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Springs; P.L.

Hurricks Feb 2011


SPRINGS
1 INTRODUCTION

Many machine components are utilised on the basis of strength where deflection is very often not
an issue. In the design of springs however, a large elastic deflection is as important as strength. The main
uses of springs are as follows:-

a) To apply force. A majority industrial case, eg. to provide the operating force in brakes and clutches, to
provide a clamping force, to provide a return load, to keep rotational mechanisms in contact, make
electrical contacts, counterbalance loading etc.
b)To control motion. Typically storing energy, eg. wind-up springs for motors, constant torque
applications, torsion control, position control etc.
c)To control vibration. Used in essence for noise and vibration control, eg. flexible couplings, isolation
mounts, springs and dampers etc..
d)To reduce impact. Used to reduce the magnitude of the transmitted force due to impact or shock
loading, eg. buffers, end stops, bump stops etc.

In practical situations, springs are often used to provide more than one of the above functions at
the same time. Because of superior strength and endurance characteristics under load, most springs are
metallic. However, other resilient materials, eg polymers, are used where special properties such as a low
modulus and high internal damping capacity are required. Apart from the more common types of spring,
this section will also consider less well known types such as gas springs, elastomer springs etc. The
discussion of wave springs, snap rings, disc springs and load washers is dealt with in the fasteners section.

2 SPRING MATERIALS

The most common choice of metallic spring material, and with generally the best stock selection,
is carbon steel, whether in wire or flatform. In the majority of spring applications, significant deflection is
necessary but however good the spring material, there are limits over which it can be expected to work
consistently and exhibit a reasonable fatigue life. For correct design application there are occasions where
eg., temperature, corrosion or conductivity requirements dictate the use of a different material, ie.
stainless steel or a non-ferrous material.
Copper and copper alloys do not allow high working stresses but do have certain advantages over
steel eg., electrical/thermal conductivity, non-magnetic properties etc., that on occasion may be important.
Beryllium copper is the most well known of the group and obtains its spring characteristics from a
precipitation hardening heat treatment. Failure to undertake the correct heat treatment procedure and so
provide the optimum material structure will produce inferior properties. For those spring applications
involving property requirements outside the above material capabilities, eg., high temperature stability,
sub- zero ductility etc., high nickel and titanium alloys could be specified.
A material description of the more common types of springs is given in Table.1. Materials
intended for high static or dynamic loadings should be quality screened for structural inclusions, surface
defects and in the case of carbon steels, surface decarburisation. For more details of the material aspects
of springs, refer to Ref (1)

3 MECHANICAL ASPECTS

Basically the life of a spring depends on six main factors:-
a) The maximum working stress.
b) The working range.
c) Material structure and surface condition
d) The stress application (type of loading, ie. tension/compression/torsion).
e)The spring index, section 12.5.1, where applicable.
f)The working environment.


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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
In order to specify a spring for a particular application, the designer will normally be aware of
approximate loads, the forces involved and the operating environment. Having determined a material and
its permissible stressing, calculations can then establish spring dimensions. Safe working stress guidelines
exist for particular materials, Table.2. These figures assume working loads deflecting 25/75%, without
buckling and with the spring properly stress relieved. Material properties are outlined in Table.3.
Most spring failures result from too high forces creating too high material stresses for too many
deflections. Whilst spring steels have a fatigue limit, non-ferrous materials do not, hence non-ferrous
materials would not be recommended for unlimited fatigue life situations. Working stresses may be
increased by improved material quality, improved surface condition and by either pre-stressing or shot
peening, Pre-stressing (setting) is carried out by manufacturing a spring larger than the required final size
then compressing to solid a number of times until the desired length is achieved, thereby introducing a
degree of work hardening. It is an important operation with compression springs, it avoids permanent set
when solid and also improves fatigue performance or, alternatively, allows a 5/15% increase in working
stress. Shotpeening, or vapour blasting, are effective methods of increasing working stresses under fatigue
conditions, increasing the allowable levels outlined in Table.2 by 20/30%. The process introduces a
surface residual compressive stress thereby inhibiting surface crack nucleation. Tension springs are not
suitable for this treatment.

4 SIMPLE FLAT SPRINGS

As a basic and widely used spring form, the spring characteristics of a rectangular section beam
experiencing bending will depend on the mode of support. Two types are possible.

(i) Singly Supported

For a simple cantilever spring, Fig.1, constant
rectangular cross section, at the free end:-

deflection = 4Pl
3
Ebt
3


and stress at the fixed end
o
= 6Pl
bt
2



where P = load
l = length of cantilever
b = width of section
t = thickness of section
E = Young's Modulus

Since stress in the spring material is inversely proportional to width and (thickness)
2
, increasing
thickness reduces the material stress more effectively than width increase. For the more general case,
distance x from the fixed end:-


x
= 2Pl
3
x
2
(3 - x )
Ebt
3
l
2
l


x
= 6Pl (1 - x )
bt
2
l

The design procedure is best handled iteratively but assumptions have to be made on material
type, spring load and spring length and thence to evaluate the material section if the required deflection is
known or vice versa. All calculations should finally be checked to ensure the maximum advisable
working stress is not exceeded, Table.2. Apart from a flat rectangular section, square or round wire could

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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
be used, the alternative equation forms are given in Table 4.

Since stress varies linearly along the cantilever and inversely with width so it should be
theoretically possible to achieve a state of constant stress along the spring. This in fact results in an
isosceles triangle, width b at the clamped end and zero width at the load point. Not a particularly practical
proposition, but what is more common is the truncated triangle or trapezoidal spring, Fig 2.

Under these conditions, for constant material
thickness:-

= 6Pl
3
BEbt
3


where B = 3b
o

(2b
o
+ b
1
)

b
o
= material width at fixed end
b
1
= material width at free end

If it is required to produce an increasing rate cantilever spring, it is possible to provide the
cantilever with a curved stop which allows each portion of the spring to reach , but not exceed, the design
stress as it rolls around, Fig.3. The radius of the stop, r, is
given by:-

r = Et
2
D
where
D
= design stress
t = material thickness


As progressive parts of the spring contact the stop and reach the design stress, deflection continues
as the active length decreases, thereby increasing the rate. In general application of cantilevered springs,
the frequency of the load should ideally be less than 1/15th. the natural frequency of the spring or at least
not a harmonic between 1 and 15. The natural frequency of a rectangular leaf spring is given by:-

f
n
= 1.015t (Eg/ )
0.5
l
2


where g = acceleration due to gravity
= material density

(ii) Supported Both Ends.

For this case, Fig.4, the stress and deflection
formulae are modified as per Table 4, load P applied
centrally.









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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
5 HELICAL SPRINGS

These types of spring are so designated since the spring coil as a whole is compressed or extended
in length along its central axis. The wire is loaded principally in torsion, the shear stress due to the axially
applied load is small. Hence, following formulae reflect the helical spring material in pure torsion.

5.1 Helical Compression Springs

A compression spring is a helically wound open coil, formed as a constant diameter cylinder that
offers resistance to a compressive force applied axially. The primary spring characteristics that are useful
in designing a circular section wire compression spring are as follows:-

Spring Index c = D
m
d

Spring Rate R = P

w
Free Length L
f
= L +
w

Solid Height H
s
= L
f

s

Deflection = 8nD
m
3
P
Gd
4


Torsional Stress S = 8DK
1
P
d
3


where Dm = mean coil diameter = OD d = ID + d
OD = spring outside diameter
ID = spring inside diameter
P = working load
d = wire diameter

w
= working deflection
L = working length under working load

s
= deflection distance to solid
n = number of active coils
G = modulus of Rigidity of spring material
K
1
= Wahl stress correction factor

The torsional stress, S, above, is the working stress at the working load P. This should not exceed
the guidelines in Table.2. The Wahl stress correction factor K
1
is introduced specifically at low values of
the stress index to allow for the higher stresses on the inside of the coil caused by wire curvature. It is
usual to identify the factor K
1
as follows:-

K
1
= 4c 1 + 0.615
4c - 4 c

For large values of c, this correction factor can reasonably be ignored. A further stress correction
factor K2, known as Wood's factor should also be applied to the deflection formula. This is expressed as:-

K
2
= 2c
2
+ c - 1
2c
2


The deflection formula then becomes:-


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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011


= 8nD
m
3
PK
2
Gd4

The main factors influencing the design of helical springs is the elastic limit in torsion and the rigidity
modulus of the material, the stiffness being proportional to d
4
and to 1/D
m
3
. Hence both d and D
m

significantly affect spring performance.

(i) Spring Index

With values of c < 4 there are often manufacturing
problems with the high forces required to form the wire
whilst the higher the spring index, the more the
dimensional variations occurring during manufacture. For
spring selection, it is usual to choose a spring index
between 5 and 10 since the spring is less prone to
distortion both during manufacture and assembly. If the
required spring rate is known together with the maximum
working load, the optimum material condition can be
chosen


with Fig.5.



(ii)Working Deflection and Solid Height

We have defined the working deflection as the
deflection corresponding to the working load P giving a
spring working length of L, Fig.6. The solid deflection,
s

is defined as the difference between the no load and solid
heights hence the clash allowance is given by:-

r
c
=
s -

w

The clash allowance typically is a margin of extra
deflection between working deflection and complete
bottoming. An allowance of 15-20% is satisfactory for most applications. Clearance between maximum
deflection and solid length is necessary with compression springs because it is impractical to manufacture
a spring in which all the coils are solid at the same load and therefore the relation between load and
deflection is not always linear beyond 80/85% deflection.

(iii) Spring Ends

The number of active coils in a spring are those
actually "working". There are four basic types of compression
spring end, Fig.7, the form of these affecting solid height,
number of active coils, total coils, free length and seating
characteristics of the spring. Table 5 outlines the dimensional
formulae as applied to the four end types

As a result of end coil effects, the spring rate tends to
lag over the first 20% or so of the deflection range, this being
taken up with seating down the spring ends firmly. Together
with a spring rate increasing for the final 20% or so of the
deflection range as the coils progressively close out, this

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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
leaves a central deflection zone where the rate is linear.

(iv) Natural Frequency

Springs which are subject to rapid variations in displacement may show harmonics or surging
frequencies corresponding to the natural frequency of the spring. Suddenly applied forces often cause a
surge wave to occur and if constantly repeated, can excite the natural period of vibration to such an extent
that coil clashing may unseat the spring. Harmonics above the 15th. do not usually have to be considered.
In other words, the loading frequency of the spring wherever possible should be less than 1/15th. the
natural frequency of the spring. In any case, the higher the natural frequency the better. Natural frequency
of an unloaded spring can be calculated from the following:-

f
n
= d 10
3
G c.p.s
2 nD
m
2
2

= D
m
P c.p.s
d
w
M

where = density
M = mass of active spring = 0.25
2
nD
m


(v) Diameter Changes

The outside diameter of a compression spring increases when the coils are deflected as a result of
the coil slope changing. Allowance for this should be made if the compression spring is constrained
within a guide tube. When deflected to solid, the new spring diameter becomes:-

D* = D
m
2
+ p
2
- d
2
+ d

2
where D* = new diameter
p = pitch

(vi) Other Wire Sections

Use can be made of square and rectangular section material where spring location space is limited.
As as a guide, it is possible to obtain approx. more load from a square section spring than from an
equivalent made in round wire. For the general case,

deflection = P
n
D
m
3
Gbt
3


Where b = width of wire (longest side)
t = wire thickness (shortest side)
= De Saint Venant coefficient, Table 6.

or for the specific case of square wire,

= PnD
m
3
(0.18)Gt
4


For calculation of stress, the general case is given by:-

torsional stress S = PD
m
K
1
bt
2

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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
where = De Saint Venant coefficient, Table 6.
and for the square wire case,

S = PD
m
K
1
(0.416)t
3


An important consideration in the design of square and rectangular section springs is the
calculation of solid length H
s
. As square or rectangular wire is coiled the wire cross section wire deforms
slightly to a trapezoidal (keystone) shape which modifies the solid height. Material thickness after coiling,
t*, can be determined approximately by:-

t* = 0.48t (OD + 1)
D
m

To overcome this material section distortion during coiling it is possible to start with trapezoidal
section wire and form it inside-out. However, such a concept has limited applicability since the initial
wire shape will only apply to a particular spring design.

(vii) The Design Method

The two basic formulae contain 7 variables ( ,P,n,D
m
,G,d and S) which clearly prevents a one
step process. In practice it is mainly an iterative procedure of manipulating the basic formulae with close
reference to manufacturers catalogue standards in order to identify possibilities. However, as the
following outline demonstrates, some basic estimations from the designer are required initially eg., spring
length at working load, space available, end type, spring material etc., in order to start off the process.
Such design technique is ideally suited to a computerised solution. Whatever method is used the
approaches cover the same ground, descending from theoretical strength of material relationships. The
following represents a generalised procedure for round wire as a typical example:-

1. Specify Initial Design Requirements: a) material type, b) spring rate (R), c) working load (P), d)
working length (L)
2. Calculate Spring Operating Window: Determine a) safe working stress (S) (Table 2), b)
working deflection (
w
) (eg Fig 6), c) deflection to solid (
s
) eg
w
+ 15%, d) solid height (H
s
), e
free length (L
f
)
3. Specify Additional Data: a) mean coil diameter (D
m
) (make D
m
= OD to obtain a trial value), b)
type of spring end (Fig 7), c) wire diameter (d)
4. Calculate Spring Design Geometry: determine a) spring index (c), b) total number of coils (N),
c) number of active coils (Table 5), d) pitch (Table 5)
5. Check Results Acceptable to Application: a) calculate actual diameters from parameters
determined in (4), b) check torsional stress still acceptable (Table 2)

5.2 Tapered Helical Compression Springs

With the tapered or conical spring, each coil is of a different diameter, Fig.8, so giving the spring
a variable rate. The variable rate could also be realised in a straight sided spring using a variable pitch.
The stress imposed by any load causing a deflection is also variable from coil to coil. However, for
conical spring design purposes it is the maximum stress occurring in the largest active coil which is the
most relevant, ie.,

maximum stress = 8PD
1
K
1
d
3


where D
1
= mean diameter of largest active coil; K
1
= Wahl correction factor

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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011















The above
holds true
since stress
is proportional to coil diameter but the stress in any
coil can be deduced by using the appropriate diameter,
Fig.8. Deflection under a constant load will vary. In
the case of a compression spring, first the largest coil
will bottom, then the next largest and so on, Fig.9.
Thus,

deflection = 8nPD
2
3
Gd
4

where D
2
= mean diameter of smallest active coil
n = number of active turns, Table 5

The solid height of a tapered spring is geometrically less than that of a straight sided spring as individual
coils "stack" to some degree, Fig.10. Thus the active solid height of the spring is given by:-

Hs = (d
2
- x
2
)

For the general case of rectangular wire conical springs, the basic formulae are as follows:-

S = 4.5D
m
PK
1

2t b

2
= 0.225 nD
2
3
(t
2
+b
2
)
t
3
b
3
G

where t = small dimension of section; b = large dimension of section

Although conical springs require special production facilities and hence cost more than regular
compression springs, they do have useful features as follows:-

a) Variable increasing rate if pitch constant.
b) A small solid height is possible if each active coil is designed to fit within the next.
c) Generally good lateral stability and less tendency to buckle.
d) As each coil bottoms, natural frequency of the spring increases, thereby reducing resonance.


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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
5.3 Tension Springs

Tension or extension springs absorb and store energy by offering a resistance to an axial tensile
load. The same basic design formulae for compression springs also apply to tension springs except that
when extension springs are close coiled in hard drawn or oil tempered wire, Table 7, there is invariably
some initial tension present. This initial tension gives a variable load to the spring before the coils begin
to open. When this initial tension is overcome, the spring rate follows a linear law. The actual amount of
tension that can be wound into a tension spring depends both on the spring index, (typically <10), and the
coiling method used. The initial tension load, P
B
, can be calculated from the following:-

P
B
= qd
3
8D
m

where q = initial tension stress

Corresponding maximum values of q are given in
Table 7. Alternatively, with reference to F

ig.11,
P
B
= L
1
P - LP
1
(L
1
-L)

where L
1
= maximum working length
P
1
= maximum working load
hence,

= 8nD
m
3
(P -P
B
)
Gd
4


S = 8D
m
K
1
(P + P
B
)
d

3
spring rate R = P
1
P P
1
- P
B
L
1
-L
w


free length Lf = L -
w


max. deflection = P
1
-P
B

R

The similarity of these equations with the helical compression case will readily allow solutions to
alternative wire sections.

(i) Spring Ends

A wide variety of extension spring ends are
possible. These can include reduced and expanded eyes,
loops, hooks, square ends etc. Characteristically the end
is a loop when the opening is less than one wire size but
a hook when the opening is larger. The double loop is
preferred for wire diameters less than 1.5mm and a full
loop for diameters above this. Under fatigue conditions,
cone ends are advisable. Tension springs have no end
coils that are dead, all coils whether full or partial, are
active. Consequently, the relative angular positions of
loops or hooks will affect the number of active or working coils, Fig.12.

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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
Most extension spring failures occur in the end zone where sharp bends and stress concentrations may
occur. To maximise spring life, the path of the wire should be smooth and gradual as it is formed to the
end shape, a minimum bend radius of 1.5 x the wire diameter is recommended. For a spring with central
loops of the same diameter as the spring:-

L* = (n-1)d + 2(OD-d)

where L* = initial free length of spring

Calculations to determine exact stresses in
loops are somewhat complicated by the difficulties in
determining bend radii on some designs. However, in
the case of the regular hook (full loop), Fig.13, the
hook experiences a principal bending stress at A and a
torsional stress at B. These stresses are higher than
those experienced by the spring coils in the body, the
principal reasons why hooks break first and why
recommended torsional stresses in tension springs are
lower than in compression springs, Table.2. From
Fig.13:-

stress in bending at A = 5.1PD
m
2
d
3
ID

stress in torsion at B = 5.1 PR
m
r
d
3
r
1


(ii) The Design Method

The only significant difference between the design cases for compression or tension helical
springs is that in the case of helical extension springs, initial tension needs to be assessed and included in
the method. The following represents a generalised procedure for round wire:-

1. Specify the Initial Design Requirement: a) material type, b) spring rate (R), c) working load (P),
d) working length (L)
2. Calculate the Spring Operating Window: determine a) safe working stress (S) (Table 2), b)
working deflection (
w
), c) free length (L
f
), assuming L = 85% of maximum working length, d)
maximum length (L
1
), e) maximum load (P), f) initial tension (P
B
) assumed to be approx 15% of
working load P.
3. Specify Additional Data: a) mean coil diameter (D
m
), b) end type (Table 5)
4. Calculate Spring Design Geometry: determine a) wire diameter, based on L
1,
b)

spring index (c),
c) number of coils (n), d) initial overall length (L*)
5. Check Results are Acceptable to the Application:
a) ensure initial tension (P
B
) acceptable to load requirement, b) calculate actual diameters from
parameters determined in (4) and ensure result is practical, c) check torsional stress still acceptable
(Table 2)

6 TORSION SPRINGS

These are subject to torque about the central axis of the spring coil. This induces a bending stress
in the spring wire, tensile and compressive, hence Young's Modulus of elasticity governs deflection. The
springs are assumed to be anchored at one end and torqued at the other.



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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
6.1 Helical Torsion Springs

With coiled springs of this type, eg. Fig.14, the following effects are observed when torqued:-

a) If the spring is "wound up",
- the diameter of the helix decreases
- the number of coils increments
- the body length increases
b) If the spring is "wound down",
- the diameter of the helix increases
- the number of coils decrements
- the body length decreases

Normally the spring is fitted over a shaft or
spindle hence due care must be taken to ensure that
there is adequate allowance for the size changes that
may occur. It is unusual to use a torsion spring in
"unwind" mode because of two factors:-

a)The vast majority of torsion springs are
manufactured from hard drawn wire or heat treated
wire and the residual stresses that result from the
original forming operation are tensile on the inner
surface of the coil. Hence, when wound up, these
stresses reduce but increase if wound down. Thus if it
is necessary to design the spring such that it is
unwound by the applied torque, a low temperature
stress relief should be given before use.

b)The nature of the moment arm r
t
in Fig.14 will increment to ( r
t
+ D
m/
2 )

The fundamental formulae for designing helical torsion springs are based upon simple beam
theory. Load is applied as a torque, Pr
t
, which either turns the spring whilst winding or retains its position.
In the case of springs of circular wire section,

stress in body of spring S = 32Pr
t
K
4
(ignoring residual stress) d
3


where K
4
= stress correction for heavily close coiled springs

= (4c - 1)
(4c - 4)

and spring index = D
m
(4-14 preferred)
d

angular deflection = 64Pr
t
L
t
radians
E d
4


where length of active material L
t
= D
m
n + y
and y = the effective wire length between points of load application and the body of the spring

hence = 1.17 x10
3
Pr
t
L
t
deg.
Ed
4



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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011


or angular deflection = 3.67x10
3
Pr
t
D
m
deg. per coil
E d
4


no. of turns when loaded N
f
= n +
360

and final mean diameter D
mf
= D
m
n
N
f

After deflection, the inside diameter of the spring may be given by:-

ID* = n(ID)
n + /360

The torsional spring rate R
t
may be defined as,

R
t
= torque = Ed
4
3.76x10
3
D
m
n

Note although the constant here is the theoretically correct 3.76 x 10
3
, empirical testing shows 4 x 10
3
to
produce better correlation with practice, allowing for an increase in n and a decrease in ID. As a design
guide, springs made with less than 3 coils tend to buckle and are difficult to assess whereas with 30
coils, loads may not achieve uniform coil deflection.

(i) Spring End Types

It has previously been mentioned that the length L of the wire in the spring effectively includes the
lengths of wire between the points of load application and the body of the spring. This is particularly so
when different types of fixing are considered, Fig.14. Torsion springs are also made handed, in other
words the applied torque should normally be in the direction that winds the coil, loaded clockwise =
wound left hand and vice versa. The spring in Fig.14 is right handed.

(ii) Other Wire Sections

As with tension/compression springs, use may be made of square and rectangular wire sections.
For a material of section bt, the modified basic formulae are:-

S = 6Pr
t
K
5
b
2
t

where b = radial depth of section
t = axial thickness
and K
5
= 3c - 1
3c - 3

for closely coiled springs

= 2.16x10
3
Pr
t
D
m
n deg.
Eb
3
t

A practical example of a helical tension spring of square section wire is the spring wrap clutch.


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Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
(iii) Design Method

As with other spring design calculations performed manually, this is an iterative process of manipulating
the eight basic variables (P,r
t
,D
m
,d,S, _,L
t
,n) in the formulae outlined. The following is an example of a
typical procedural method for round wire.

1. Specify the Initial Design Requirement: a) material type, b) specified torque (load, moment
arm), c) type of anchorage
2. Calculate the Wire Size: determine a) maximum stress (S) (Table 2), b) Youngs modulus
(Table 3), c) a suitable wire diameter (d) initially excluding K
4
, adjust to a standard wire size if
necessary.
3. Specify Additional Design Requirements: a) wire diameter (d), b) OD or ID (gives D
m
), c) total
working deflection ()
4. Calculate Spring Performance Characteristics: a) spring length (L
t
), number of couls required
(n), c) spring index (c), d) torsional spring rate (R
t
),
5. Check Results are Acceptable to the Application: a) recalculate true spring stress, including K
4
,
based on results from (4), b) adjust nearest number of turns to give required relative leg locations,
c) number of turns when fully wound up (N
1
), d) maximum silod length, e)check mean diameter
when wound up (D
mf
), f) check shaft/hole clearance to avoid binding

6.2 Spiral Torsion Springs

Springs coiled into a spiral form from flat strip
are known as spiral springs. If during operation the
springs remain separate from each other, the term hair
spring is sometimes used. If the spring is tightly
wound and restrained such that coils touch, this is
commonly referred to as a clock spring. We will only
consider the former as relevant to small machines.
Springs of this type, Fig.15, made of rectangular
section material, deliver a linear torque for the first
360o of rotation. Above this, the coils tend to wra
down onto the central shaft or pin, torque increasin
significantly fr

p
g
om thereon.
For a load P and moment arm r
t
, angular deflection = 12L
t
r
t
P radians
Ebt
3

where b = width of coil strip
t = thickness of coil strip
L
t
= total length of active material
and torsional spring rate = torque = bt
3
E
12L
t

The stresses imposed on a spiral torsion spring are in bending, hence from standard beam theory,

stress S = Pr
t
6 K
5
bt
2

where K
5
= (3c 1)
(3c 3)

c = 2r
m
t
rm = minimum radius of curvature at centre of spiral

13
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
7 TENSATOR SPRINGS

Tensator springs (), or as they are sometimes known, zero rated springs, are coiled lengths of pre-
stressed spring steel strip. The manufacturing technique provides a uniform curl tendency in the strip so
that when relaxed, it forms a tightly wound coil. Performance of these spring types is made possible by
preforming each portion of the flat band to the same curvature in such a way that it can be straightened
without permanent deformation. The pre-stressing process controls the magnitude and distribution of
residual stresses and so accounts for the high elastic deflections that can be obtained. Whilst the design
formulae given in this section are accurate, the design and manufacture of such springs is of a specialised
nature, hence there is limited design scope outside the standard product range. These springs are basically
of two types:-

a) Constant Force - Obtained when the outer end of the spring is extended tangentially to the coiled body
of the spring, Fig.16.
b) Constant Torque - Obtained when the outer end of a spring is attached to another spool of larger
diameter and caused to unwind in a direction the same as or reverse of the original wind, Fig.17.

(i) Constant Force Springs

Used in a counterbalance type of situation, the spring produces basically constant force/deflection
characteristics regardless of extension and number of turns. Because the material is pre-stressed heat
treated steel strip, it has limited fatigue performance, the smaller the coil diameter and the larger the load,
the lower the life. Most design life applications would be 3 to 20K cycles. Using beam theory:-

P = Ebt
3
12Cr
n
2


or P = EbtS
f
2
26.4

where S
f
= t / r
n


and material stress S = Et
2 r
n
where b = width of coil
t = thickness of coil strip
C = correction factor for cross curvature in extended form = 2.2
r
n
= natural radius of coil in its free state

14
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
S
f
= stress factor related to expected life, see Table 8

When a spring is assembled into a mechanism, it is fitted over a free running bush which is of
diameter r
2
slightly greater than r
n
such that, Fig 18,

storage drum radius = r
2
= 1.15 r
n


and length of strip in spring (L
t
) = deflection required ( ) + 10 r
2

ie., L
t
= + 10r
2


and r
1
= 0.56 + 9.5r
2
+ 4r
2
2

L
t
= n (r
2
+ nt)

From the above relationships, together with
Table 8, it straightforward to determine the rated
load for a given fatigue life and spring dimension
achieve the required deflection. The following
characteristics define the constant force spring:-

s to
,
this

Torque
a)Diameter build up on long springs needs to be
allowed for
b) Long deflections possible
c) Unstable if not supported
d) Smooth operation, very low intercoil friction
e) Rated load reached after = 2.5r
1
(Fig 18)
f) constant retracting force

(ii) Constant Torque Motor Springs
If a constant torque spring is fitted to a freely
rotating hub, then wound onto a larger, freely rotating
mandrel, it will be found that on release, the spring re-
coils itself onto the smaller mandrel. There are two types
of configuration, the low torque long life A-motor, and
the higher torque lower life B-motor, Fig.17 (reverse
wound). During winding, the middle 85% of the spring
will give an almost constant torque. Although the A-
motor design gives a long life, to obtain a usable torque
the physical design size is often prohibitive, hence
type is generally non-preferred. The B-motor on the other
hand is a more effective use of material but limited
typically to 35K cycles. The design formulae are as
follows, Fig.19:-

T = Ebt
3
r
3
( 1 + 1 )
24 r
n
r
3
and S =

Et ( 1 + 1 )
2 r
n
r
3

and an optimum value of r
3
= 3t
S
f


15
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
with Sf = t ( 1 + 1 )


r
n
r
3

and optimum centre distance = r
1
+ r
2
+ 30t
Also, the following formulae are useful design approximations for establishing spring dimensions,

)
L
t
= 11(2r
3
N + tN
2
)
where N = number of working revolutions of large mandrel

ing characteristics define the constant
orque B- motor:-

tant output torque, low hysteresis loss
il friction
e) Should not be used above 95
o
C

a
e
d has some
orque/space advantage over a single spring.
ELASTOMER SPRINGS

ring
ection will
nly consider elastomers under compression as a more conventional spring situation.
) Material Aspects


ot
ion
ost rapid during the first few weeks under load. In Fig.21, deflection follows a simple physical law, ie.,

creep log.time
rs
nge, where the required "rubbery" characteristics predominate, Fig.22, will depend on the elastomer.



r
1
= 0.56 (L
t
t + 4r
2
2
)
r
4
= 0.56 (L
t
t + 4r
3
2

The follow
t
a) Near cons
b) Low life
c) High torque output
d) Smooth in operation, no interco
In cases where additional torque is required within
given space, multiple band motors may be employed eg.,
Fig.20. The torque will be increased proportionately by th
number of spring bands used in the system an
t

8
Elastomeric materials, and in particular natural
rubbers, have been used in engineering for many years.
Their natural behaviour presents them as obvious sp
material candidates, useful where long life, arduous duty and inherent damping requirements are
involved. Whilst various types of rubber mount can technically be classified as springs, this s
o

(i
Under continuously loaded static situations, elastomers are very often modified by stress
relaxation, creep and permanent set. Creep is an increase in deformation (deflection) with time under a
constant load and stress relaxation is a decrease in force with time at constant deformation. A similar
relaxation occurs when the imposed load or deformation is removed. The amount of deformation n
recovered is known as set or permanent set. Both creep and relaxation effects result from internal
molecular movements so there should exist a physical correlation between them, Fig.21. Stress relaxat
and creep rates vary considerably with the composition and type of elastomer, but in any case will be
m

For many design applications, the requirement is for acceptable load deformation characteristics
throughout the required lifetime of the component. However, at low enough temperatures, all elastome
become stiff and rigid and at very high temperatures, viscous flow will occur. The useful temperature
ra

16
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
With moderate extensions, natural rubber containing minimal filler produces little hysteresis. It is a
preferred material for vibratory applications where the hysteresis can provide a small but desirable
measure of damping without the danger of serious self heating. Elastomer springs are normally designed
to give a frequency ratio (ie., the ratio of the disturbing frequency to the natural frequency) of approx. 3,
corresponding to an attenuation factor of about 10. The attenuation factor is defined as the amplitude of
the disturbing vibration at one end of the spring to the amplitude of vibration at the other end of the
spring.

(ii) Application


ed
lly










ed
e
spring
d by
g
ring can bulge out
individ
advantages. These
arised as follows:-

Elastomer springs
can be used individually,
in the form of a cushion
(in parallel) or stack
serially. An example of
stacked springs is shown
in Fig.23. However since
the material is essentia
incompressible, ( = 0.5),
bulging will occur under
pressure, Fig.24. If the
material is compressed
20%, the diameter
increases approximately
20%. Annular springs
produce more favourable
stress characteristics than
solid material but when
loaded, the bore ends
reduce in diameter,
tending to choke any
guide bolt if present, and
the centre bore widens.
The effects are illustrat
by Fig.24. A central guide
is required in some
circumstances to avoid th
risk of buckling with high
aspect ratios and large
deflections. Larger
travel can be achieve
stacking elastomer
springs, the individual
springs though should be
separate from each other by means of sprin
collars such that each sp
ually.
Compared to metal springs, the
choice and use of elastomer springs have a
number of advantages/dis
can be summ




17
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
Adv
energy storage capacity
5. igned to give different stiffness characteristics in different directions or even non-linear

Dis
me and temperature dependent
etals
3. igh static loads can impart dimensional changes
ii) Mechanical Design
ded
and compression modulus Ec such that the
ompression stiffness K for a circular block is given by:-

antages: .
1. Elastomer springs have a high
2. They require no maintenance
3. Easy and inexpensive to manufacture
4. High resilience with inherent hysteresis serving to dampen resonant vibration
Can be des
behaviour
advantages:
1. Viscoelastic materials with mechanical properties both ti
2. Narrower environmental operating window than m
H

(i

The stiffness of rubber in compression, when the loaded surfaces are prevented from slipping (ie., bon
or mechanically located) depends upon the shape factor S
c
K = P = E
c
A
t
where E
c
= E ( 1 + 2ks
2
)


s = D = shape factor
4t
= loaded area
force free area
compressive strain = = e

ction
a
k = compression factor (0.5,high hardness to 1.0, low hardness)
t
and P = compressive load
= linear defle
t = thickness
D = diameter
A = cross sectional are
E = Young's modulus




18
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
It is generally not advisable to rely on friction
w
al location of the springs since slippage is possible
hen S> /2 where is the frictional coefficient.

on
ed elastomer springs perform better than solid pads and in this case , compression stiffness
given by :-

Whilst the above relationships generally hold true for strains up to approx. 10%, above 10% and
no slip, strain is approximated to by e(1 + e). For static load applications, deflection should be limited to
10% if stress relaxation is not to be a problem. Fig.25 illustrates the effect of shape factor and hardness
compressive load for polyurethanes at 10% deflection. As a guide, to avoid overloading, polyurethane
springs should not be compressed more than 40% and rubber springs not more than 30% As previously
discussed, bor
is
K = P = 4E (D
2
- d
2
) (1 + k [D - d]
2
)
3 4t 4t
= 4E


D
m
b (1 + kb
2
)
3t 4t
2

b = radial width of section = (D - d)
6 mm diameter polyurethane and Neoprene annular springs at various
spect ratios are shown in Fig.26.
PLASTIC SPRINGS


t. Even
chieve acceptable
erformance. Some types of plastic springs are considered in the following.
) Snap Fit Hook
ly or
rsional snap joint (3). The basis of the flexural hook
esign is the simple flat spring, section 4. In Fig. 27,

where D = external diameter
d = internal diameter
D
m
= mean diameter = (D + d)


From the above formulae therefore it should be possible to estimate the force-deflection characteristics of
a particular elastomer. Curves for 1
a

9
Because of lower mechanical properties, it is not possible to replace a metal spring with a plastic
one without specific design adjustment, carefully taking the properties of the plastic into accoun
so, plastics cannot compete with steel springs directly, but there are a number of plastic spring
applications now evolving which tend to use a particular material feature to a
p

(i

Snap joints are frequently designed into plastic mouldings for ease and rationalisation of the assemb
for component retention etc. The requirement is for minimal actuations, typically one, the types of
assembly being the flexural hook, snap ring joint or to
d

Maximum % deformation in edge fibres = 3.f.t x 100

2
2 l

where f = lug height = max deflection
ss
nd assembly force
t = thickne
l = length
a

P = E.b.t
3
f. ( tan + ) N
4l
3
1 - tan
ssembly force use to calculate pullout force
= coefficient of friction



where = angle use to calculate a


19
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011


Permissible % distortion for plastics ( ) will vary from 1.5% (filled resins) to 5% (unfilled
resins). If repeated assembly is anticipated, the strain level should be reduced by 1%. This can be done by
increasing beam length, reducing thickness or reducing lug height. In designing such a snap fit, the
following points apply:-

1. Minimum radii should be 0.5mm
2. The lug should be dimensioned so that shrinkage, part distortion, heating and loading in operation
do not disturb the functioning of the snap fit
3. Stressing in use and assembly forces should not act in the same direction
4. Arm brackets should be considered to prevent the escape of the hook after joining
5. Permanent deformation of the joint may occur if the height of the undercut is too large, hence
strains too high
6. If the snap hook fractures as a result of overload during assembly, cross section area should not be
increased, the joint should be made more flexible
7. Lead angle should not exceed 60
o

8. A conically tapered section is best, Fig 28, reducing the outer strain level in the hook. Also it
increases stability of the fixing member once assembled (3)

(ii) Helical Compression Spring

Coil springs are torsionally loaded, section 5.1, requiring a high shear modulus to function
acceptably. Since the shear modulus of plastics is typically 1/80th that of steel, plastics on their own lack
torsional stiffness and would be very limited in performance in a helical spring application. To be of
potential use, plastics can be fibre filled with the fibre optimally orientated to enable a high shear
modulus and a reasonably allowable strain level. It is possible to achieve a shear modulus of 10-
20kN.mm2 with glass fibre and 10-50kN.mm
-2
with carbon fibre (4). However, for smaller springs,
unfilled polymers such as acetal tend to be better candidates since fibres and fillers tend to limit deflection
capability. The use of higher strength unfilled polymers such as PEI, PEEK and PPO are now producing
higher strength springs. Clearly the main advantages of plastic springs are high strength to weigh ratio,
non-magnetic, corrosion resistance (no contamination) and electrically insulation (5)

20
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011

(iii) Sulcated Spring

Using reinforced plastic in a spring application in bending rather than in torsion has evolved the
sulcated spring (3) Fig. 29. Materials such as glass filled plastics have excellent flexural stiffness. The
spring stiffness characteristic can be tailored in the X, Y and Z planes to suit by varying the aspect
geometries. Non-linear load-deflection characteristics can be achieved by changes in section form. Such
springs may be produced by moulding, hot compression or resin transfer techniques.

(iv) Disc Springs

These are made from glass fibre reinforced epoxy or polypropylene and use a dished profile that
maximises load capacity and provides an even stress distribution on the periphery, avoiding high strains
in the edge fibres. The design and performance characteristics are shown in Fig. 30. Features such as limit
stops can be included in the design. Springs may either be stacked or nested to give stiffer spring rates.
Variable spring rates can be obtained by nesting springs at different thicknesses in such a way that they
bottom against each other progressively as the load is applied (6).

10 GAS SPRINGS

A gas spring is a hydropneumatic ram having the characteristics of a compression spring. It is a
compressed nitrogen filled cylinder with an axial piston rod, Fig. 31. The piston has a gas throttle which
controls the gas flow and allows equalisation of pressure on both sides of the piston. The throttle controls
piston speed, allowing free flow on piston compression but resisting flow on extension. Gas springs have
the following performance characteristics.


21
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
1) The spring force increases as the spring shortens, but the force increases only a small amount
for a given compression compared to other spring types.
2) The force of compression increases linearly with stroke, Fig 32
3) Rate of movement is controlled in extension, Fig 31.
4) There is a hydraulically cushioned zone at the end of the extension stroke provided by free oil
in the piston. To be effective, the gas spring must be mounted rod downwards within 60
o
of the
vertical.
5) Standard struts are undamped in compression
6) Force in compression depends on the relative volumes of cylinder, piston rod and oil volume
present.
7) As the spring extends, the force it exerts will diminish by some 20-50%

Gas spring
applications are
basically concerned
with a lid or cover
rotating about a fixed
point from closed to
open positions. Desig
application is
concerned with the
resolution of moment
taken about the pivot
point, Fig. 33. Since
perpendicular distance
from line of action of
both weight (cover) an
spring will alter as the cover rotates, the forces will need to be checked at all relevant positions to e
the application requirements are m

n
s

s
d
nsure
et. In Fig. 33,
P
1
L
3
= WL
1
+ H
1
J

and P
2
L
4
= WL
2
+ H
2
J

where H1,H2 = applied force to close or open cover
W = weight of cover
P
1
= extended force (nominal force)
J = length of cover
P
2
= force fully compressed
L
1
,L
2
= length of cover mass moment arm
L
3
,L
4
=length of moment arm, gas spring

for the cover to be held open P
1
L
3
> WL
1
and P
2
L
4
< WL
2
for the cover to stay closed

where P
2
/P
1
= compression ratio

Gas springs are usually quite powerful so can be fitted fairly close to the pivot point. If a high
force spring is used, the mounting and pivot points should have adequate strength and rigidity.

11 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY SPRINGS

Shape memory is a physical metallurgy phenomenon that has been known for some 50 years (7).
The shape memory effect (SME) is demonstrated by the ability of a component to accept mechanical
distortion at low temperatures and then return to its original shape when the temperature is raised above a
critical point. The effect is reversible unless the shape memory alloy (SMA) is restrained in some way.
Unlike bimetallics, SMA's change shape at a specific temperature and also produce a usable force and

22
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
stroke. For best performance, Nickel/Titanium alloys are normally used (8). Typical transformations are
in the range - 10
o
C to + 100
o
C with an 8% shape memory. There are 4 types of shape change event
possible:-

a) Free Recovery: Simple recovery, ie heat is used to recover the shape of a bent SMA. One-way effect.
b) Constrained Recovery: The shape change is limited by a second component, eg pipe clamps,
compression joints etc.
c) Work Production: Shape change is used to produce a mechanical movement and/or exert a force, eg
thermally sensitive actuators, temperature switches, flow cut-off valves, anti-scald device, springs and
levers. Can be considered as an alternative to solenoids, linear short stroke devices etc.
d) Energy Storage: This is an event where the material displays pseudo-elastic properties below the
critical temperature where small shape changes are caused by small temperature changes, ie the metal
exhibits the behavioural characteristics of elastomers.

When used in wire form as a spring, c) above, deformation and
production of force can be exploited to the maximum. Fig. 34
illustrates a simple compression actuator required to push or pull.
Thermal energy to drive the mechanism can be supplied by
convection, radiation or process fluid conduction. Normal spring design formulae may be used for SMA's
section .5.1, but the following parameters and restrictions will apply:-

1) Preferred actuation range is +20 to +80
o
C with a repeat accuracy of 2.5
o
C
2) Maximum recovery stress (torsional shear) can be up to 300Nmm
-2
, but typically a maximum
force of 50N
3) Above the critical temperature, G 22 x 10
3
Nmm
-2
(Fig 35)
4) Below the critical temperature, G 7 x 10
3
Nmm
-2

5) Use a spring index, c, of 6 (5 absolute minimum).
6) Depending on the fatigue life required, shear strain should not exceed the following: 6% for a
few cycles, 1-1.5% for 10
4
to 10
5
cycles, 0.5-0.8% for 10
7
cycles

The working explanation of the actuator illustrated in Fig.34 is given in Fig.36, illustrating the balance of
forces (9). Empirical load deflection curves are plotted (approximate straight lines) for the SMA at typical
90
o
C and 25
o
C temperatures with the bias spring plotted in the reverse sense. The full stroke AB is
reduced in practice to A'B' to allow for excess forces at the ends of the stroke;
AA' of SMA over bias spring at A'
BB' of bias spring over SMA at B'


23
Springs; P.L.Hurricks Feb 2011
In a practical bias spring application, the
design process can be summarised as follows:-

a) Obtain manufacturers performance data on SMA
spring sizes at temperatures above and below the
critical. Alternatively knowing wire sizes available,
calculate spring geometry.
b) Plot as in Fig.36, together with excess load
requirements at either end of the stroke and the
maximum stroke length requirement.
c) Check that at the points identified, shear strains in
the SMA do not exceed those recommended for the
given life requirement.
d) Given the bias spring force-deflection
requirements at two points, can then iteratively
determine bias spring geometry, making initial
assumptions of spring and wire diameter, section 5.1.
e) Knowing the number of coils in the bias spring,
hence length, the actuator assembly can be specified.

The shape memory feature has also been developed in polymers ( 10) to produce significant
mechanical property changes in the vicinity of room temperature, typically over the range of glass
transition temperature 25
o
C to 55
o
C. Fig 22 illustrates the form of the elastic modulus change. Although
some engineering uses of these materials has been reported (11 ), majority usage seems to be confined to
the medical and textile fields.

12 REFERENCES

(1) Guide to Spring Material Selection, Mach.Des., August 1997, 33
(2) Tensator is a registered trade mark of Tensator Ltd.
(3) Shonewald H., "Snap Joints in use", Kunststoffe 79, 8, 1989,732.
(4) Hendry. J.C. et.al., "Carbon Fibre Coil Springs", Materials and Design, 7, 6, 1986, 330
(5) Smith. Z., et al., Give and Take of Plastic Springs, Mach.Des., 69,21.1997
(6) Eureka, May 1988, 35.
(7) Miles P., "Shape Memory Materials", Engineering 229, 7, 1989, 29.
(8) Hornbogen E., "Shape Memory, 3 usable effects in one Material", Design Eng., May 1990, 67.
(9) Bowyer M.J., "Design and Application of Ni-Ti SMA Springs", Eng. Designer 14, 6, 1988, 15.
(10) Hayashi s., et al., Room Temperature Functional Shape-Memory Polymers., Plastics Engineering,
Feb 1995
(11) Chiodo J.D., et al., Proc 2000 IEEE Int. Symp on Electronics and the Environment.

24

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