters designed for a 24 mgd throughput. The plant was designed and laid out such that a
mirror stage extension could be provided to double the throughput at some future date. The plant treats water
direct from the River Parit with a quality as indicated in Table 5. Chemical treatment was with aluminium
sulfate.
Part of the MUC concession strategy was to increase the output of SIS II to 72 mgd by the year 2000, a
trebling of the initial design figure. The plant extension was to be phased to match projected demand as
shown in Table 6. In 1989, Purac Limited was asked to make proposals for the stagewise uprating of the
works using a OAF retrofit of the existing sedimentation units. OAF was selected primarily because of the
nature of the raw water and the hydraulic constraints of the works. The existing rapid gravity filters would
be refurbished and additional new filters added to meet the plant output requirements.
Table 5. River Parit Raw Water Quality
pH
Temperature (C)
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/I)
Colour (Hazen)
Turbidity (NTU)
Table 6. Phasing of Works Extension
6.0 to 7.9
24 to 31
30 to 50
25 to 440
10 to 290
Phase Date Sedimentation Flotation Total
# Streams mgd # Streams mgd mgd
1992 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 23 6 12 35
2 1994 1,2 & 3 14 4,5 & 6 36 50
3 1999
*
0 1 to 6 72 72
Table 7. UK Design Guidelines
Flocculation # Stages - 2
Flocculator Retention Time (mins) - IO/stage
Flocculator G Values (sec")
Surface Loading
Recycle
Air (gms/m")
- 10-50 variable
- 4 gpm/ft" max
- 8-10%
- 6.7 to 12
The existing sedimentation basins were 52' width x 142' length x 13' liquor depth. An unmixed flocculation
zone was provided in the first 20' of basin. The original tank design is shown schematically in Fig. 4. The
head loss across the basin was negligible thus affecting the method of sludge removal. The retrofit process
design was based upon conventional UK practice as noted in Table 7. Sludge was removed from the units by
"floating off' over submerged channels into a sludge collection trough. The original retrofit design utilized a
number of sludge channels along the length of the basin. The original retrofit design is shown schematically
in Fig. 5. The overall effect on plant footprint is shown in Fig. 6.
336 S. R. ARNOLD et al.
Fig. 4. Original sedimentation tank design.
SlCTlOfoW. L[VATIOH
.., ... ..
1--1 - - - -

- - - - -
i su.cc:r. Ctl .l.'H\ i
H - -
I I I
- - - -
. -
I
! !
-+ - - -
i i
.....
- -
.. , ... ..
PI.J.N ONSLUDGE COLUCTIQN
Fig. 5. Original retrofit design.
SO'
,..
SO' ISS'
DISSOlVED AIR
SUllOlNG VESSELS
D DO


i i
FilTERS

i i
S( OIW[ NUHON BASIN

s s
I I
SPINE
i i . .
j ' -'-'-'-' -'-' - ' -',' -' -
PIP[
INUT
i i
tABU rne
rrc.
, ,
l/CH,I, NNEl
t '-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'r' -' -
! ! 2 2
,

! !
I I

ORIGINAL " IRROR UIAGE
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
EXTENSIOIl
WIKlhG CHANNEL
ADwlN
I
COWi red lloe( ulol ionbotins
4: CH[ WICAlS
OSl en lIocculot,on
Fig. 6. Plant footprint.
t:::::::::l
a
Dissolved air flotation 337
The recycle was provided from a pretreated water take off point in the filter inlet channel. Air saturation was
achieved using air eductors and recycle saturation vessels operating at 5-6 barg. The saturators were fed by
inverter driven centrifugal pumps the required recycle flow being set on a series of injection valves within
the flotation basin.
During initial site survey work, limited jar tests and laboratory flotation tests had been undertaken. Also, it
was apparent during the survey that floc tended to be well formed in the feed channel to the sedimentation
tanks. However, to provide flexibility and cater for different conditions with the final increased throughput
the first stream converted to OAF had two flocculator stages. Tests on this first stream have shown that
flocculation times and/or stages could have been reduced.
In operation, the floated sludge from the units was thin, typically 0.2 to 0.5% dry solids. Desludging was
carried out simply on a time basis. The flotation zone was covered to protect the sludge carpet from rain
storms which would effect floated water quality.
The thin floated sludge concentration was not unexpected and in line with the original design calculations.
However, MUC wanted to minimize losses and also reduced discharges from the plant. As a result a single
transverse sludge channel was designed to replace the initial lengthwise units. This system was a significant
improvement with dry solids in the rate 0.7 to 1.5 w/w. The desludging operation was completed in 5
minutes and carried out every 4 to 8 hours depending upon raw water conditions. The commissioning staff
considered that higher sludge concentrations could be possible though perhaps undesirable without
modifying other aspects of downstream sludge pipework design. Floated water quality was similar during
either method of sludge removal.
Figure 7 displays average floated water turbidity as a function of raw water turbidity for basin loadings of
9.6 to 12 mgd (2.75 to 3.4 gpm/ft
2
) and 8 to 10% recycle. Data points are average daily values with samples
being collected typically 6 times per day. During the same time periods clarified water from the existing
sedimentation basins was typically 1.0 to 21.0 NTU (ave 3.5 NTU) at basin loadings of the order 0.47
gpm/ft
2.
June 1993 to November 1993
'. : I.:
10
8
~
=
6
~
~
~
4
"
..
I 2
u,
0
0
. ..t-:
.. . : ~ . : .
50
.-
0 ..
r
. .
100
RawTurbidity (Ave NTU)
150 200
Fig. 7. Performance of DAF System-SIS II WTW M.D.C.S.B.
Results cover normal plant operation and practices on the works. It should be noted that the chemistry
applied is the same for OAF and sedimentation streams. Pre-lime has been added and found to be more
important for OAF performance at higher aluminium sulfate doses for raw water turbidities> 50 NTU.
Polymer is now also applied mainly to improve the performance of the sedimentation basin. Both Purac and
338 s.R. ARNOLD et al.
MUC consider that further optimization will improve on the current DAF removal performance of
approximately 95%.
The conversion for the next stage is currently underway, utilizing only one mixed flocculation stage and the
transverse channel arrangement for sludge removal.
It is now accepted that the DAF process has broader applications than just for algal laden, thin waters. In
addition, early concerns about the apparent complexity of the process have largely been overcome. The
process is easy to retrofit and capable of achieving large throughput increases within existing structures. It is
tolerant to load variations and can be started up and shutdown quickly. The headloss across the process is
low and this is an advantage compared with certain other retrofit systems. The sludge removal system has
been designed within a plant's hydraulic constraints and basin geometry.
Industrial Wastewater
Dissolved air flotation is a well accepted treatment process for paper, refinery, food processing and textile
industrial waste discharges. A full scale DAF clarifier was installed in December 1993 for treatment of
textile dye wastewater in Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania USA.
Textile dyeing facilities have traditionally used large settling lagoons and aeration basins to reduce BOD,
TSS, and color in wastewater discharges. Increasing regulations on direct discharge permits and more
stringent pre-treatment standards by local POTWs force the industry to respond by upgrading to more
efficient and sophisticated means of treatment. Suspended solids and BOD impose a burden of removal and
disposal on the POTW. Dark colors associated with the industrial discharge prevent penetration of sunlight
and thereby reduce bacterial degradation of BOD during aeration. High color discharges are aesthetically
unappealing while a significant number of dyes have been shown to exhibit varying degrees of toxicity on
fish, algae and aerobic processes (Stahr, et al., 1981).
Chemical coagulation is a viable alternative for color reduction, however the amount of coagulant required
for optimum treatment is often exceedingly high with dosages of 500-1000 mg/I not uncommon (Stahr, et
al., 1981). A DAF pilot study was undertaken in July 1992 to evaluate process performance, chemical
dosages and full scale conceptual design parameters at Wolfe Dye and Bleach Works in Shoemakersville,
Pennsylvania.
Table 8. Wastewater Characteristics
TEMP. pH TRUE TSS BOD5
COLOR
c
units Pt/Co units mg/I mg/I
Historical Averages 15-32 8.0-9.0 2000-2500 650 <100
Pilot Study, July 1992 28 8.5 1740-2015 200-340 44
Full Scale Startup, Dec, 1993 17-30 8.5-8.7 1600-1900 375-410
The Subject facility is a commission dye house employing 89 persons. The plant uses both fiber reactive and
direct dyeing processes in a variety of colors to serve regional clients as well as southern and midwestern US
accounts. At full production the operation produces 120,000 pounds per day (54,430 kg/d) of dyeing and
80,000 pounds per day (36290 kg/d) of bleaching for cotton and polycotton blends. Mill discharges are
estimated at 200,000 gpd (760 m-/day) during peak production. The plant currently operates at less than
capacity 5 days per week. Present treatment utilizes two aeration lagoons in series prior to discharge to the
local POTW. Wastewater parameters vary due to daily operational changes and weekend shutdowns.
Wastewater characteristics are presented in Table 8.
Dissol ved air flotation 339
Industrial discharge goals were contingent upon the capabilities and permit limits of the Shoemakersville
WWTP. Piloting effluent goals were set at 200 mg/I TSS, 300 PtlCo color units and 6 to 9 pH. BOD was not
a factor in process evaluation.
The pilot unit's 9 ft
2
flotation tank was operated at loading rates of 1.6 to 3.0 gpmlft
2
and recycle rates of 8%
to 50% at 80 psi. Detention time within the two stage flocculators varied from 13 to 20 minutes. A cationic
coagulant of medium molecular weight was tested at 200 to 400 mg/I in combination with several high
charge cationic flocculants which looked promising in jar tests. Flocculant addition rates of 5 to 10 mg/I
were investigated with and without pH adjustment. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) dosages of 1200 to 1800
mg!l were also briefly examined.
Optimum pilot treatability was achieved without pH adjustment using 200 mg/l of coagulant and JO mg/I of
flocculant at 2gpmlft
2,
12% recycle and 20 minutes flocculation time. Sludge generation amounted to 0.8%
of treatment flow. The air to raw water solids ratio was 0.037. Effluent color and suspended solids were less
than treatment goals at removal rates of 87% and 74% respectively. NaOCI results did not meet effluent
color targets despite 75% solids removal rates. This was disappointing since NaOCI generated a sludge that
appeared easier to dewater in volumes of half those experienced with polymer treatment.
Design of a full scale DAF clarifier proceeded as a result of successful piloting. A design flow of 250,000
gpd (946m
3/d)
was chosen. An in-line static mixer was used prior to two stage flocculation of 20 minutes
total detention time. Historical wastewater solids levels nearly twice those experienced in the pilot study
dictated increasing full scale recycle flow to 20% of plant throughput. The air saturation system was
designed for 85 psi using an air eduction device and pressurized separation vessel. Air supply compressor
and recycle pump were each supplied with one standby unit as backup. Tankage and piping were constructed
of 304 stainless steel materials. A 2.0 gpm/ft
2
(4.9 m/h) design loading rate was chosen as indicated by pilot
tests.
Plant commissioning took place in December 1993. A medium molecular weight organic cationic coagulant
was chosen for addition pre static mixer. Although more expensive than its inorganic counterpart, organic
coagulants typically offer the advantage of lower dosages, less sludge production and a broader pH operating
range (Davis, 1991). Flocculant was dosed through a dispersing header after the second stage flocculator.
Equipment startup utilized 200 mg/I of coagulant and 10 mg/I of flocculant at design flow. DAF clarifier
effluents less than 300 PtlCo units and 100 mg/I TSS were observed in the initial weeks of operation.
Removal rates were approximately 84% and 82% respectively. Tests of second stage flocculator solids
content revealed an air to solids ratio of 0.036. Sludge solids and volumes have yet to be accurately
measured. These preliminary results support the need for full scale design based upon pilot treatability
studies which incorporate historical water quality data.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors with to acknowledge the following persons for the contribution and assistance in this paper . Mr
F. Beaumont, Operations Manager, North West Water International (MUC's Operation and Maintenance
Managers) and Dr S. Tibke, Water Supply Manager, North West Water International (MUC's Operation and
Maintenance Managers).
REFERENCES
Davis, J. (1991). Improving Dye Waste Water Treatment. American DyestuffReporter. March 1991.
Gong, B., Edzwald, J. K. and Tran, T. (1993) . Pilot Plant Comparison of Dissolved Air Flotation and Direct Filtration.
Proceedings AWWA Annual Conference, San Antonio Texas.
Gregory, R. and Zabel, T. (1990). Sedimentation and Flotation. In: Wmer Quality and Treatment. AWWA, 4th ed, McGraw-Hili,
Inc. New York
Kaminski, G. S., Dunn, H. J. and Edzwald, J. K. (1991). Comparison of DAF to Other High-Rate Clarification Methods.
Proceedings AWWA Annual Conference, Philadelphia PA.
340 S. R. ARNOLD et al.
Malley. Jr. J. P. and Edzwald, J. K. (1991). Concepts for Dissolved Air Flotation Treatment of Drinking Waters. J. of Water
Supply and Technology : Aqua. 40. 1-7.
Nickols, D. (1989). Pretreatment Alternati ves for Catskill water . J. New England Water Works Association . 4. 175-187.
Schneider. O. D. Nickols, D. and Lehan. E. R. (1991). Dissolved Air Flotation and Polyaluminum Chloride-An Effective.
Economical Combination. Paper presented at AWWA Conference. Philadelphia. PA.
Stahr. R. W. Boepple, C. P. and Knocke, W. R. (1981) . Textile Waste Treaunent: Color removal and solids handling
characteristics. Virginia Pol y technic Institute and State University. Blacksburg Virgina,
Zabel, T. (1984) . Flotation in Water Treatment . In: The Scientific Basis of Flotati on. (Ed. KJ. Ives), NATO ASI Series . Boston:
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