You are on page 1of 32

CODE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

A.) HIPPOCRATIC OATH

The Hippocratic Oath is an oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine honestly. It is widely believed to have been written either by Hippocrates, often regarded as the father of western medicine, or by one of his students. The oath is written in Ionic Greek (late 5th century BC), and is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus. Classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written

by Pythagoreans, a theory that has been questioned because of the lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. Of historic and traditional value, the oath is considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine in many countries, although nowadays the modernized version of the text varies among them. The Hippocratic Oath (orkos) is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. It requires a new physician to swear upon a number of healing gods that he will uphold a number of professional ethical standards. The Hippocratic Oath () is perhaps the most widely known of Greek medical texts. It requires a new physician to swear upon a number of healing gods that he will uphold a number of professional ethical standards. It also strongly binds the student to his teacher and the greater community of physicians with responsibilities similar to that of a family member. In fact, the creation of the Oath may have marked the early stages of medical training to those outside the first families of Hippocratic medicine, the Asclepiads of Kos, by requiring strict loyalty. Over the centuries, it has been rewritten often in order to suit the values of different cultures influenced by Greek medicine. Contrary to popular belief, the Hippocratic Oath is not required by most modern medical schools, although some have adopted modern versions that suit many in the profession in the 21st century. It also does not explicitly contain the phrase, "First, do no harm," which is commonly attributed to it. OATH TEXT ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS VERSION 1 Apollo Physician and Asclepius and Hygieia and Panacea and all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will fulfill according to my ability and judgment this oath and this covenant:

To hold him who has taught me this art as equal to my parents and to live my life in partnership with him, and if he is in need of money to give him a share of mine, and to regard his offspring as equal to my brothers in male lineage and to teach them this art if they desire to learn it without fee and covenant; to give a share of precepts and oral instruction and all the other learning to my sons and to the sons of him who has instructed me and to pupils who have signed the covenant and have taken an oath according to the medical law, but to no one else. I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability and judgment; I will keep them from harm and injustice. I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect. Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favor of such men as are engaged in this work. Whatever houses I may visit, I will come for the benefit of the sick, remaining free of all intentional injustice, of all mischief and in particular of sexual relations with both female and male persons, be they free or slaves. What I may see or hear in the course of the treatment or even outside of the treatment in regard to the life of men, which on no account one must spread abroad, I will keep to myself holding such things shameful to be spoken about. If I fulfill this path and do not violate it, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and art, being honored with fame among all men for all time to come; if I transgress it and swear falsely, may the opposite of all this be my lot. ENGISH TRANSLATION VERSION 2

I swear by Apollo, the healer, Asclepius, Hygieia, and Panacea, and I take to witness all the gods, all the goddesses, to keep according to my ability and my judgment, the following Oath and agreement: To consider dear to me, as my parents, him who taught me this art; to live in common with him and, if necessary, to share my goods with him; To look upon his children as my own brothers, to teach them this art; and that by my teaching, I will impart a knowledge of this art to my own sons, and to my teacher's sons, and to disciples bound by an indenture and oath according to the medical laws, and no others. I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and similarly I will not give a woman a pessary to cause an abortion. But I will preserve the purity of my life and my arts. I will not cut for stone, even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art. In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or men, be they free or slaves. All that may come to my knowledge in the exercise of my profession or in daily commerce with men, which ought not to be spread abroad, I will keep secret and will never reveal. If I keep this oath faithfully, may I enjoy my life and practise my art, respected by all humanity and in all times; but if I swerve from it or violate it, may the reverse be my life. MODERN USE AND RELEVANCE

The Oath has been modified multiple times, in several different countries. One of the most significant revisions is the Declaration of Geneva, first drafted in 1948 by the World Medical Association; it has since been revised several times. While there is currently no legal obligation for medical students to swear an oath upon graduating, 98% of American medical students swear some form of oath, while only 50% of British medical students do. However, the vast majority of oaths or declarations sworn have been heavily modified and modernized for example, the oath's prohibition on abortion predates modern laws. In a 1989 survey of 126 US medical schools, only three reported usage of the original oath, while thirty-three used the Declaration of Geneva, sixty-seven used a modified Hippocratic oath, four used the Oath of Maimonides, one used a covenant, eight used another oath, one used an unknown oath, and two did not use any kind of oath. Seven medical schools did not reply to the survey. In France, it is common for new medical graduates to sign a written oath. The majority of osteopathic medical schools use the Osteopathic Oath in the United States. The oath was first used in 1938, and the current version has been in use since 1954. It has been suggested by Sir Joseph Rotblat in his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 that a similar oath should be undertaken by scientists, a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists. B.) ICN CODE OF ETHICS

The ICN Code of Ethics for Nurses, most recently revised in 2012, is a guide for action based on social values and needs. The Code has served as the standard for nurses worldwide since it was first adopted in 1953.

The Code is regularly reviewed and revised in response to the realities of nursing and health care in a changing society. The Code makes it clear that inherent in nursing is respect for human rights, including the right to life, to dignity and to be treated with respect.

C.) PRINCIPLE OF MEDICAL ETHICS

Preamble

The medical profession has long subscribed to a body of ethical statements developed primarily for the benefit of the patient. As a member of this profession, a physician must recognize responsibility to patients first and foremost, as well as to society, to other health professionals, and to self. The following Principles adopted by the American Medical Association are not laws, but standards of conduct which define the essentials of honorable behavior for the physician.

Principles of medical ethics

I. A physician shall be dedicated to providing competent medical care, with compassion and respect for human dignity and rights.

II. A physician shall uphold the standards of professionalism, be honest in all professional interactions, and strive to report physicians deficient in character or competence, or engaging in fraud or deception, to appropriate entities.

III. A physician shall respect the law and also recognize a responsibility to seek changes in those requirements which are contrary to the best interests of the patient.

IV. A physician shall respect the rights of patients, colleagues, and other health professionals, and shall safeguard patient confidences and privacy within the constraints of the law.

V. A physician shall continue to study, apply, and advance scientific knowledge, maintain a commitment to medical education, make relevant information available to patients, colleagues, and the public, obtain consultation, and use the talents of other health professionals when indicated.

VI. A physician shall, in the provision of appropriate patient care, except in emergencies, be free to choose whom to serve, with whom to associate, and the environment in which to provide medical care.

VII. A physician shall recognize a responsibility to participate in activities contributing to the improvement of the community and the betterment of public health.

VIII. A physician shall, while caring for a patient, regard responsibility to the patient as paramount.

IX. A physician shall support access to medical care for all people.

D.) PATIENTS BILL OF RIGHTS

American Hospital Association

MANAGEMENT ADVISORY

A Patients Bill of Rights

A Patient's Bill of Rights was first adopted by the American Hospital Association in 1973.

This revision was approved by the AHA Board of Trustees on October 21, 1992.

INTRODUCTION

Effective health care requires collaboration between patients and physicians and other health care professionals. Open and honest communication, respect for personal and professional values, and sensitivity to differences are integral to optimal patient care. As the setting for the provision of health services, hospitals must provide a foundation for understanding and respecting the rights and responsibilities of patients, their families, physicians, and other caregivers. Hospitals must ensure a health care ethic that respects the role of patients in decision making about treatment choices and other aspects of their care. Hospitals must be sensitive to cultural, racial, linguistic, religious, age, gender, and other differences as well as the needs of persons with disabilities.

The American Hospital Association presents A Patient's Bill of Rights with the expectation that it will contribute to more effective patient care and be supported by the hospital on behalf of the institution, its medical staff, employees, and patients. The American Hospital Association encourages health care institutions to tailor this bill of rights to their patient community by translating and/or simplifying the language of this bill of rights as may be necessary to ensure that patients and their families understand their rights and responsibilities.

BILL OF RIGHTS

These rights can be exercised on the patients behalf by a designated surrogate or proxy decision maker if the patient lacks decision-making capacity, is legally incompetent, or is a minor.

The patient has the right to considerate and respectful care.

The patient has the right to and is encouraged to obtain from physicians and other direct caregivers relevant, current, and understandable information concerning diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

Except in emergencies when the patient lacks decision-making capacity and the need for treatment is urgent, the patient is entitled to the opportunity to discuss and request information related to the specific procedures and/or treatments, the risks involved, the possible length of recuperation, and the medically reasonable alternatives and their accompanying risks and benefits.

Patients have the right to know the identity of physicians, nurses, and others involved in their care, as well as when those involved are students, residents, or other trainees. The patient also has the right

to know the immediate and long-term financial implications of treatment choices, insofar as they are known.

The patient has the right to make decisions about the plan of care prior to and during the course of treatment and to refuse a recommended treatment or plan of care to the extent permitted by law and hospital policy and to be informed of the medical consequences of this action. In case of such refusal, the patient is entitled to other appropriate care and services that the hospital provides or transfer to another hospital. The hospital should notify patients of any policy that might affect patient choice within the institution.

The patient has the right to have an advance directive (such as a living will, health care proxy, or durable power of attorney for health care) concerning treatment or designating a surrogate decision maker with the expectation that the hospital will honor the intent of that directive to the extent permitted by law and hospital policy.

Health care institutions must advise patients of their rights under state law and hospital policy to make informed medical choices, ask if the patient has an advance directive, and include that information in patient records. The patient has the right to timely information about hospital policy that may limit its ability to implement fully a legally valid advance directive.

The patient has the right to every consideration of privacy. Case discussion, consultation, examination, and treatment should be conducted so as to protect each patient's privacy.

The patient has the right to expect that all communications and records pertaining to his/her care will be treated as confidential by the hospital, except in cases such as suspected abuse and public health hazards when reporting is permitted or required by law. The patient has the right to expect that the hospital will emphasize the confidentiality of this information when it releases it to any other parties entitled to review information in these records.

The patient has the right to review the records pertaining to his/her medical care and to have the information explained or interpreted as necessary, except when restricted by law.

The patient has the right to expect that, within its capacity and policies, a hospital will make reasonable response to the request of a patient for appropriate and medically indicated care and services. The hospital must provide evaluation, service, and/or referral as indicated by the urgency of the case. When medically appropriate and legally permissible, or when a patient has so requested, a patient may be transferred to another facility. The institution to which the patient is to be transferred must first have accepted the patient for transfer. The patient must also have the benefit of complete information and explanation concerning the need for, risks, benefits, and alternatives to such a transfer.

The patient has the right to ask and be informed of the existence of business relationships among the hospital, educational institutions, other health care providers, or payers that may influence the patient's treatment and care.

The patient has the right to consent to or decline to participate in proposed research studies or human experimentation affecting care and treatment or requiring direct patient involvement, and to have those studies fully explained prior to consent. A patient who declines to participate in research or experimentation is entitled to the most effective care that the hospital can otherwise provide.

The patient has the right to expect reasonable continuity of care when appropriate and to be informed by physicians and other caregivers of available and realistic patient care options when hospital care is no longer appropriate.

The patient has the right to be informed of hospital policies and practices that relate to patient care, treatment, and responsibilities. The patient has the right to be informed of available resources for resolving disputes, grievances, and conflicts, such as ethics committees, patient representatives, or other mechanisms available in the institution. The patient has the right to be informed of the hospital's charges for services and available payment methods.

The collaborative nature of health care requires that patients, or their families/surrogates, participate in their care. The effectiveness of care and patient satisfaction with the course of treatment depend, in part, on the patient fulfilling certain responsibilities. Patients are responsible for providing information about past illnesses, hospitalizations, medications, and other matters related to health status. To participate effectively in decision making, patients must be encouraged to take responsibility for requesting additional information or clarification about their health status or treatment when they do not fully understand information and instructions. Patients are also responsible for ensuring that the health care institution has a copy of their written advance directive if they have one. Patients are responsible for informing their physicians and other caregivers if they anticipate problems in following prescribed treatment.

Patients should also be aware of the hospital's obligation to be reasonably efficient and equitable in providing care to other patients and the community. The hospital's rules and regulations are designed to help the hospital meet this obligation. Patients and their families are responsible for making reasonable accommodations to the needs of the hospital, other patients, medical staff, and hospital employees. Patients are responsible for providing necessary information for insurance claims and for working with the hospital to make payment arrangements, when necessary.

A person's health depends on much more than health care services. Patients are responsible for recognizing the impact of their life-style on their personal health.

CONCLUSION

Hospitals

have

many

functions

to

perform,

including

the

enhancement of health status, health promotion, and the prevention and treatment of injury and disease; the immediate and ongoing care and rehabilitation of patients; the education of health professionals, patients, and the community; and research. All these activities must be conducted with an overriding concern for the values and dignity of patients.

PHILIPPINES PATIENTS BILL OF RIGHTS Title 111: Declaration of Rights Sec. 4. The Rights of Patients. - The following rights of the patient shall be respected by all those involved in his care:

1.) Right to Appropriate Medical Care and Humane Treatment.

Every person has a right to health and medical care corresponding to his state of health, without any discrimination and within the limits of the resources, manpower and competence available for health and medical care at the relevant time. The patient has the right to appropriate health and medical care of good quality. In the course of such care, his human dignity, convictions, integrity, individual needs and culture shall be respected. If any person cannot immediately be given treatment that is medically necessary he shall, depending on his state of health, either be directed to wait for care, or be referred or sent for treatment elsewhere, where the appropriate care can be provided. If the patient has to wait for care, he shall be informed of the reason for the delay. Patients in emergency shall be extended immediate medical care and treatment without any deposit, pledge, mortgage or any form of advance payment for treatment. 2.) Right to Informed Consent.

The patient has a right to a clear, truthful and substantial explanation, in a manner and language understandable to the patient, of all proposed procedures, whether diagnostic, preventive, curative, rehabilitative or therapeutic, wherein the person who will perform the said procedure shall provide his name and credentials to the patient, possibilities of any risk of mortality or serious side effects, problems related to recuperation, and probability of success and reasonable risks involved: Provided, That, the patient will not be subjected to any procedure without his written informed consent, except in the following cases: a. in emergency cases, when the patient is at imminent risk of physical injury, decline or death if treatment is withheld or postponed. In such cases, the physician can perform any

diagnostic or treatment procedure as good practice of medicine dictates without such consent; b. when the health of the population is dependent on the adoption of a mass health program to control epidemic; c. when the law makes it compulsory for everyone to submit to a procedure; d. when the patient is either a minor, or legally incompetent, in which case, a third party consent is required; e. when disclosure of material information to patient will jeopardize the success of treatment, in which case, third party disclosure and consent shall be in order; f. when the patient waives his right in writing. Informed consent shall be obtained from a patient concerned if he is of legal age and of sound mind. In case the patient is incapable of giving consent and a third party consent is required, the following persons, in the order of priority stated hereunder, may give consent: i. ii. iii. iv. v. spouse; son or daughter of legal age; either parent; brother or sister of legal age, or guardian

If a patient is a minor, consent shall be obtained from his parents or legal guardian.

If next of kin, parents or legal guardians refuse to give consent to a medical or surgical procedure necessary to save the life or 1imb of a minor or a patient incapable of giving consent, courts, upon the petition of the physician or any person interested in the welfare of the patient, in a summary proceeding, may issue an order giving consent.

3.) Right To Privacy and Confidentiality.

The privacy of the patients must beassured at all stages of his treatment. The patient has the right to be free from unwarranted public exposure, except in the following cases: a) when his mental or physical condition is in controversy and the appropriate court, in its discretion, orders him to submit to a physical or mental examination by a physician; b) when the public health and safety so demand; and c) when the patient waives this right. The patient has the right to demand that all information, communication and records pertaining to his care be treated as confidential. Any health care provider or practitioner involved in the treatment of a patient and all those who have legitimate access to the patient's record is not authorized to divulge any information to a third party who has no concern with the care and welfare of the patient without his consent, except: a) when such disclosure will benefit public health and safety;

b) when it is in the interest of justice and upon the order of a competent court; and c) when the patients waives in writing the confidential nature of such information; d) when it is needed for continued medical treatment or advancement of medical science subject to de-identification of patient and shared medical confidentiality for those who have access to the information. Informing the spouse or the family to the first degree of the patients medical condition may be allowed; Provided, That the patient of legal age shall have the right to choose on whom to inform. In case the patient is not of legal age or is mentally incapacitated, such information shall be given to the parents, legal guardian or his next of kin. 4.) Right to Information.

In the course of his/her treatment and hospital care, the patient or his/her legal guardian has a right to be informed of the result of the evaluation of the nature and extent of his/her disease, any other additional or further contemplated medical treatment on surgical procedure or procedures, including any other additional medicines to be administered and their generic counterpart including the possible complications and other pertinent facts, statistics or studies, regarding his/her illness, any change in the plan of care before the change is made, the persons participation in the plan of care and necessary changes before its implementation, the extent to which payment maybe expected from Philhealth or any payor and any charges for which the

patient maybe liable, the disciplines of health care practitioners who will furnish the care and the frequency of services that are proposed to be furnished. The patient or his legal guardian has the right to examine and be given an itemized bill of the hospital and medical services rendered in the facility or by his/her physician and other health care providers, regardless of the manner and source of payment. He is entitled to a thorough explanation of such bill. The patient or his/her legal guardian has the right to be informed by the physician or his/her delegate of his/her continuing health care requirements following discharge, including instructions about home medications, diet, physical activity and all other pertinent information to promote health and well-being. At the end of his/her confinement, the patient is entitled to a brief, written summary of the course of his/her illness which shall include at least the history, physical examination, diagnosis, medications, surgical procedure, ancillary and laboratory procedures, and the plan of further treatment, and which shall be provided by the attending physician. He/she is likewise entitled to the explanation of, and to view, the contents of the medical record of his/her confinement but with the presence of his/her attending physician or in the absence of the attending physician, the hospitals representative. Notwithstanding that he/she may not be able to settle his accounts by reason of financial incapacity, he/she is entitled to reproduction, at his/her expense, the pertinent part or parts of the medical record the purpose or purposes of which he shall indicate in his/her written request for reproduction. The patient shall likewise be entitled to medical certificate, free of charge, with respect to his/her previous confinement.

The patient has likewise the right not to be informed, at his/her explicit request. 5.) The Right To Choose Health Care Provider and Facility.

The patient is free to choose the health care provider to serve him as well as the facility except when he is under the care of a service facility or when public health and safety so demands or when the patient expressly or impliedly waives this right. The patient has the right to discuss his condition with a consultant specialist, at the patients request and expense. He also has the right to seek for a second opinion and subsequent opinions, if appropriate, from another health care provider/practitioner. 6.) Right to Self-Determination.

The patient has the right to avail himself/herself of any recommended diagnostic and treatment procedures. Any person of legal age and of sound mind may make an advance written directive for physicians to administer terminal care when he/she suffers from the terminal phase of a terminal illness: Provided, That a) he is informed of the medical consequences of his choice; b) he releases those involved in his care from any obligation relative to the consequences of his decision; c) his decision will not prejudice public health and safety. 7.) Right to Religious Belief.

The patient has the right to refuse medical treatment or procedures which may be contrary to his religious beliefs, subject to the limitations described in the preceding subsection: Provided, That such a right shall not be imposed by parents upon their children who have not reached the legal age in a life threatening situation as determined by the attending physician or the medical director of the facility. 8.) Right to Medical Records. The patient is entitled to a summary of his medical history and condition, He has the right to view the contents of his medical records, except psychiatric notes and other incriminatory information obtained about third parties, with the attending physician explaining contents thereof. At his expense and upon discharge of the patient, he may obtain from the health care institution a reproduction of the same record whether or not he has fully settled his financial obligation with the physician or institution concerned. The health care institution shall safeguard the confidentiality of the medical records and to likewise ensure the integrity and authenticity of the medical records and shall keep the same within a reasonable time as may be determined by the Department of Health. The health care institution shall issue a medical certificate to the patient upon request. Any other document that the patient may require for insurance claims shall also be made available to him within a reasonable period of time. 9.) Right to Leave. The patient has the right to leave a hospital or any other health care institution regardless of his physical condition: Provided, That

a) he/she is informed of the medical consequences of his/her decision; b) he/she releases those involved in his/her care from any obligation relative to the consequences of his decision; c) his/her decision will not prejudice public health and safety. No patient shall be detained against his/her will in any health care institution on the sole basis of his failure to fully settle is financial obligations. However, he/she shall only be allowed to leave the hospital provided appropriate arrangements have been made to settle the unpaid bills: Provided, farther, that unpaid bills of patients shall be considered as lost income by the hospital and health care provider/practitioner and shall be deducted from gross income as income loss for that particular year.

10.) Right to Refuse Participation in Medical Research. The patient has the right to be advised if the health care provider plans to involve him in medical research, including but not limited to human experimentation which may be performed only with the written informed consent of the patient. Provided, further, That, an institutional review board or ethical review board in accordance with the guidelines set in the Declaration of Helsinki be established for research involving human experimentation: Provided, finally, That the Department of Health shall safeguard the continuing training and education of future health care provider/practitioner to ensure the development of the health care delivery in the country.

11.) Right to Correspondence and to Receive Visitors The patient has the right to communicate with relatives and other persons and to receive visitors subject to reasonable limits prescribed by the rules and regulations of the health care institution. 12.) Right to Express Grievances. The patient has the right to express complaints and grievances about the care and services received without fear of discrimination or reprisal and to know about the disposition of such complaints. The Secretary of Health, in consultation with health care providers, consumer groups and other concerned agencies shall establish a grievance system wherein patients may seek redress of their grievances. Such a system shall afford all parties concerned with the opportunity to settle amicably all grievances. 13.) Right to be Informed of His Rights and Obligations as a Patient. Every person has the right to be informed of his rights and obligations as a patient. The Department of Health, in coordination with health care providers, professional and civic groups, the media, health insurance corporations, peoples organizations, local government organizations, shall launch and sustain a nationwide information and education campaign to make known to people their rights as patients, as declared in this Act. Such rights &d obligations of patients shall be posted in a bulletin board conspicuously placed in a health care institution. It shall be the duty of health care institutions to inform patients of their rights as well as patient while in the care of such institution. the institution's rules and regulations that apply to the conduct of the

E.) NUREMBERG CODE

The Nuremberg Code is a set of research ethics principles for human experimentation set as a result of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials at the end of the Second World War. BACKGROUND On August 19, 1947, the judges delivered their verdict in the "Doctors' Trial" against Karl Brandt and several others. They also delivered their opinion on medical experimentation on human beings. Several of the accused had argued that their experiments differed little from pre-war ones and that there was no law that differentiated between legal and illegal experiments. In May of the same year, Dr. Leo Alexander had submitted to the Counsel for War Crimes six points defining legitimate medical research. The trial verdict adopted these points and added an extra four. The ten points constituted the "Nuremberg Code". Although the legal force of the document was not established and it was not incorporated directly into either the American or German law, the Nuremberg Code and the related Declaration of Helsinki are the basis for the Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Volume 46, which are the regulations issued by the United States Department of Health and Human Services governing federally-funded human subjects research in the United States. In addition, the Nuremberg code has also been incorporated into the law of individual states such as California and other countries.

The Nuremberg code includes such principles as informed consent and absence of coercion; properly formulated scientific experimentation; and beneficence towards experiment participants. 10 POINTS OF NUREMBERG CODE The 10 points are, (all from United States National Institutes of Health)
1.

The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable him/her to make an understanding and enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to him the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonable to be expected; and the effects upon his health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment. The duty and responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual who initiates, directs or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty and responsibility which may not be delegated to another with impunity.

2.

The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study, and not random and unnecessary in nature.

3.

The experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment.

4.

The

experiment

should

be

so

conducted

as

to

avoid

all

unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.


5.

No experiment should be conducted where there is a prior reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur; except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians also serve as subjects.

6.

The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment.

7.

Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death.

8.

The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons. The highest degree of skill and care should be required through all stages of the experiment of those who conduct or engage in the experiment.

9.

During the course of the experiment the human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end if he has reached the physical or mental state where continuation of the experiment seems to him to be impossible.

10.

During the course of the experiment the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he hasprobable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill and careful judgment required of him that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject.

F.) DECLARATION OF GENEVA CONVENTION

The Declaration of Geneva (Physician's Oath) was adopted by the General Assembly of the World Medical Association at Geneva in 1948, amended in 1968,

1983, 1994 and editorially revised in 2005 and 2006. It is a declaration of a physician's dedication to the humanitarian goals of medicine, a declaration that was especially important in view of the medical crimes which had just been committed in Nazi Germany. The Declaration of Geneva was intended as a revision of the Hippocratic Oath to a formulation of that oath's moral truths that could be comprehended and acknowledged in a modern way.

CREATION

The Declaration of Geneva (Physician's Oath) was adopted by the General Assembly of the World Medical Association at Geneva in 1948, amended in 1968, 1983, 1994 and editorially revised in 2005 and 2006. It is a declaration of a physician's dedication to the humanitarian goals of medicine, a declaration that was especially important in view of the medical crimes which had just been committed in Nazi Germany. The Declaration of Geneva was intended as a revision of the Hippocratic Oath to a formulation of that oath's moral truths that could be comprehended and acknowledged in a modern way. DECLARATION The Declaration of Geneva, as currently published by the WMA reads: At the time of being admitted as a member of the medical profession:

I solemnly pledge to consecrate my life to the service of humanity; I will give to my teachers the respect and gratitude that is their due; I will practice my profession with conscience and dignity; The health of my patient will be my first consideration; I will respect the secrets that are confided in me, even after the patient has died; I will maintain by all the means in my power, the honour and the noble traditions of the medical profession; My colleagues will be my sisters and brothers; I will not permit considerations of age, disease or disability, creed, ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political affiliation, race, sexual orientation, social standing or any other factor to intervene between my duty and my patient; I will maintain the utmost respect for human life; I will not use my medical knowledge to violate human rights and civil liberties, even under threat; I make these promises solemnly, freely and upon my honour.

CHANGES FROM ORIGINAL The original oath read "My colleagues will be my brothers," later changed to "sisters and brothers." Age, disability, gender, and sexual orientation have been added as factors that must not interfere with a doctor's duty to a patient; some

rephrasing of existing elements has occurred. Secrets are to remain confidential "even after the patient has died." The violation of "human rights and civil liberties" replaces "the laws of humanity" as a forbidden use of medical knowledge. The original declaration stated that a doctor would respect human life "from the time of conception," and the 1994 revision stated "from its beginning." which was removed altogether in the editorial revisions in the English version but is still found in other language versions that have not followed the editorial changes such as the German Handbuch der rztlichen Ethik. "The health" in general of a patient is now the doctor's first consideration compared to the "health and life" as stated in the original declaration. This was apparently changed to free the medical profession from extending life at all cost.

REFERENCES: Farnell, Lewis R. (2004-06-30). "Chapter 10". Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 234279. ISBN 978-1-4179-2134-8. p.269: "The famous Hippocratean oath may not be an authentic deliverance of the great master, but is an ancient formula current in his school." The Hippocratic oath: text, translation and interpretation By Ludwig Edelstein Page 56 ISBN 978-0-8018-0184-6 (1943)

Temkin, Owsei (2001-12-06). "On Second Thought". "On Second Thought" and Other Essays in the History of Medicine and Science. Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 978-0-8018-6774-3. The Hippocratic Oath: Text. Translation. and Interpretation. by Ludwig Edelstein, Supplements to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine. no. 1 1943). National Library of Medicine 2006 Sritharan, Kaji; Georgina Russell, Zoe Fritz, Davina Wong, Matthew Rollin, Jake Dunning, Bruce Wayne, Philip Morgan, Catherine Sheehan (December 2000). "Medical oaths and declarations". BMJ 323 (7327): 14401.

doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7327.1440. PMC 1121898. PMID 11751345. Crawshaw, R; Pennington, T H; Pennington, C I; Reiss, H; Loudon, I (October 1994). "Letters". BMJ 309 (6959): 952. doi:10.1136/bmj.309.6959.952. PMC 2541124. PMID 7950672. World Medical Association, WMA. "WMA Declaration of Geneva". WMA. Retrieved 4 April 2013. "World Medical Association (1997) press release 12 May". Wma.net. 1997-05-10. Retrieved 2013-01-28. "International Code of Medical Ethics". World Medical Association. Archived from the original on 2008-09-20. "WMA History". WMA. Retrieved 2013-06-04.

"The Oath". Cirp.org. 2002-06-06. Retrieved 2013-06-04. World Medical Association. "WMA declaration of Geneva". WMA. Retrieved 22 April 2013. Williams, John R. (2005). Handbuch der rztlichen Ethik. Weltaertztebund. p. 19. ISBN 92-990028-0-0. Jones, David Albert. "The declaration of Geneva and other modern adaptations of the classical doctors' oath". Catholic Medical Association. Retrieved 17 June 2013. "A Physician's Oath on Retirement". Pubmedcentral.nih.gov. 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-11-23. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/physician-resources/medical-ethics/codemedical-ethics/principles-medical-ethics.page http://www.icn.ch/images/stories/documents/about/icncode_english.pdf http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_oath.html http://www.patienttalk.info/AHA-Patient_Bill_of_Rights.htm l

You might also like