SCIENTIFIC WRITING With regard to presenting your investigations, one of the objectives of this laboratory course is to develop your

writing skills. In science, writing is the most important means of communicating research findings. In most cases, scientists report the results of their research activities in scientific journals in a rather standard scientific paper format. In this laboratory program, you will practice writing in this scientific format and style. As you carry out this I.R.P., you will make observations, ask questions, and propose hypotheses. You will conduct experiments using procedures that are designed for you in this Web site. You will record results, design tables and graphs to present your data in a logical and organized format. You will interpret your results and come to conclusions based on your hypotheses. This process will be reflected in your independent construction of a scientific paper which is the culmination of this I.R.P. project. A scientific paper usually includes the following parts: a Title (statement of the question or problem), an Abstract (short summary of the paper), an Introduction (background and significance of the problem), a Materials and Methods section (report of exactly what you did), a Results section (presentation of data), a Discussion section (interpretation and discussion of results), and References (books and periodicals used). A Conclusion (concise restatement of conclusions) may also be included. Since performing this I.R.P. will be a collaborative effort (students will be working in teams of two), you and your teammate will share information for the Materials and Methods and the Results sections of your reports. However, the Introduction, Discussion, and References Cited (or References) sections must be the product of your own personal library research and creative thinking. If you are not certain about the level of independence and what constitutes plagiarism in this laboratory program, ask me, your instructor, to clarify the class policy. Plagiarism will not be taken lightly. A more detailed description of each section of a scientific paper follows. As you write your paper, clearly label each section (except the title page), placing the title of the section against the left margin on a separate line. TECHNICAL WRITING Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about a particular subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation. This style of writing has a very different purpose and different characteristics than other writing styles such as creative writing, academic writing or business writing. "The goal of technical writing is to enable readers to use a technology or understand a process or concept. Because the subject matter is more important than the writer's voice, technical writing style uses an objective, not a subjective, tone. The writing style is direct and utilitarian, emphasizing exactness and clarity rather than elegance or allusiveness. A technical writer uses figurative language only when a figure of speech would facilitate understanding."

Properties of technical writing

Know Your Audience Some technical writing is geared towards experts in the field, while other pieces of technical writing may be used to teach novices in the same field.

When it comes to writing for those that are experts in the field, the job of the technical writer is made a bit simpler due to the fact that the expert will understand certain abbreviations, acronyms, and lingo that directly applies to such a field. The novice will not understand in the same manner and, therefore, every detail must be explained and spelled out for them.

Writing Style Another thing that a technical writer must remember is that the writing is never personal.

Technical writing is always written from a third person perspective and is always written in the manner of a teacher instructing a student. Technical writing is never emotional and any opinions should be omitted. The writing should be straightforward, to the point, and as simple as possible to make sure the reader understands the process or instruction.

Importance of Research The final element of knowing how to perform technical writing well is knowing how to research.

Technical writing requires that the writer gather information from a number of sources, understand the information gathered so that it can be analyzed thoroughly, and then put the information into an easy to understand format so that the information can teach or instruct those that read it. The more inexperienced your audience, the more information you will need to gather and explain. This is another reason why knowing your audience from the beginning is essential to writing well from a technical perspective.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING Clarity It is essential that the technical writer understands the reader's background and needs. Making the documentation too technical can confuse the reader. The document is meaningless if the intended audience does not understand what the writer wants to communicate. Writers who are well aware of their audiences are in a position to give a solution to their problems. The profession of technical writing demands simplicity of language and clarity of expression. One must avoid unnecessary words that may put the readers in a quandary. The written document must be clear and concise so that the text becomes easier to grasp and understand. Descriptiveness Electronic products such as digital cameras or VCRs often come with manuals that tell how to operate it. As the customers may come from a non-technical background, care must be taken that the manual is not difficult to understand. Certain key concepts to operate the product must be explained as easily as possible for the targeted readers. If you use pure jargon, the customer will possibly never know what you want to say. Explaining the product in layman's terms is absolutely necessary. Good technical writing conveys ideas in the most effective manner. A well-written technical document always contains answers to anticipated problems in the product or application. This aspect of technical writing is commonly seen in articles that are related to troubleshooting a particular software or product. Accuracy

Accuracy is an important characteristic of any technical document. A slight mistake can have grave consequences. For instance, if you forget to mention some important features of a new mobile phone, the customers may think that there is nothing special in that phone and will not prefer to buy it. Effective communication requires quality content and language that is accurate and readable. Technical writing does not mean that you translate information unquestioningly. In this profession, one must know for whom the document is being written and whether it is accurate. Correctness The grammatical structure of your technical document should be correct and free from any kind of ambiguities. The intended meaning will not be communicated to the reader if the document has ambiguous sentences. The reader is sure to get annoyed, if your document is replete with misspellings and incorrect construction of sentences. Hence, apart from providing correct technical information, ensure that the data is grammatically correct. Format The way you present your technical data is also very important from the user's point of view. For instance, suppose you have explained complex technical data in the most simple manner, yet it won't hold the attention of the user if it is presented as one big paragraph. The point is, you go to be creative when it comes to formatting your technical data. Your technical data must be divided into sub heads. If it is an instruction manual, then instead of sub heading go for bulleted format. However, if the sequence of instructions holds priority, one should go for numbered list. Key points pertaining to precautions or warnings may be emphasized using bullets. A document presented in a well-organized manner is very easy to read and the important data that the user is looking for is available at a glance. To make data easily accessible, one can give technical specification of any product in a tabular form. You also need to complement your descriptive technical data with a graphic image of the product in focus. This is visually appealing and will definitely arrest the attention of the most casual viewer. For technical articles to be effective, it is essential to implement the aforementioned characteristics of technical writing. If you follow the above guidelines, the users will definitely appreciate your technical manuals.

Process of technical writing Planning The Technical Writer gathers all information relevant to the project, including subject matter, document specifications, and audience analysis. The Technical Writer reviews existing corporate materials and may look at the competition's offerings. The Assignment Editor or Project Manager gives the writer clear expectations, a budget and deadlines. The Writer must know how the final product should differ from what is already available. The Writer prepares an outline of the project, usually as a table of contents (TOC), and estimates a period for delivery. If the corporation does not have a Production Department, then the Project Manager arranges a contract with an external printer, broadcaster, or CD press. The Circulation Manager and Webmaster determine when and how the finished document will be distributed. The Writer may consult the Quality Assurance Manager about reviewing the document's success and making any necessary version changes. Writing The writing phase includes research, interviews, site visits, creating graphics, preparing a glossary of technical terms, writing the content, indexing, listing references, obtaining permissions and registering

copyright. The Writer checks with the Project Manager at regular intervals to confirm the document is on schedule and within budget. The SME (Subject Matter Expert) validates the technical information, or the document goes through another form of peer review. The Attorney and Risk Manager approve the content and add a legal disclaimer, if necessary. The Editor and Proofreader ensure the document has correct grammar, spelling, formatting, and follows the appropriate style guide. The Graphic Artist ensures the illustrations are suitable for the chosen media (e.g., by digitizing hard copy, designing a CD cover, etc.). The Writer may teach a pilot course to debug the document. The Printer and Web Designer take the galley copy and convert it to its finished format for delivery. Delivery The final document is sent to the Production Department or to an external provider, where it is put into one or all of the following formats: 1.CD-ROM, which requires burning, labeling, and packaging 2.Print, which requires a press run and assembly 3.Digital for integration into existing systems, as directed by the Systems Architect The Circulation Manager and Webmaster schedule delivery. If the document contains minor errors, such as incorrect spelling or typos, then the Editor issues errata to users. If the document needs a last minute addition, then the Editor issues an addendum. If a section needs to be subtracted from the document, or if significant corrections are necessary, then the Editor issues a corrigendum. It increases the expense of the document if the Editor must issue any kind of update or correction. It may also damage the credibility of the publisher and create legal problems. Therefore, the Technical Writer works with the Editor and Programmers to ensure that the entire document is correct and current before it goes to press. Archiving The Technical Writer gives an editable version of the document to the Librarian or Administrative Assistant for archiving. The document must be carefully coded and archived so it can be retrieved and updated later. If the document is a security risk, it may be password protected or access restricted by the appropriate authority. If the Technical Writer is a freelance contractor, who may be unavailable to update the documents later, then it is especially important that his or her successor can find and open the document easily. Every company has a different system for naming and filing documents; each project should be clearly labeled and editable by authorized persons only. Defining

Expert recommendations and audience needs are the keys to defining what documentation to create. For example, a TV buyer may need a fold-out chart showing tasks as diagrams and a printed user's guide with many pictures. A software technician may prefer an online technical reference with extensive search features and a troubleshooting guide in hard copy in case the computer is down. Consult with the distributor on the best way to bundle any writing into the product package.

Researching

Previously printed documents and websites on competing products can provide insights on what information needs documenting. The expert may have produced technical specifications,

diagrams and programming code. Interviewing him as well as using the product yourself supplies additional source material. Writing

Rather than extolling product features, technical writing must explain how the audience uses the product to fulfill their needs. Use concise sentences and short paragraphs in the active voice. Break up text with frequent, verb-heavy section heads that describe tasks. Unless you have a technical audience, simplify jargon. Finally, use an accurate table of contents, an extensive index, illustrations and lists so users can find information quickly.

Editing

Writing becomes clear, consistent and useful only after it's edited by someone else. Editing your own work risks errors because you're too close to it. Even before writing, you can agree with your editor on a set of standards such as the "Associated Press Stylebook." Technical documents often bounce between writer and editor before they're approved.

Testing

Writing can accurately be verified only when the expert and the tester review the documentation against the product. Do the written procedures make tasks easy to perform? Do the overviews define all parts of the product completely? Are users warned adequately about any safety issues? An ideal time to submit a draft for review is during product testing. In this way, both product and documentation can evolve together.

Distributing

Budgets and user needs define how documentation is bundled with the product. For example, printed documents are expensive to produce but easier for users to carry around. On the other hand, online writing is easily updated and cheap to produce but requires a computer for access. Make sure the documentation is the first thing seen by the user when she unpacks the product. Otherwise, she may set up the product unsafely or incorrectly.