Using Compost in Crop Production Systems Katherine Buckley, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Brandon, MB R7A 5Y3 Email:

Kbuckley@agr.gc.ca The agricultural industry is currently challenged by the need to re-engineer its traditional reliance on synthetics and petro-chemical based inputs and to re-focus on environmentally balanced organic processes. However, to effectively and economically meet this challenge requires much more than simply swapping out chemical fertilizers for natural organic inputs. Reduced input agriculture entails the creation of a balanced system that unites the technologies of producing and using organic and inorganic inputs with an intimate knowledge of the characteristics of the soils resource. Composting livestock waste provides new opportunities for the best use of organic nutrients in agricultural systems to sustain the soils resource, reduce nutrient loss to the environment and enhance nutrient use efficiency in cropping systems. There appears to be plenty of evidence that short-term yield reductions can be prevented during the change-over to low-input systems by more strategic use of organic-based and synthetic-based nutrients and biologically diverse cropping systems. The composting process Composting is a managed biological oxidation process that converts large particles in a mixture of organic materials to a more homogeneous, humus-like material (Fig. 1). Through the composting process, organic matter is decomposed, first rapidly, then at a slower rate, to a stable organic mass. This process occurs in nature but at a much slower rate than can be achieved by controlled manipulation of organic residues. Composting of manure in feedlot or deep-bedded housing system begins as the animals

Raw materials Heat Water Ammonia Carbon dioxide Finished compost

Heterogeneous mixture of OM, minerals, microorganisms & water

Homogeneous mixture of OM, minerals, microorganisms & water

Oxygen

Oxygen

Figure 1. The carbon, chemical energy, protein and water in the finished compost is less than that in the raw materials. The finished compost has more humus. Volume reduction may be greater than 50%.

trample the manure into the bedding material. All of the organisms required for decomposition are associated with the manure and the organic substrate used for bedding. However all of the conditions required for composting are not met in the bedding pack. Increasing the mass and mixing the manure/bedding will insulate the pile against heat loss and introduce enough air to start the rapid composting process. However, unless oxygen can penetrate the mass, the pile will cool or undergo anaerobic fermentation and become very odourous. This often happens in badly managed piles or windrows which are allowed to collapse under wet conditions. Temperature increases caused by microbial activity are noticeable within a few hours or days of windrow formation depending on the substrate (Fig. 2). Temperature of composting materials usually increases rapidly to 49-65C and remains in this range for 2 weeks or more. As active composting slows, temperatures gradually drop to 45C and then to close to air temperature. In some cases the temperature may exceed 65C and destroy important microorganisms and increase N loss. A curing period follows the active composting stage. While curing, the materials continue to decompose but at a much slower rate. The rate of oxygen consumption decreases to the point where the compost can be piled prior to removal.

Figure 2. Temperatures rise quickly after formation of the windrow (thermophilic phase). Readily degradable nutrients and available oxygen are soon exhausted and temperatures start to fall. Mixing the windrow restores aerobic conditions, reduces particle size and exposes new food sources to the microorganisms causing the temperature to rise again. When additional turning of the compost (moisture level of ~50%) does not result in a sharp increase in temperature, the compost has entered the mesophilic phase where slow degradation continues until compost temperatures drop to ambient (curing phase). The composting process does not stop at a particular point. Material continues to break down for sometime however the compost becomes relatively stable and useful after 12 to 13 weeks of active composting. To be safe for use for horticultural purposes a curing period is recommended. In Manitoba, beef manure can be easily composted during the period from May to August and field applied in the fall or piled for curing and applied in the spring. Compost is judged to be mature by characteristics related to its use and handling, such as a uniformly dry crumbly texture, a low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (13:1 to 10:1), low oxygen demand, low temperature and pleasant earthy odour. To promote this biological process, three characteristics of the composting material mixture are of key importance.

1. C:N Ratio Microbial growth utilizes approximately 25-30 units of carbon for every unit of nitrogen, and so the desirable C:N ratio for a compost mixture is in the range 20 to 40 on a dry matter basis. Manure is rich in nitrogen (the C:N of dairy manure is around 15) and so it should be mixed with carbon-rich material such as straw (C:N 100) or wood shavings (C:N 600). If the C:N ratio is too low, there will be a surplus of nitrogen and this will likely appear as ammonia and be lost by volatilization. This is undesirable for a number of reasons. Firstly, the more manure nitrogen that can be retained in the compost, the higher the fertilizer value of the product; secondly, ammonia is considered a toxic compound and large releases of ammonia are detrimental to the environment and lastly, ammonia is an odorous gas that can also compromise respiratory health. On the other hand, if the C:N ratio is too high, not all of the carbon in the mixture will be utilized, and the decomposition of material will slow down and, may be incomplete after the expected duration of the composting process has passed. 2. Moisture Content Like all life forms, the composting micro-organisms require water. The desired range of moisture contents is 50-70% (wet basis). While mixtures with higher moisture contents can be composted, problems can arise if the pore spaces in the mixture become totally filled with water. This creates anaerobic conditions, which are incompatible with the composting process. Manure typically has a moisture content of over 80% and so some drier, carbon-rich material should be mixed with it to lower the moisture content. Moisture requirement to continue the composting process decline as decomposition progresses and the particle size is reduced. It is not recommended that high moisture levels be maintained throughout the composting process (Richard et al. 2002). 3. Porosity In order to keep the process aerobic, the mixture should have a structure that allows air to be retained within, and to pass through it. In general, manure by itself will not satisfy this criterion, therefore it needs to be mixed with a material that will provide a more open and porous structure. If straw is used as the carbon rich additive, it can provide this structure by itself. However, if material such as fine sawdust is used, additional bulking material, such as wood chips, is appropriate. In such cases the wood chips will not decompose significantly since they have a relatively low surface area and their carbon is not readily available. They can be screened out of the final product and re-used. A mixture that is insufficiently porous will result in large volumes of material becoming anaerobic, decreasing the rate of decomposition and increasing the potential for odour production. Advantages of on-farm composting to the producer An efficient recycling method for crop residues or managing spoiled produce, grain, hay or straw Reduced moisture, weight and volume of organic materials Reduced fly, weed, pathogen and odour problems in manures and other agricultural by-products Increased uniformity of organic material Potential source of revenue if on-farm organic waste can be combined with waste from food processing

Compost has the greatest value when used on soils with low fertility or soil that have structural problems impacting crop growth. On heavy soils, compost helps to reduce compaction and increases infiltration. Compost use on sandy and light silty soils increases water-holding capacity and reduces crusting problems. Many foreign environmental agencies, concerned with degradation of soil and water quality in developing countries, are now encouraging recovery of organic byproducts in agriculture and food processing through on-farm composting (Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region 2005). As well as being a source of soil nutrients, compost amendments increase soil cation

exchange capacity, buffering capacity, chelating capacity, soil aggregation, aggregate stability, waterholding capacity, soil porosity, water infiltration, and populations and biodiversity of soil micro- and macro-biota. Composted agricultural residues have a much greater residual effect on soil tilth and fertility than most synthetic fertilizers because of the slow-release character of the macro-nutrient components. Colacicco (1982) estimated that the cumulative agronomic and economic value of some organic materials applied to agricultural soils could be more than five times greater in the post-application period than the value realized during the year of application. Overview of composting methods There are at least five basic approaches to composting: 1. Passive or open-pile composting 2. Windrow composting using a loader or specialized windrow turners 3. Aerated static pile systems using perforated pipes and blower systems 4. A variety of fully contained or in-vessel systems Usually only the first two methods are performed outdoors and are more common on the Prairies so the following discussion will pertain to these methods of composting. Site preparation to prevent environmental impacts of composting is very important and professional advice should be sought when planning a large compost site. Mixing the raw manure Fortunately livestock manure and bedding materials contain an excellent combination of ingredients for fast composting. A little premixing of the wetter and dryer material is all that is needed to initiate the process. Often this can be done by using the beaters on a solid manure spreader to deliver the manure/bedding into windrows at the composting site. If using a loader to transport the material and form the windrows, distribute wet and dryer material during the formation of the rows and mixing will be accomplished each time the material is aerated. Passive or open-pile composting Open-pile composting is suitable for small to moderate-sized farms operating under a low level of management. This method involves forming piles of organic materials and leaving them undisturbed until the materials have decomposed into a stabilized product. Small piles are designed to take advantage of natural air movement. As an actively composting pile heats from the inside, the warm air rises, pulling cooler air inward from the sides and bottom. To allow sufficient air exchange and heat release when composting manures, the pile height should not exceed 5 feet (width of windrow is about 2 times the height). Wind currents also move air through the pile and, if porosity is too high, moisture loss may be excessive dropping below the optimum required for efficient composting. In general, larger piles are more difficult to aerate effectively because of pile compaction. The feedstock needs to have a strong structure and wood bark has been shown to be useful in composting by this method. The costs of the labour and equipment used to form and mix the initial piles are the largest operation expenses. Farm loaders and manure spreaders are usually briefly diverted from other farm uses to form and mix piles. A disadvantage of passive composting is that if the pile becomes too wet or compacted, it can quickly become anaerobic, odourous, heavy and difficult to handle. Although there is significant volume reduction using this method, the passive process is long in duration compared to the turned windrow method. If the composting site has not been specially prepared unprotected piles can be a source of nutrient runoff. Turned windrow and piles Using this method windrow and piles are agitated or turned to actively manage the composting process. The most important effect of turning is rebuilding porosity to improve air exchange. Turning also 4

exchanges material at the windrow surface with material from the interior. In this way materials are composted evenly and weed seeds, pathogens and fly larvae may be destroyed by the high interior temperatures. During the turning process, mechanical tearing of the composting mixture further blends composting materials and reduces particle size. Excessive turning increases the cost of processing, cools and dries the compost, accelerates nitrogen loss, encourages the growth of undesirable molds and hinders the composting process. The equipment used for turning determines the size, shape and spacing of individual windrows or piles (Fig. 3). The size of the operation will determine whether front-end loaders or special turning machines are used to manage the windrows. In many cases using under-sized equipment increases the cost per tonne of producing a composted product. Figure 3. The figure on the left shows windrow heights and separation distance for the turned windrow methods depending on the type of equipment used. Volumes of material processed using the tractor-mounted loader can range from a hundred to several thousand cubic yards per year. The figures below show a small PTOdriven windrow turner that can process roughly 400 tonnes of material per hour. Larger machines including self-propelled models can process over 4,000 tonnes per hour. A loader is still required for pile maintenance (illustrations from Rynk 1992)

Use of compost The greatest value of compost is for production of horticultural crops mainly because of the proportions of the macro-elements, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (approximately 1-0.5-2.2) that are ideal for vegetable and flowering species. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that applications of compost other organic materials are of utmost importance in maintaining the tilth, fertility and productivity of degraded agricultural soils, protecting them from wind and water erosion, and preventing nutrient losses through runoff and leaching. Composted organic residues have predictable beneficial effects on soil physical properties such as increased water-holding capacity, soil aggregation, soil aeration and permeability and decreased soil crusting and bulk density.

Published reports of nutrient availability of applied composted manures and organic residues are difficult to interpret and utilize directly since factors such as variability in climate and soil type, species differences, diversity and amounts of added carbonaceous amendments as well as soil and crop management practices all influence crop response to compost. Hadas and Pornoy (1994) reported that the mineralization constant for composted manure was commonly 5 to 10% y-1. DeLuca and DeLuca (1997) summarized research studies indicating that N mineralization rates for cattle manure compost varied from 5 to 34% yr-1. Eghball and Power (1999) found an N availability of 15% for feedlot manure compost in the first year and 8% residual N availability in the second year after application. Eghball (2000) later reported that of fall-applied organic N, 11% was mineralized from composted feedlot manure compared with 21% from non-composted manure during the succeeding growing season. In a comprehensive study, Griffin et al. (2000) indicated that the amount of N in manure mineralized in a cropping season varied with the different manures: cattle manure, 25%; dairy manure, 35%; poultry manure, 60%; and swine manure, 50%. Long term studies like those of Sanchez et al. (2001) demonstrated that N mineralization was highest in soils under diverse rotations and lowest in monoculture cropping systems. It appears that roots of certain rotational crops may have a stimulatory effect on N mineralization in soil receiving organic amendments. Experiments with different carbon amendments (Miller et al. 2004) indicated that bedding type influenced crop and soil nutrient parameters resulting in higher available soil N with straw rather than wood bedding. In simulation studies to develop a computer model as a predictor of plantavailable nitrogen (PAN), Gale et al. (2005) demonstrated that first-season PAN was related to initial chemical characteristics such as C:N ratio, NH4-N and the degree of organic matter stability (Table 1). Table 1. Amendment characteristics and PAN (adapted from Gale et al. 2005) Field Lab Amendment C:N NH4-N PAN PAN (%) (%) g kg-1 All field and lab experiments Dry broiler litter 9 6.3 41 45 Composted dry broiler litter 9 7.3 38 45 Dairy solids 27 1.5 9 1 Composted dairy solids 20 0.6 5 8 Yard trimmings 13 3 19 25 Composted yard trimmings 17 0.7 5 5 Rabbit manure 11 7.7 27 42 Composted rabbit manure 10 0 22 19

n 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2

Measured and modeled PAN were linearly-related in both the laboratory (r2 = 0.74) and field experiments (r2 = 0.78). The model tended to over-predict PAN for materials with high initial NH4-N. There is evidence from recent studies that P indices obtained by rapid fractionation methods can be successfully used as indicators of plant-available nutrients in organic amendments. Zuomuya et al. (2006) reported that total water-extractable P and total P concentration of the amendments were adequate to model amendment-derived cumulative P uptake in plant systems. Sikora and Enkiri (2004) considered poultry litter compost equal to triple superphosphate in supplying P to fescue. Compost can be surface applied in the spring or fall and even a small-seeded crop can be direct-seeded into the compost layer in the spring (provided that the salts content of the compost does not inhibit seedling development). Because of the high phosphorus and potassium levels in compost, heavy applications on an annual basis are not recommended. However, this nutrient mixture is easily managed by monitoring phosphorus levels in soil, applying compost according to the crop phosphorus requirements and rotating cereals with legumes. The use of stabilized nutrients such as composted livestock manures, during the first year of the changeover to an organic-based crop production system, 6

may prevent substantial yield reductions that often occur with the abrupt removal of chemical fertilizers. This could be a strategy for making the transition to organic farming without losing farm income.

References Colacicco, D. 1982, Economic aspects of composting. BioCycle 23(5):26-30. DeLuca, T.H. and DeLuca, D.K. 1997. Composting for feedlot manure management and soil quality. J. Prod. Agric. 10:235-241. Eghball, B. 2000. Nitrogen mineralization from field-applied beef cattle manure or compost. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:2024-2030. Eghball, B. and Power, J.F. 1999. Phosphorus- and nitrogen-based manure and compost applications: corn production and soil phosphorus. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63:895-901. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region. 2005. Compost production: a manual for Asian farmers. Z-S. Chen and C. Bejosano-Gloria (eds.) Taipei 106, Taiwan ROC: FFTC. 73p. Gale, E.S., Sullivan, D.M., Hemphill, D., Cogger, C.G., Bary, A.I. and Myhre, E.A. 2005. Predicting nitrogen availability from organic amendments: field, laboratory and computer simulation. Pages 236-243 in Proc. Western Nutrient Management Conf., 2005 Mar. 03-04. Salt Lake City, UT. Potash & Phosphate Institute, Brookings, SD. Griffin, T.S. and Honeycutt, C.W. 2000. Using growing degree days to predict nitrogen availability from livestock manures. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:1876-1882 Hadas, A and Pornoy, R. 1994. Nitrogen and carbon mineralization rates of composted manures incubated in soils. J. Environ. Qual. 23:1184-1189. Miller, J.J., Beasley, B.W., Larney, F.J. and Olson, B.M. 2004. Barley dry matter yield, crop uptake, and soil nutrients under fresh and composted manure containing straw or wood-chip bedding. Can. J. Plant Sci. 84:987-999. Richard, T.L., Hamelers, H.V.M., Veeken, A. and Silva, T. 2002. Moisture relationships in composting processes. Compost Sci. Util. 10:286-302. Rynk. R, van de Kamp, M, Willson, G.B., Singliey, M.E., Richard, T.L., Kolega, J.J., Gouin, F.R., Laliberty, Jr., L., Kay, D., Murphy, D.W., Hoitink, H.A.J. and Brinton, W.F. 1992. On-farm Composting handbook. R. Rynk (ed.), Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service Bull. 54. Ithaca, NY. Sanchez, J.E., Willson, T.C., Kizilkaya, K. Parker, E. and Harwood, R. 2001. Enhancing the mineralizable nitrogen pool through substrate diversity in long term cropping systems. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65:1442-1447. Sikora, L.J. and Enkiri, N.K. 2004. Availability of compost P to fescue under nonlimiting N conditions. Compost Sci. Util. 12:280-284. Zvomuya, F., Helgason, B., Larney, F.J., Janzen, H.H., Akinremi, O.O. and Olson, B.M. 2006. Predicting phosphorus availability from soil-applied composted and non-composted cattle feedlot manure. J. Environ. Qual. 35:928-937.