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Figure 3-39 An example of a geologic section derived from a detailed refraction study using the Generalized Reciprocal Method

(GRM). Note that this method provides much detail on the Surface of the basalt refractor and is able to determine lateral velocity changes which are interpreted as layering in the basalt. (Modified from Lankston, Robert W., 1990, High-resolution refraction seismic data acquisition and interpretation in Ward, Stanley H., ed., Geotechnical and enviromental geophysics; Volume 1: Review and tutrial: Society of Exploration Geophysicists Investigations in Geophysics, No. 5, p. 45-73) Lithology log shows this velocity change (sand versus compacted fanglomerate) to be significantly deeper (at about 42 m). However, the dirll rate indicates a pronounced change from soft to hard material at 37 m. This likely is the true location of the interface, whereas the lithology log is misleading due to inaccuracies inherent in working with cuttings from loose, softh material traveling to the Surface. The well bottomed in very hard material encountered at 62 m. Seismic bedrock is much deeper at this location (approximately 82m), and it is likely drilling was terminated after striking a large Boulder. In general, well information is essential for aiding and constraining geophysical interprelations. In this case the drill-rate log provides excellent confirmation of the 1000 m/s-2130 m/s interface depth. However, the lithology log is misleading and provides a cautionary note. One always should use well logs as an additional, but deposits, are only as good as the expertise of the drilling company and the person logging the well. As we conclude this refraction seismology chapter, we hope you now have an appreciation for the strengths of the method as well as some of this weaknesses. In favorable geologic conditions this approach to exploring the subsurfarce returns valuable data at reasonable cost. Many of the uncertainties inherent in applying seismic refraction disappear when the method is used in conjuction with other geophysical approaches. Seismic reflection often can discern the presence oflow-velocity layers, for example. You work will best be served if you keep enough to design flexible surveys, and always attempt to employ addition-

Figure 3-40 Seismic investigation of a proposed site for the Superconducting Super Collider. (a) Travel-time curves at site MRI. (b) Interpretation of seismic data. (c) Lithology log and drill-rate log at the well location identified in (b). (Modified from Sternberg, Ben K., Poulton, Mary M., and Thomas, Scott J., 1990, Geophysical investigations in support of the Arizona SSC Projetc in Ward, Stanley H., ed., Geotechnical and enviromental geophysics; Volume 3: Geotechnical: Society of Exploration Geophysicists Investigations in Geophysics, No. 5, p. 211-228). al geophysical methods. In the next chapter we continue to utilize seismic techniques via the reflection method. This approach has its own strengths and waeknesses, but many of these tend to complement the refraction approach, such that the two, used in conjuction, constitute a formidable pair.

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