BASEBAND TRANSMISSION

Discrete PAM Signals

The use of an appropriate for baseband representation of digital is basic to its transmission from a source to a destination There are some different formats for the representation of the binary data sequence

Unipolar format (on-off signaling) Polar format Bipolar format (also known as pseudoternary signaling) Manchester format (also known as biphase baseband signaling)

Discrete PAM Signal

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Data signaling rate (or data rate) is defined as the rate, measured in bits per second (bps), at which data are transmitted. It is also common practice to refer to the data signaling rate as the bit rate, denoted by 1 Rb = Tb
where Tb is the bit duration

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

In contrast, the modulation rate is defined as the rate at which signal level is changed, depending on the nature of the format used to represent the digital data The modulation rate is measured in bauds or symbol per second For an M-ary format (with M an integer power of two) used to represent binary data, the symbol duration of the M-ary format is related to the bit duration Tb by T = Tb log 2 M

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Discrete amplitude-modulated pulse train may be described as different realizations (sample functions) of a random process X(t)
X (t ) =
k =

A v(t kT )
k

The coefficient Ak is a discrete random variable v(t) is basic pulse shape, centered at the origin, t = 0, and normalized such that v(0) = 1 T is the symbol duration

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

To proceed with the analysis, we model the mechanism responsible for the generation of the sequence {Ak}, defining as a discrete stationary random source The source is characterized as having ensemble-averaged autocorrelation function

R A (n) = E [Ak Ak n ]
where E is the expectation operator

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

The power spectral density of the discrete PAM signal X(t) is given by
1 2 S X ( f ) = V ( f ) R A (n) exp( j 2nfT ) T

V(f) is the Fourier transform of the basic pulse v(t) The values of the functions V(f) and RA(n) depend on the type of discrete PAM signal being considered

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Unipolar Format

Suppose that the 0s and 1s of a random binary sequence occur with equal probability For n = 0, we may write
1 P ( Ak = 0) = P ( Ak = a ) = 2

2 a E[ Ak2 ] = (0) 2 P( Ak = 0) + (a) 2 P ( Ak = a ) = 2

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Unipolar Format

Consider next the product AkAk-n for n 0

E [Ak Ak n ] = 3(0 ) 1

( 4 ) + (a )( )
2

2 a 1 = 4 4

n0

The autocorrelation function RA(n) may be expressed as follows

a2 R A (n) = 22 a 4
n=0 n0

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Unipolar Format

For the basic pulse v(t), we have a rectangular pulse of unit amplitude and duration Tb. The Fourier transform of v(t) equals

V ( f ) = Tb sin c( fTb )

The power spectral density of NRZ unipolar format

2 a 2Tb a Tb 2 2 SX ( f ) = sin c ( fTb ) + sin c ( fTb ) exp( j 2nfTb ) 4 4 n =

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Unipolar Format

Use Poisons formula written in the form

1 exp( j 2nfTb ) = Tb n =

m f T m = b

We may simplify the expression for the power spectral density SX(f) as
2 a 2Tb a SX ( f ) = sin c 2 ( fTb ) + ( f ) 4 4

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Polar Format

Similar to that described for the unipolar format, we find that

a 2 R A ( n) = 0
n=0 n0

The basic pulse v(t) for the polar format is the same as that for unipolar format The power spectral density of the NRZ polar format is
S X ( f ) = a 2Tb sin c 2 ( fTb )

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Bipolar Format

The successive 1s in the bipolar format be assigned pulses of alternating polarity The bipolar format has three level: a, 0, -a Assume that the 1s and 0s in the input binary data occur with equal probability, we find the respective probabilities of occurrence of these level are
P ( Ak = a ) = 1 P ( Ak = 0 ) = 1 4 2 P ( Ak = a ) = 1

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Bipolar Format

For n = 0, we may write

a2 E A = (a ) P( Ak = a ) + (0 ) P( Ak = 0) + ( a ) P( Ak = a ) = 2
2 k 2 2 2

[ ]

For n = 1, the dibit represented by the sequence (AkAk-1) can assume only four possible forms: (0,0), (0,1), (1,0), (1,1). Hence we may write
E [Ak Ak 1 ] = 3(0 ) 1

( 4 )+ ( a )( )
2

2 a 1 = 4 4

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Bipolar Format

For n > 1, we find that

E [Ak Ak n ] = 0

For the NRZ Bipolar format, we have

a2 2 R A ( n ) = a 2 4 0

n=0 n = 1 otherwise

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

NRZ Bipolar Format

The basic pulse v(t) for the NRZ bipolar format has its Fourier transform as in previous cases The power spectral density of the NRZ bipolar format is given
2 2 a a 2 S X ( f ) = Tb sin c ( fTb ) (exp( j 2fTb ) + exp( j 2fTb ) 4 2 a 2Tb = sin c 2 ( fTb )[1 cos(2fTb )] 2 = a 2Tb sin c 2 ( fTb ) sin 2 (fTb )

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Manchester Format

In Manchester format, the input binary data consists of independent, equally likely symbol The autocorrelation function RA(n) for the Manchester format is the same as for the NRZ polar format
a 2 R A ( n) = 0
n=0 n0

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

Manchester Format

The basic pulse v(t) for the Manchester format consists of a doublet pulse of unit amplitude and total duration Tb.The Fourier transform of the pulse equals fTb fTb
V ( f ) = jTb sin c sin 2 2

The power spectral density of the Manchester format is given

fTb 2 fTb S X ( f ) = a Tb sin c sin 2 2
2 2

Power Spectra of Discrete PAM Signals

InterSymbol Interference

Consider basic elements of a baseband binary PAM system

The input signal consists of a binary data sequence {bk} with a bit duration of Tb seconds This sequence is applied to a pulse generator, producing the discrete PAM signal

x (t ) =

k =

a v(t kT )
k b

v(t) denotes the basic pulse, normalize such that v(0) = 1 The coefficient ak depends on the input data and the type of format used The waveform x(t) represents one realization of the random process X(t)

InterSymbol Interference

InterSymbol Interference

The receiving filter output may be written as

y (t ) = ak p (t kTb )
k =

is scaling factor
The pulse p(t) is normalized such that
p ( 0) = 1

InterSymbol Interference

The output y(t) is produced in response to binary data waveform applied to the input of the transmitting filter. Especially, the pulse p(t ) is response of the cascade connection of the transmitting filter, the channel, and the receiving filter, which is produced by the pulse v(t) applied to the input of this cascade connection

P( f ) = V ( f ) H T ( f ) H C ( f ) H R ( f )

P(f) and V(f) are Fourier transform of p(t) and v(t)

InterSymbol Interference

The receiving filter output y(t) is sampled at time ti = iTb

y (t i ) = a k p (iTb kTb )
= ai + ak p (iTb kTb )
k = k i

k =

The first term is produced by the ith transmitted bit. The second term represents the residual effect of all other transmitted bits on the decoding of the ith bit; this residual effect is called intersymbol interference (ISI)

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Typically, the transfer function of the channel and the transmitted pulse shape are specified, and the problem is to determine the transfer functions of the transmitting and receiving filters so as to reconstruct the transmitted data sequence {bk} The receiver does this by extracting and then decoding the corresponding sequence of weights, {ak}, from the output y(t). Except for a scaling factor, y(t) is determined by the ak and the received pulse p(t)

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

The extraction involves sampling the output y(t) at some time t = iTb The decoding requires that the weighted pulse contribution akp(iTb-kTb) for k = i be free form ISI due to the overlapping tails of all other weighted pulse contributions represented by k i

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

This, in turn, require that we control the received pulse p(t), as shown by
1 p (iTb kTb ) = 0

i=k ik

where, by normalization, p(0) = 1

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

The receiver output

y (ti ) = ai

Which implies zero intersymbol interference (ISI) This condition assures perfect reception in the absence of noise

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Consider the sequence of samples {p(nTb)}, where n = 0, 1, 2, Sampling in the time domain produces periodicity in frequency domain
P ( f ) = Rb

n =

P( f nR )
b

Where Rb = 1/Tb is the bit rate P(f) is the Fourier transform of an infinite periodic sequence of delta functions of period Tb, and whose strengths are weighted by the respective sample values of p(t)

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

That is
P ( f ) =

[ p(mTb ) (t mTb )]exp( j 2ft )dt

where m = i k.

Impose the condition of zero ISI on the sample values of p(t)

P ( f ) = p(0) (t ) exp( j 2ft )dt

= p ( 0)

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Since p(0) = 1, by normalization, the condition for zero ISI is sastisfied if

n =

P( f nR ) = T
b

baseband transmission

Nyquist criterion for distortionless

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Ideal solution

A frequency function P(f), occupying the narrowest band, is obtained by permitting only one nonzero component in the series for each f in the range extending from B0 to B0, where B0 denotes half the bit rate
Rb B0 = 2

We specify P(f)

f 1 P( f ) = rect 2B 2 B0 0

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Ideal solution

Hence, signal waveform that produces zero ISI is defined by the sinc function
sin (2B0t ) p(t ) = 2B0t

= sin c(2 B0 t )

InterSymbol Interference

Ideal solution

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

There are two practical difficulties that make it an undesirable objective for system design:

It requires that the amplitude characteristic of P(f) be flat form B0 to B0 and zero elsewhere. This is physically unrealizable because of the abrupt transitions at B0 The function p(t) decreases as 1/|t| for large |t|, resulting in a slow rate of decay. This is caused by the discontinuity of P(f) at B0. Accordingly, there is practically no margin of error in sampling times in the receiver

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Practical solution

We may overcome the practical difficulties posed by the ideal solution by extending the bandwidth from B0 = Rb/2 to an adjustable value between B0 and 2B0 In doing so, we permit three components as shown by
1 P ( f ) + p ( f 2 B0 ) + p ( f + 2 B0 ) = 2 B0

B0 f B0

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Practical solution

A particular form of P(f) that embodies many desirable features is constructed by a raised cosine spectrum
1 P( f ) = 4 B0

1 2 B0 ( f f 1 ) 1 + cos 2 B0 2 f 1 0

f f1 f1 f < 2 B0 f1 f 2 B0 f1

Rolloff factor

f1 = 1 B0

Nyquists Criterion For Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission

Practical solution

The time response p(t), that is, the inverse Fourier transform of P(f), is defined
p(t ) = sin c(2 B0t ) cos(2B0t ) 1 16 2 B02t 2

InterSymbol Interference

Practical solution

Correlative Coding

It is possible to achieve a bit rate of 2B0 per second in a channel of bandwidth B0 Hertz by adding intersymbol interference to the transmitted signal in a controlled manner Such schemes are called correlative coding or partialresponse signaling schemes The design of these schemes is based on the premise that since intersymbol interference introduced into the transmitted signal is known, its effect can be compensated at the receiver. Correlative coding may be regarded as a practical means of achieving the theoretical maximum signaling rate of 2Bo per second in a bandwidth of B0 hertz

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

Consider a binary input sequence {bk} consisting of uncorrelated binary digits each having duration Tb seconds, with symbol 1 represented by a pulse of amplitude +1 volt, and symbol 0 by a pulse of amplitude -1 volt This sequence is applied to duobinary encoder, it is converted into a three-level output, namely -2, 0, and +2 volts

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

The digit ck at the duobinary coder output is the sum of the resent binary digit bk and its previous value bk-1

c k = bk + bk 1

One of the effects of the transformation is to change the input sequence {bk} of uncorrelated binary digits into a sequence {ck} pf correlated digits This correlation between the adjacent transmitted levels may be viewed as introducing ISI into the transmitted signal

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

The overall transfer function of this filter connected in cascade with the ideal channel Hc(f) is
H ( f ) = H C ( f )[1 + exp( jfTb )] = H C ( f )[1 + exp( jfTb ) + exp( jfTb )]exp( jfTb ) = 2 H C ( f ) cos(fTb ) exp( jfTb )

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

For the ideal channel of bandwidth B0 = R b/2, we have f Rb 2 1 HC ( f ) = otherwise 0 The overall frequency response has the form of a half-cycle cosine function
2 cos(fTb ) exp( jfTb ) H( f ) = 0
f Rb 2 otherwise

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

The corresponding value of the impulse response consists of two sinc pulse, timedisplaced by Tb seconds
sin (t Tb ) sin[ (t Tb ) Tb ] + h(t ) = t Tb (t Tb ) Tb

sin (t Tb ) sin[t Tb ] = t Tb (t Tb ) Tb Tb2 sin (t Tb ) = t (Tb t )

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

Correlative Coding

Duobinary signaling

The original data {bk} may be detected from the duobinary-coded sequence {ck} by subtracting the previous decoded binary digit from the currently received digit ck

= c b b k k k 1

It is apparent that if ck is received without error at time t = (kand if also the previous estimate b k 1)Tb corresponds to a correct decision, then the will be correct too current estimate b k 1

Eye Pattern

One way to study ISI in a PCM or data transmission system experimentally is to apply the received wave to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope an to apply a sawtooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate R = 1/T to the horizontal deflection plates The waveforms in successive symbol intervals are thereby translated into one interval on the oscilloscope display The resulting display is called an eye pattern

Eye Pattern

Eye Pattern

The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received wave can be sampled without error form ISI. It is apparent that the preferred time for sampling is the instant of time at which the eye is opened widest The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the sampling time is varied The height of the eye opening, at a specified sampling time, defines the margin over noise

Eye Pattern