POLYESTER FIBERS

Polyester fiber is a " manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is any long chain synthetic polymer composed at least 85% by weight of an ester of a dihydric alcohol (HOROH) and terephthalic acid (p-HOOCC6H4COOH)" [3]. The most widely used polyester fiber is made from the linear polymer poly (ethylene terephtalate), and this polyester class is generally referred to simply as PET. High strength, high modulus, low _shrinkage, heat set stability, light fastness and chemical resistance account for the great versatility of PET.

POLYMER FORMATION
Polyethylene Teraphthalate (PET) is a condensation polymer and is industrially produced by either terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephthalate with ethylene glycol. Other polyester fibers of interest to the nonwovens field include: (a) Terephthalic Acid (PTA), produced directly from p-xylene with bromide-controlled oxidation. (b) Dimethyl Terephthalate (DMT), made in the early stages by esterification of terephthalic acid. However, a different process involving two oxidation and esterification stages now accounts for most DMT. (c) Ethylene Glycol (EG) initially generated as an intermediate product by oxidation of ethylene. Further ethylene glycol is obtained by reaction of ethylene oxide with water.

Fig.1: Production of polyethylene terephthalate

SYNTHESIS OF POLYMER
1.LINEAR POLYESTERS A representative linear polyester, PET is polymerized by one of the following two ways: Ester Interchange: Monomers are diethyl terephtalate and ethylene glycol. Direct Etherification: Monomers are terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. Both ester interchange and direct esterification processes are combined with polycondensation steps either batch-wise or continuously. Batch-wise systems need two-reaction vessels- one for esterification or ester interchange, the other for polymerization. Continuous systems need at least three vessels - one for esterification or shear interchange, another for reducing excess glycols, the other for polymerization.

Another way to produce PET is solid-phase polycondensation. In the process, a melt polycondensation is continued until the pre-polymer has an Intrinsic Viscosity of 1.0-1.4, at which point the polymer is cast into a solid firm. The pre-crystallization is carried out by heating (above 200oC) until the desirable molecular weight is obtained. Later the particulate polymer is melted for spinning. This process is not popular for textile PET fibers but is used for some industrial fibers. 2. BRANCHED AND CROSSLINKED POLYESTERS If glycerol is allowed to react with a diacid or its anhydride each glycerol will generate one branch point. Such molecules can grow to very high molecular weight. If internal coupling occurs (reaction of a hydroxyl group and an acid function from branches of the same or different molecule), the polymer will become crosslinked.Rigidly crosslinked polymers are totally unaffected by solvents.

FIBER FORMATION
The sequences for production of PET fibers and yarns depend on the different ways of polymerization (continuous, batch-wise, and solid-phase) and spinning (low or high windup speed) processes. 1. SPINNING PROCESS The degree of polymerization of PET is controlled, depending on its end-uses. PET for industrial fibers has a higher degree of polymerization, higher molecular weight and higher viscosity. The normal molecular weight range lies between 15,000 and 20,000. With the normal extrusion temperature (280-290oC), it has a low shear viscosity is 1000-3000 poise. Low molecular weight PET is spun at 265oC, whereas ultrahigh molecular weight PET is spun at 300oC or above. The degree of orientation is generally proportional to the wind-up speeds in the spinning process. Theoretically, the maximum orientation along with increase in productivity is obtained at a wind-up speed of 10,000m/min. Although due to a voided skin, adverse effects may appear at wind-up speeds above 7000m/min. 2. DRAWING PROCESS To produce uniform PET, the drawing process is carried out at temperature above the glass transition temperature (80-90oC). Since the drawing process gives additional orientation to products, the draw ratios (3:1-6:1) vary according to the final end-uses. For higher tenacities, the higher draw ratios are required. In addition to orientation, crystallinity may be developed during the drawing at the temperature range of 140-220oC . 3. POLYESTER FIBER FLOW CHART

Fig. 2: Polyester fiber flow chart

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION OF PET

The one of the distinguishing characteristics of PET is attributed to the benzene rings in the polymer chain. The aromatic character leads to chain stiffness, preventing the deformation of disordered regions, which results in weak van der Waals interaction forces between chains. Due to this, PET is difficult to be crystallized. Polyester fibers may be considered to be composed of crystalline, oriented semi crystalline and noncrystalline (amorphous) regions. The aromatic, carboxyl and aliphatic molecular groups are nearly planar in configuration and exist in a side-by-side arrangement. Stabilization distances between atoms in neighboring molecules are usually van der Waals contact distances, and there is no structural evidence of any abnormally strong forces among the molecules. The unusually high melting point of PET (compared to aliphatic polyesters) is not the result of any unusual intermolecular forces, but is attributed to ester linkages. The cohesion of PET chains is a result of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions, caused by dipole interaction, induction and dispersion forces among the chains. The capacity to form useful fibers and the tendency to crystallize depend on these forces of attraction. The interactive forces create inflexible tight packing among macromolecules, showing high modulus, strength, and resistance to moisture, dyestuffs and solvents. The limited flexibility in the macromolecule is mainly due to the ethylene group. The extended quenched fiber does not show any early development of crystallinity; the growth of crystals starts to occur upon drawing. A number of basic structural models are required to represent the different states of the fiber: amorphous (no orientation) after extrusion, amorphous (no orientation) after cold drawing, crystalline orientation after thermal treatment and after hot drawing, stretching and annealing. The crystalline oriented form can also be obtained by high stress (high-speed) spinning.

GENERAL POLYESTER FIBER CHARACTERISTICS:

Strong Resistant to stretching and shrinking Resistant to most chemicals Quick drying Crisp and resilient Wrinkle resistant Mildew resistant Abrasion resistant Retains heat-set pleats and crease Easily washed

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING PARAMETERS OF PET FIBERS

Properties of polyester fibers are strongly affected by fiber structure. The fiber structure, which has a strong influence on the applicability of the fiber, depends heavily on the process parameters of fiber formation such as spinning speed (threadlike stress), hot drawing (stretching), stress relaxation and heat setting (stabilization) speed. As the stress in the spinning threadlike is increased by higher wind-up speed, the PET molecules are extended, resulting in better as-spun uniformity, lower elongation and higher strength, greater orientation and high crystallinity. Hot drawing accomplishes the same effect and allows even higher degrees of orientation and crystallinity. Relaxation is the releasing of strains and stresses of the extended molecules, which results in reduced shrinkage in drawn fibers. Heat stabilization is the treatment to "set" the molecular structure, enabling the fibers to resist further dimensional changes. Final fiber structure depends considerably on the temperature, rate of stretching; draw ratio (degree of stretch), relaxation ratio and heat setting condition. The crystalline and noncrystalline orientation and the percentage of crystallinity can be adjusted significantly in response to these process parameters.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
As the degree of fiber stretch is increased (yielding higher crystallinity and molecular orientation), so are properties such as tensile strength and initial Young's modulus. At the same time, ultimate extensibility, i.e., elongation is usually reduced. An increase of molecular weight further increases the tensile properties, modulus, and elongation. Typical physical and mechanical properties of PET fibers are given in Table 1. And stress-strain curves in Fig. 3. It

can be seen that the filament represented by curve C has a much higher initial modulus than the regular tenacity staple shown in curve D. On the other hand, the latter exhibits a greater tenacity and elongation. High tenacity filament and staple (curve A and B) have very high breaking strengths and moduli, but relatively low elongations. Partially oriented yarn (POY) and spun filament yarns, exhibit low strength but very high elongation (curve E). When exposing PET fiber to repeated compression (for example, repeated bending), so-called kink bands start to form, finally resulting in breakage of the kink band into a crack. It has been shown in that the compressibility stability of PET is superior to that of nylons. Table 1: Physical Properties of Polyester Fibers Filament yarn Staple and tow

Property breaking tenacity,e N/tex breaking elongation elastic recovery at 5% elongation, % initial modulus, N/tex specific gravity Moisture regian, % Melting temperature, C
a o f

Regular tenacitya 0.35-0.5 24-50 88-93 6.6-8.8 1.38 0.4 258-263

High tenacityb 0.62-0.85 10-20 90 10.2-10.6 1.39 0.4 258-263

Regular tenacityc 0.35-0.47 35-60 75-85 2.2-3.5 1.38 0.4 258-263

High tenacityd 0.48-0.61 17-40 75-85 4.0-4.9 1.38 0.4 258-263

Textile-filament yarns for woven and knit fabrics.bTire cord and high strength, high modulus industrial yarns. c Regular staple for 100% polyester fabrics, carpet yarn, fiberfill, and blends with cellulosic blends or wool. d High strength, high modulus staple for industrial applications, sewing thread, and cellulosic blends. e Standard measurements are conducted in air at 65% rh and 22oC.fTo convert N/text to ge/den, multiply by 11.33.gThe equilibrim moisure content of the fibers at 21oC and 65% rh.

Fig 3. Typical stress strain curve for PET fibers.(A-High tenacity filament,B-High tenacity staple, C-regular tenacity filament,D-regular tenacity staple,C-POY filament)

Shrinkage varies with the mode of treatment. If relaxation of stress and strain in the oriented fiber is allowed to occur through shrinkage during fiber manufacture, then shrinkage at the textile processing stage is reduced and initial modulus is lowered. Polyester yarns held to a fixed length under tension during heat treatment are less affected with change in modulus, and reduced shrinkage values can still be obtained. This is very important in fiber stabilization. PET shows nonlinear and time-dependent elastic behavior. It recovers well from stretch, compression, bending, and shear because of its relatively high initial modulus. Extensional creep occurs under load, with subsequent delay in recovery upon removal of the load. But compared with other melt-spun fibers, the creep is small. The formation of small fuzz balls of entangled fibers (pills) on the fabric surface can be a serious problem. Fuzz formation may be affected by friction, stiffness, breaking strength and abrasion resistance. Shape, fineness, stiffness, recovery, friction and elongation influence entanglement of fibers. After the pills have been formed, their rate of wear-off can affect the fabric appearance. Wear-off is a function of fiber breaking strength and flex life. Reducing the molecular weight, which affects the abrasion resistance; flex life, and breaking strength, results in a decrease in pilling tendency of PET fiber. However, spinning low molecular weight linear PET fiber is difficult. As the molecular weight is reduced, the melt viscosity decreases and a uniform fiber with satisfactory continuity of spinning cannot be produced. Melt viscosity can be raised by the addition of a cross-linking compound, which is prone to hydroxyl groups. Another property, important especially to the apparel industry, is crimp stability or crimp compression. Generally, the tighter the packing of molecular chains, the stiffer and more mechanically resistant the fiber is. Crimp stability of the fiber can be improved with an increase in heating temperature. In addition, crimp compression of the fiber can be decreased by increasing draw ratio when the fiber is produced .

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Polyester fibers have good resistance to weak mineral acids, even at boiling temperature, and to most strong acids at room temperature, but are dissolved with partial decomposition by concentrated sulfuric acid. Hydrolysis is highly dependent on temperature. Thus conventional PET fibers soaked in water at 70 oC for several weeks do not show a measurable loss in strength, but after one week at 100oC, the strength is reduced by approximately 20%. Polyesters are highly sensitive to bases such as sodium hydroxide and methylamine, which serve as catalysts in the hydrolysis reaction. Methylamine penetrates the structure initially through noncrystalline regions, causing the degradation of the ester linkages and, thereby, loss in physical properties. This susceptibility to alkaline attack is sometimes used to modify the fabric aesthetics during the finishing process. The porous structures produced on the fiber surface by this technique contribute to higher wettability and better wear properties . Polyester displays excellent resistance to oxidizing agents, such as conventional textile bleaches, and is resistant to cleaning solvents and surfactants. Also, PET is insoluble in most solvents except for some polyhalogenated acetic acids and phenols. Concentrated solutions of benzoic acid and o-phenylphenol have a swelling effect. PET is both hydrophobic and oleophilic. The hydrophobic nature imparts water repellency and rapid drying. But because of the oleophilic property, removal of oil stains is difficult. Under normal conditions, polyester fibers have a low moisture regain of around 0.4%, which contributes to good electrical insulating properties even at high temperatures. The tensile properties of the wet fiber are similar to those of dry fiber. The low moisture content, however, can lead to static problems that affect fabric processing and soiling.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES
PET has optical characteristics of many thermoplastics, providing bright, shiny effects desirable for some end uses, such as silk-like apparel. Recently developed polyester microfiber with a linear density of less than 1.0 denier per filament (dpf), achieves the feel and luster of natural silk .

THERMAL PROPERTIES
The thermal properties of PET fibers depend on the method of manufacture. The thermal degradation of PET proceeds by a molecular mechanism with random chain scission at ester linkages, although a radical mechanism has also been proposed. A chain-scission scheme is shown below:

The degradation products can undergo further changes, but at ordinary processing temperatures, a certain proportion of carboxyl groups is introduced into the polymer structure. Color formation upon degradation has been attributed to the formation of polyenaldehydes from acetaldehyde and from a further breakdown of poly (vinyl ester) s.

DYEING PROPERTIES
Because of its rigid structure, well-developed crystallinity and lack of reactive dyesites, PET absorbs very little dye in conventional dye systems. This is particularly true for the highly crystalline (highly drawn), high tenacity-high modulus fibers. Polyester fibers are therefore dyed almost exclusively with disperse dyes. A considerable amount of research work has been done to improve the dyeability of PET fibers. Polymerizing a third monomer, such as dimethyl ester, has successfully produced a cationic dyeable polyester fiber into the macromolecular chain. This third monomer has introduced functional groups as the sites to which the cationic dyes can be attached . The third monomer also contributes to disturbing the regularity of PET polymer chains, so as to make the structure of cationic dyeable polyester less compact than that of normal PET fibers. The disturbed structure is good for the penetration of dyes into the fiber. The disadvantage of adding a third monomer is the decrease of the tensile strength. A new dyeing process for polyester fiber at low temperature (400C and below) has been reported. This method employs a disperse dye in a microemulsion of a small proportion of alkyl halogen and phosphoglyceride. The main advantage of this method is low temperature processing, but there remains the environmental problem that is produced by using toxic carriers. The textile industry uses large amounts of water in dyeing processes emitting organic compounds into the environment. Due to this problem a dying process for polyester fiber was developed, in which supercritical CO2 is used as a transfer medium. This gives an option avoiding water discharge. It is low in cost, non-toxic, nonflammable and recyclable. When dyed in an aqueous medium, reduction clearing is to be carried out to stabilize color intensity, which produces more wastewater. Reduction clearing is not carried out following supercritical dyeing. Other advantages are better control of the dying process and better quality of application achieved.

OTHER PROPERTIES
Polyester fibers display good resistance to sunlight but long-term degradation appears to be initiated by ultraviolet radiation. However, if protected from daylight by glass, PET fiber gives excellent performance, when enhanced by an UV stabilizer, in curtains and automobile interiors. Although PET is flammable, the fabric usually melts and drops away instead of spreading the flame. PET fiber will burn, however, in blends with cotton, which supports combustion. Polyester has good oxidative and thermal resistance. Color forming species are produced and carboxyl end groups are increased. The resistance to both oxidative and thermal degradation may be improved by antioxidants. Mechanical properties are not affected by moderate doses of high-energy radiation. At doses of more than 0.5Mgy (Mrad), the tensile strength and ultimate elongation decrease, and deteriorate rapidly at 1-5 Mgy (100-500Mrad). Finally the resistance of polyester fibers to mildew, aging and abrasion is excellent. Molds, mildew and fungus may grow on some of the lubricants or finishes, but do not attack the fiber.

APPLICATIONS
DuPont Company produced the first U.S. commercial polyester fiber in 1953. Since polyester fiber has a lot of special characteristics, most of them are used in the following three major areas: Apparel: Every form of clothing Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillowcases, wall coverings, and upholstery Other Uses: Hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto upholstery, sails, floppy disk liners, and fiberfill for various products including pillows and furniture

Surgeon's gowns, for example, were once woven linen but are now for the most part repellant treated entangled polyester fiber pulp composites on spun bond melt blown laminates. These new gowns are far superior to the older material in providing a breathable barrier between the surgeon and the patient, which serves to significantly reduce hospital infections. Spun lace mattress pad facing of 100% polyester continues to be the replacement of spun bond material because of the textile-like character of entangled fiber fabrics. PET has become the most important polymer type of fibrous prostheses. It is reasonably inert, biocompatible, flexible, and resilient and has an appropriate level of tissue acceptance. But, polymerization initiators, antioxidants, titanium dioxide and other impurities should be minimized to improve its biocompatibility. Thermoplastics such as polyester are usually considered less flammable than cellulosic fibers because they melt and shrink of drip away from the flame. Polyester resin such as Crystar, a DuPont trade name, is used to produce spun bonded polyester in a variety of applications: a nonwoven sheet fabric, fabric softener dryer sheets filtration media, apparel interlining, carpet backing, furniture and bedding, automotive seats and agricultural crop covers. One of the important applications of PET is in the form of bicomponent fibers. To increase the strength of the nonwoven fabric, in while maintaining the soft hand of LLDPE, PET is used in continuous bicomponent filaments having a sheath component made of LLDPE and a core component made of PET. The tensile strength of the fabrics is improved remarkably by the bicomponent filaments and depends on the LLDPE/PET ratio. The ultrasonically bonded polyester/polypropylene blend like Matarh's Ultraskin, the protective clothing, is said to protect wearers from rain while offering the breathability needed to provide comfort. Composites made of 100% polyester fibers are widely used as filtration media. Its layered structure gives excellent tear strength, a smooth, fiber free surface and edge stability. These products provide higher filtration efficiencies than spun bonded media that has not been calendared. The main advantage of these products is that they have no short fibers to be carried downstream and contaminate the filtrate. In Fiberfill applications polyester fibers are used inside seat cushions, back pillows, mattresses and waterbeds, decorative and throw pillows, outdoors furniture and even hand-stuffed custom upholstery.

NYLON FIBERS
INTRODUCTION
Nylon was the first truly synthetic fiber to be commercialized (1939). Nylon was developed in the 1930s by scientists at Du Pont, headed by an American chemist Wallace Hume Caruthers (1896-1937). It is a polyamide fiber, derived from a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, because a variety of diamines and dicarboxylic acids can be produced, there are a very large number of polyamide materials available to produce nylon fibers. The two most common versions are nylon 66 (polyhexamethylene adiamide) and nylon 6 (Polycaprolactam, a cyclic nylon intermediate). Raw materials for these are variable and sources used commercially are benzene (from coke production or oil refining), furfural (from oat hulls or corn cobs) or 1,4-butadiene (from oil refining). The chemical reactions are as follows .

FIBER TYPES
Fiber types are produced commercially in various parts of the world. Nylon 66 has been preferred in North American markets, whereas nylon 6 is much more popular in Europe and elsewhere. Nylon is produced by melt spinning and is available in staple, tow, monofilament, and multi-filament form. The fiber has outstanding durability and excellent physical properties. Nylons are semi-crystalline polymers. The amide group -(-CO-NH-)provides hydrogen bonding between polyamide chains, giving nylon high strength at elevated temperatures, toughness at low temperatures, combined with its other properties, such as stiffness, wear and abrasion resistance, low friction coefficient and good chemical resistance. These properties have made nylons the strongest of all manmade fibers in common use. Because nylons offer good mechanical and thermal properties, they are also a very important engineering thermoplastic. For example, 35% of total nylon produced is used in the automobile industry. There are several commercial nylon products, such as nylon 6, 11, 12, 6/6, 6/10, 6/12, and so on. Of these, the most widely used nylon products in the textile industry are formed of nylon 6 and nylon 6/6. The others are mainly used in tubing extrusion, injection molding, and coatings of metal objects. Nylon's outstanding characteristic in the textile industry is its versatility. It can be made strong enough to stand up under the punishment tire cords must endure, fine enough for sheer, high fashion hosiery, and light enough for parachute cloth and backpacker's tents. Nylon is used both alone and in blends with other fibers, where its chief contributions are strength and abrasion resistance. Nylon washes easily, dries quickly, needs little pressing, and holds its shape well since it neither shrinks nor stretches.

FIBER FORMATION
One of the most important factors in polymer processing is viscosity, which is a function of molecular weight. The number-average molecular weight of polymer suitable for textile fiber production ranges from 14,000 to 20,000. Since Polycaprolactam can be regarded at equilibrium as a polycondensation polymer, the number-average molecular weight alone is sufficient for its characterization. Two-step melt spinning, comprised of spinning and drawing, is considered to be the conventional method to manufacture nylon filaments. After melting, filtering, and deaerating, the molten polymer is extruded through a spinneret into a chamber where the melt solidifies into a filament form. At this stage, the filaments have little molecular orientation, and their slight birefringence is due to

shear forces set up during extrusion. In order to achieve desirable properties through molecular orientation and crystallinity, the newly formed filaments must be drawn. Since the Tg of nylon is below room temperature, nylon can be cold drawn.Hot drawing is also frequently used. Nylon filaments are drawn approximately four times their initial length. The effect of drawing on birefringence, a measure of molecular anisotropy, can be seen in Table I. Also, the elastic modulus increases significantly with increasing orientation as shown in Table I. Other physical properties, such as density equilibrium, moisture sorption, tenacity and elongation-at-break, are also affected by drawing. Table 1: Effect of Drawing on Birefringence and Elastic modulus Draw Ratio Birefringence Elastic Modulus (GPa)

1 2 3 4 5 60

0.00832 0.03297 0.05523 0.05904 0.06381 0.06901

1.97 2.74 3.70 4.59 5.77 6.74

Rather than two-step spinning (extrusion) and drawing, a one-step, high-speed spinning process is being used increasingly. In high-speed spinning, filament windup speed relative to the extrusion speed is very high and orientation and crystallization occur in elongation flow along the spin line. When drawing as-spun fibers, the molecules are arranged randomly in amorphous regions and as folded chains in crystalline region as shown in Figure 1.

In essence, cold drawing stretches chains in amorphous regions, but molecular folds are restricted and the molecules orient themselves along the fiber axis direction, resulting in enhanced orientation and high crystallinity. In the case of nylons, which have sheet-like crystal structures, drawing may enable the hydrogen-bonded polyamide sheets to slip past each other and form more oriented structure. Hot drawing is a procedure using high temperature during drawing and annealing under restraint after drawing. Exposure to high temperature helps to increase the draw ratio, and higher moduli and tenacity can be achieved.. Ultra drawing of solidified crystalline material induces a high degree of chain extension (Figure 2), which leads to very high tensile strength and modulus. This results in a so-called high-performance fiber.

A skin-core structure, mostly depending on spinning speed, is generally formed within melt-spun fibers. At a constant feeding rate, higher spinning speeds will produce more extended chains in the melt and form a finer filament. Therefore, the finer fiber usually has higher modulus and tenacity. Fine filament cannot be drawn as much as a coarse filament, because partial orientation on the outer parts of the filaments is formed when the molten fluid is drawn over the sides of the orifice. As a result, finer filaments have a greater proportion of 'skin' to bulk, i.e., better orientation has already been formed. Naturally, there is not much space for an improvement by cold drawing within fine filaments. The filaments become lustrous and strong.

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
Both nylon 6 and nylon 66 are semi-crystalline polymers. These linear aliphatic polyamides are able to crystallize mostly because of strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds through the amide groups (Figure. 3), and because of Vander walls forces between the methylene chains. Since these unique structural and thermo-mechanical properties of nylons are dominated by the hydrogen bonds in these polyamides, quantum chemistry can be used to determine the hydrogen bond potential . The left side of the figure shows hydrogen-bonding planes, and the right side shows the view down the chain axis. For the -form of nylon 6, adjacent chains are ant parallel and the hydrogen bonding is between adjacent chains within the same sheet (bisecting the CH2 angles). For the -form of nylon 6, the chains are parallel and the hydrogen bonding is between chains in adjacent sheets. . In nylon 66, the chains have no directionality. Research results have shown that the stable crystalline structure is the -form comprised of stacks of planar sheets of hydrogen-bonded extended chains. It also appears that Young's modulus of the than the -form. -form is higher

Mechanical, thermal and optical properties of fibers are strongly affected by orientation and crystallinity. Basically, higher fiber orientation and crystallinity will produce better properties. Crystallinity of nylons can be controlled by nucleation, i.e., seeding the molten polymer to produce uniform sized smaller spherulites. This results in increased tensile yield strength, flexural modulus, creep resistance, and hardness, but some loss in elongation and impact resistance. Another important benefit obtained from nucleation is decrease of setup time during processing .

DYEABILITY
The dyeing efficiency of nylon fibers is enhanced due to the end groups -COOH and -NH2, which exhibit polar and hydrophilic characteristics. Dye diffusion into fibers is closely related to the rate of dyeing, level of dyeing through dye migration, wet fastness properties of dyes, etc. It is generally believed that dye diffusivity is independent on dye concentration, with some exception. T. Shibusawa [12] studied the diffusion of most disperse dyes on nylon 6 and found that the actual diffusivity on nylon 6 fibers is not always independent on dye concentration. Kim et al. have reported that both dyeing rate and dye saturation of 1,4 -diaminoanthraquinone (1,4-DAA) were improved considerably in the presence of didodecyldimethlammonium bromide (DDDMAB). The amount of DDDMAB adsorbed on nylon 6 fiber is roughly 20 times higher than that a conventional dispersing agent. This suggests that there might be fairly strong interaction between DDDMAB and the fiber by virtue of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. There have been many attempts to improve nylon's dyeability or at least to point out the factors and mechanisms acting in nylon dyeing. It has been shown that acrylonitrile and styrene radiation grafting on the polymer could improve the dyeability of nylon. Another approach to higher dyeability of nylon 6 is by copolymerization . In this case, the dyeability can be improved at the expense of a decrease of specific viscosity and of heat and hydrolysis resistance. Other treatments, such as plasma etching and superheated steaming have proved to decrease nylon dyeability. In the former treatment, outer structures, not normally susceptible to dyes, are etched

away whereas the crystalline phases inside the fiber are not as much affected. Superheated steaming of the fibers leads to higher shrinkage and to higher crystallinity and crystal size, which contribute to decrease dyeability.

DEGRADATION
The -COOH and -NH2 end-groups in nylons are sensitive to light, heat, oxygen, acids and alkali. When exposed to elevated temperatures, unmodified nylons undergo molecular weight degradation, which results in loss of mechanical properties. The degradation is highly time/temperature dependent. By adding heat stabilizer, nylon can be used at elevated temperature for long-term performance. Exposure to UV light results in degradation nylon over an extended period of time, it appears that adding carbon black can reduce the radiation degradation. Nylons are chemical resistance to hydrocarbons, aromatic and strong acids, bases, and phenols attack aliphatic solvents, but them. They also are gradually attacked hydrolytically by hot water. Newly developed sulfonation of nylon 6 fiber [19] by 2,5 dichlorobenzene sulfonyl chloride (DSBC) has a great effect on the heat and chemical stability of the fibers. It reported that the modified fiber is non-melting up to 1000oC, and does not burn when put it in direct flame (but chars without losing fiber form). It does not dissolve in formic acid and concentrated mineral acid. Its glass transition temperature is about 500oC.

PROPERTIES OF NYLON 66
Tenacity-elongation at break ranges from 8.8g/d-18% to 4.3 g/d-45%. Its tensile strength is higher than that of wool, silk, rayon, or cotton. 100% elastic under 8% of extension Specific gravity of 1.14 Melting point of 263oC Extremely chemically stable No mildew or bacterial effects 4 - 4.5% of moisture regain Degraded by light as natural fibers Permanent set by heat and steam Abrasion resistant Lustrous- Nylon fibers have the luster of silk Easy to wash Can be pre colored or dyed in wide range of colors; dyes are applied to the molten mass of nylon or to the yarn or finished fabric. Resilient Filament yarn provides smooth, soft, long lasting fabrics Spun yarn lend fabrics light weight and warmth

PROPERTIES OF NYLON 6
The main difference between nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 is nylon 6 has a much lower melting point than nylon 66. This is a serious disadvantage, as garments made from it must be ironed with considerable care.

APPLICATIONS
In certain applications, the performance of nylon fiber is hard to beat. However, because of its higher cost, it is used in specialized applications where its performance can justify the increased cost. It is used as a blending fiber in some cases, because it conveys excellent tear strength. The resiliency and wrinkle recovery performance of a nonwoven produced from nylon is not as excellent as that from PET fiber. This polymer is used in moderate quantities, because it is more expensive than polyester, polypropylene, or rayon. Some particular applications are as follows: It can be mostly found in garment interlinings and wipes where it supplies strength and resilience. In Ni/H and Ni/Cd batteries, nylon fibers are used as Nonwovens separators. Nylon fibers are used for the manufacture of split table-pie fibers. These fibers find application in high performance wipes, synthetic suede, heat insulators, battery separators and specialty papers. Nonwovens developed from nylon are found in automotive products, athletic wear and conveyor belts.