Florence Nightingale was born on May 12, 1820, in Florence, Italy.

From an
early age, she felt she had a calling to be a nurse.

She "trained" to be a nurse at a hospital in Kaiserworth, Germany, and returned

to London. She led nurses during the Crimean War at Scutari, Turkey; gathered
extensive statistics about the health of the soldiers she and her nurses served;
and began a life-long effort to improve health by improving the environment.

Her Notes on Nursing emphasized that a clean environment, warmth, ventilation,

sunlight, and a quiet environment lead to good health.

A statistician and epidemiologist, she died August 13,1910.

Faye Abdellah, RN, Ed.D., Sc.D., FAAN, was the founding dean of the Graduate
School of Nursing at the Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD. She was
the first Deputy surgeon General of the U.S. Public Health Service.
(Parascandola, 1994).

She developed a list of 21 unique nursing problems related to human needs in

the 1960s. Her early writings contributed to the idea that nurses use a problem-
solving approach to practice rather than merely following physician orders,
complementing the 1965 statement from the American Nurses Association
recommending baccalaureate education as entry into nursing practice.

Abdellah's 21 problems are actually a model describing the "arenas" or

concerns of nursing, rather than a theory describing relationships among
phenomena. In this way, distinguished the practice of nursing, with a focus on
the 21 nursing problems, from the practice of medicine, with a focus on disease
and cure.

Hildegard Peplau used the term, psychodynamic nursing, to describe the

dynamic relationship between a nurse and a patient.

She described four phases of this relationship: orientation, in which the person
and the nurse mutually identify the person's problem; identification, in which the
person identifies with the nurse, thereby accepting help; exploitation, in which the
person makes use of the nurse's help; and resolution, in which the person
accepts new goals and frees herself or himself from the relationship.

She also identified six nursing roles of the nurse:

Counseling Role - working with the patient on current problems
Leadership Role - working with the patient democratically
Surrogate Role - figuratively standing in for a person in the patient's life
Stranger - accepting the patient objectively
Resource Person - interpreting the medical plan to the patient
Teaching Role - offering information and helping the patient learn

Virginia Henderson graduated from the Army School of Nursing, Washington,

D.C., in 1921. She is part of the "Columbia school" of nursing theory, having
graduated from Teachers College, Columbia University, with a M.A. degree in
nursing education, and having been a member of the faculty from 1930 to 1948.
She wrote and/or edited several editions of the The Principles and Practice of
Nursing, along with Harmer in the early years of the fundamentals text and Nite
in the later years.

Virginia Henderson defined nursing as "assisting individuals to gain

independence in relation to the performance of activities contributing to health or
its recovery" (Henderson, 1966, p. 15).

She categorized nursing activities into 14 components, based on human needs.

She described the nurse's role as substitutive (doing for the person),
supplementary (helping the person), or complementary (working with the
person), with the goal of helping the person become as independent as possible.

Her famous definition of nursing was one of the first statements clearly
delineating nursing from medicine:
"The unique function of the nurs is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the
performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery (or to
peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength,
will or knowledge. And to do this in such a way as to help him gain
independence as rapidly as possible" (Henderson, 1966, p. 15). She was one of
the first nurses to point out that nursing does not consist of merely following
physician's orders.

Lydia Hall was a rehabilitation nurse and one of the Columbia

University/Teachers College school. Her "Care, Core, and Cure Model" was an
early model of nursing practice used at the Loeb Center for Nursing and
Rehabilitation in Westchester County, New York. The Loeb Center was nurse
directed, developed to prevent the fragmented care common in the 1950's and
1960's.

According to the Care, Core, and Cure" model, nurses work in three arenas: care
(hands on bodily care), core (using the self in relationship to the patient), and
cure (applying medical knowledge). Hall was another nurse to the delineate the
practice of nursing from the practice of medicine.