Chapter 1 Melody: Musical Line Chapter Outline 1.

. Defining Melody More popularly called a tune Succession of single tones we perceive as a whole Can be compared to words in a sentence Can be described by distinct characteristics Range: the distance between the lowest and highest notes Contour: overall shape (descending, arch, wave, etc.) The distance between two notes in a melody is called an interval A melody that moves by small intervals is called conjunct A melody that moves by larger, disconnected intervals is described as disjunct 2. The Structure of Melody Phrase: unit of meaning within larger structure Cadence: the resting place where phrases are punctuated Singers and instrumentalists often breathe at cadences Cadences can be conclusive (complete) or inconclusive (incomplete) Rhyme scheme: musical phrases generally align with poetic phrases A high point in the melodic line (peak in intensity annd range) is the climax Countermelody: an added melody Can be secondary in importance to main melody Can be of equal importance to another melody Chapter 2 Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time Chapter Outline 1. Music is propelled forward by rhythm Rhythm: length, or duration, of individual notes Beat: regular pulsation Accented beats are stronger, providing rhythmic pulse Meter: patterns into which rhythmic pulses are organized Measure: in notation, a unit of a fixed number of beats 2. Metrical patterns Musical time is organized in recurring patterns Typically 2, 3, or 4 beats grouped in a measure Downbeat: first accented beat in a measure Duple meter: two beats per measurestrong, weak

Triple meter: three beats per measurestrong, weak, weak Quadruple mete: four beats per measurestrongest, weak, strong, weak Simple meters: each beat is subdivided into two or four Compound meters: each beat is subdivided into three Sextuple meter: six beats to the measure Strongest, weak, weak, strong, weak, weak Syncopation: deliberate disruption of regular patterns Accent is shifted to a weak beat or offbeat (in between the beats) Polyrhythm: simultaneous use of different rhythmic patterns Nonmeteric: music without a strong sense of beat or meter Chapter 3 Harmony: Musical Space Chapter Outline 1. Harmony describes the simultaneous events in music Harmony describes the notes that form chords and the progression from one chord to another. Chord: three or more tones sounded together Scale: collection of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order Syllables or numbers are assigned to the tones of the scale Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do or 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8 Octave: interval of do-do or 1-8 Triad: a combination of three tones, built from a scale 2. The Organization of Harmony Tonic: first note of scale (do), assumes a greater importance Serves as a home base for other notes Tonality: principle of organization around the tonic Major tonality: perceived as bright Minor tonality: perceived as more subdued 3. Consonance and Dissonance Harmonies create the sense of tension and release Harmonic movement tends toward a goal, or resolution Dissonance: a combination of tones that seem unstable, unresolved Consonance: a stable and fulfilling combination of tones Chapter 4 The Organization of Musical Sounds Chapter Outline 1. The octave is the basic interval in music In Western music, the octave is divided into 12 equal semitones, referred to as half steps The major and minor scales are made up of 7 pitches drawn from the 12 semitones

This system has been the basis of Western music for nearly 400 years 2. The Formation of Major and Minor Scales The 12 half steps of the octave constitute the chromatic scale Two half steps make one whole step On a keyboard the scale is made of the white and black keys in the octave White keys: C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C Black keys are in between the white keys The half step above a note is called a sharp (for example, F#) The half step below a note is called a flat (for example, Gb ) Key: refers to a group of related tones that revolve around the tonic Tonic = central tone, or keynote 3. The Major Scale Scales are sequences of pitches C major scale created by playing only white keys from C to C Major is the most familiar scale pattern Syllables have been used to represent it: Do-re-mi-fasol-la-ti-do On a keyboard there are no black keys between E and F (mi fa) or B and C (tido) Distance between E and F and between B and C is a half step The other white keys are a whole step apart All major scales follow the same pattern of whole and half steps, the mode Major mode: w-w-h-w-w-w-h The most important pitch in the scale is the tonic (do) For Western listeners, there is a natural pull towards do The pitch of active harmony is the fifth pitch, the dominant (sol) Joy to the World and Ah! vous dirai-je, maman (iMusic) are examples of music in a major mode 4. The Minor Scale The minor scale differs from the major mode in mood, coloring and mode Minor mode: w-h-w-w-h-w-w

5. 6.

7. 8.

Haydn's Surprise Symphony, II (minor variation) and Bach's Toccata in D minor (iMusic) is an example of music in the minor mode Diatonic and Chromatic Scales Music that clearly uses the 7 tones of a scale is considered diatonic Introduction of tones foreign to a key weakens the tonic relationship Chromatic tones do not "belong" to the key Composers use chromaticism for color Listen to Schumann's "In the lovely month of May" for an example of chromaticism (iMusic) Other Scale Types Non-Western cultures divide the octave differently Pentatonic: five-note scale Tritonic: three-note scale Heptatonic: seven-note scale (different modes from major/minor) Microtonal scale: based on intervals smaller than half steps Similar to "blue note" inflection in jazz Some scales have different ascending and descending scalar patterns Indian ragas include different pitches in ascending and descending scales (iMusic example of Indian scales: Bhimpalsi) The musical system and tones chosen determine the character of the music The Major-Minor System Active and Rest Chords Tonic triad: built on the first note of the scale Tonic triad represents a point of rest Dominant triad: built on the fifth scale step Most active triad, seeks to resolve to the tonic Subdominant triad: built on the fourth scale step Active triad, seeks to resolve to the tonic For a clear example of active and rest chords, listen to Battle Hymn of the Republic (iMusic) The Key as a Form-Building Element The key is the prime factor for musical unity Contrast between keys in a piece creates interest Modulation: the process of changing from one key to another Modulations can be frequent or few, subtle or abrupt Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik modulates in the first

minute from G major to D Major (iMusic) Transposition: shifting all the tones of a piece to a new pitch level The pattern of whole and half steps does not change chapter 9 Western Musical Instruments Chapter Outline 1. String Instruments (chordophones) Bowed string instruments each have four strings and are sounded by drawing a bow across the strings with the right hand. Violin: smallest and highest-pitched member of the family Viola: somewhat larger than the violin and pitched lower Violoncello: primarily known as the cello; lower in range than the viola Double bass: the lowest-pitched and largest string instrument Special effects of the bowed string family: Legato: playing smoothly, connecting the notes Staccato: notes are played short and detached Pizzicato: strings are plucked with the fingers rather than bowed Vibrato: throbbing effect to resemble voice Glissando: finger of left hand slides on string and sounds all pitches on string Tremolo: rapid repetition of a tone with bow movement Trill: rapid alternation between a tone and the one adjacent to it Double-stopping: playing two strings simultaneously Triple- or quadruple-stopping: playing three or four strings together Harmonics: tones in a very high register created by lightly touching the string at specific points Harp: one of the oldest instruments Pitch is changed by use of pedals Arpeggio: sounding chord tones one after another; a broken chord (used by many instruments, originally named for the harp, arpa) Guitar: may have originated in the Middle East Acoustic guitar is made of wood, has a fretted fingerboard and six nylon or steel strings Electric guitar is electronically amplified and is capable of specialized techniques 2. Woodwind Instruments (Aerophones) Formerly made of wood; modern instruments not always

made of wood Flute: soprano voice of woodwind family, made of silver alloy, held horizontally, played by blowing across a mouth hole Piccolo (little flute): highest pitched instrument in orchestra Oboe: double-reed instrument sounded by blowing directly into the reed; held vertically English horn: alto oboe, body ends in pear-shaped bell Clarinet: single reed in mouthpiece Bass clarinet: octave lower in range than clarinet Bassoon: double-reed instrument, larger and lower in range than the oboe Contrabassoon: lowest-pitched of the woodwind instruments Saxophone: most recent addition to the woodwind family (1840) Single-reed mouthpiece, metal body More often found in jazz bands than in orchestras 3. Brass Instruments (Aerophones) All these instruments have a metal mouthpiece attached to metal tubing that flares at the end into a bell Pitch is changed by using valves, keys, and slides in tubing, and by changing air pressure with lungs and lips Lips "buzz" and act as double reed Embouchure: a brass player's oral mechanism; placement of lips, lower facial muscles, and jaw Trumpet: highest in pitch of the brass family, has valves French horn: lower in pitch than the trumpet, has keys, player keeps hand in bell to affect timbre Trombone: played with a movable U-shaped slide Tuba: lowest-pitched brass instrument Other brass instruments found in bands Cornet, bugle, fluegelhorn, euphonium, sousaphone 4. Percussion Instruments (Idiophones and Membranophones) Two categories: those that have definite pitch, and those of indefinite pitch Percussion instruments with definite pitch Timpani or kettledrums: used in sets of two or four, player strikes the "head" (usually a membrane of plastic), pedal mechanism adjusts the tension of the head and hence the pitch Xylophone: family of instruments made of tuned blocks of wood, laid out like a keyboard, played with

mallets Marimba: mellow-sounding xylophone Vibraphone: xylophone with resonators attached to an electric motor that creates vibrato Glockenspiel: German for "set of bells," xylophone made of tuned steel bars Celesta: glockenspiel operated by keys of a keyboard, resembles an upright piano, keys cause hammers to strike the steel plates Chimes or tubular bells: set of tuned metal tubes suspended from a frame, struck with a hammer Percussion instruments of indefinite pitch Snare drum or side drum: small cylindrical drum with two heads (top and bottom), bottom head has strings (snares) that run across it Tenor drum: larger than the snare, has wooden shell and no snares Bass drum: large drum, played with a soft-headed stick Other percussion instruments of indefinite pitch Tom-tom, tambourine, castanets, triangle, cymbals, gong 5. Keyboard Instruments Piano: originally known as the pianoforte (Italian for softloud), strings are struck with hammers controlled by keyboard Organ: wind instrument, air flow is controlled by a console with two or more keyboards and a pedal keyboard Harpsichord: sound is produced by quills that pluck metal strings 2008 W. W. Norton & Company. All rights reserved