Chapter 2

Informal Introduction to QM: Free Particle

Remember that in case of light, the probability of nding a photon at a location is given by the square of the square of electric eld at that point. And if there are no sources present in the region, the components of the electric eld are governed by the wave equation (1D case only) 1 2u 2u =0 (2.1) x2 c2 t2 Note the features of the solutions of this dierential equation: 1. The simplest solutions are harmonic, that is
u exp [i (kx t)]

where = c |k|. This function represents the probability amplitude of photons with energy and momentum k. 2. Superposition principle holds, that is if u1 = exp [i (k1 x 1 t)] and u2 = exp [i (k2 x 2 t)] are two solutions of equation 2.1 then c1 u1 + c2 u2 is also a solution of the equation 2.1. 3. A general solution of the equation 2.1 is given by
u=

A(k ) exp [i (kx t)] dk.

Now, by analogy, the rules for matter particles may be found. The functions representing matter waves will be called wave functions.

First, the wave function

(x, t) = A exp [i(px Et)/ ]

represents a particle with momentum density function

P (x, t)

and energy

for nding the particle at

E = p2 /2m. Then, the x at time t is given by

probability

P (x, t) = | (x, t)|2 = |A|2 .

Note that the probability distribution function is independent of both

and t.

Assume that superposition of the waves hold. Then the wave function

(x, t) = A exp [i(p1 x E1 t)/ ] + B exp [i(p2 x E2 t)/ ]

represents a particle with momentum either

p1

or

p2

with propabilities

|A|2

and

|B |2

respectively. Extending this to the wave function

N

(x, t) =
n=1

An exp [i(pi x Ei t)/ ] pi

with probability

represents a particle with momentum

|Ai |2 .

In general, since

is a continuous variable,

1 (x, t) = 2

A(p) exp [i(px Et)/ ] dp |A (p)|2 .

represents a particle with momentum

with probability density function

Example 1.

Let

1 1 (x, t) = exp [i(px Et)/ ] + exp [i(px Et)/ ] . 2 2

The pdf for nding particle at

at time

is

P (x, t) = (x, t) (x, t) 2px . = 1 + cos

Now this pdf is not what one expects in classical mechanics. There are some points, in the vicinity of which, the probability of nding particle is 0! Now the wavefunction of a particle with denite momentum presents a problem. The probability density function

P (x, t)

is not integrable. Thus the net probability of nding a particle

somewhere is innite. One way to look at this is to say that probability and not the absolute.

P (x, t)

represents the relative

Really speaking, one does not nd harmonic waves in nature. What one encounters are wave trains or wave pulses. Think of water ripples when a stone is dropped in it. Think of particles 9

which make tracks in bubble chambers. It is always known that particles is in some region of space. This can be put in mathematical terms as

or

P (x, t)dx <

| (x, t)|2 dx <

Here are the rules for the wave function of a free particle. 1. A free particle will be described by a square integrable function called as wave function or probability amplitude. The absolute square of the wave function is proportional to the probability of nding the particle at a location at an instant. 2. The wave function
(x, t) = 1 2

A(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp

where A(p) is a square integrable function, represents a free particle with momentum p with probability density function |A(p)|2 and energy E (p) = p2 /2m.

Wave Packets
Thus, the particles with reasonably sharply dened momentum may be described by a pulse like wave functions. Consider a particle with momentum p0 with uncertainty of p0 ( p0 ). If the wave function of the particle is
1 (x, t) = 2

A(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp

then the form of A(p) must be a sharply peaked function about p0 (see gure). (For present argument, assume that A(p) is real.)

p0

Claim

2. If A(p) is a sharply peaked function about p0 with uncertainty p0 , then the wave function is also localized. (such wave functions will be called wave packets ). 10

To justify the claim, rst, let t = 0. It is the behaviour of exp (ipx/ ) that must be investigated as a function of p near p0 . Now period of exp (ipx/ ) is h/|x|.

Case 1: When |x| hp , then p0 h/|x|. That is p0 is very large compared to the period of exp (ipx/ ). Thus this function has highly oscillatory behaviour near p0 and hence
0

(x, 0) =

1 2

A(p) exp [i(px)/ ] dp 0

Case 2: When |x| hp , then p0 h/|x|. That is p0 is very small compared to the period of exp (ipx/ ). Thus this function is nearly constant near p0 and hence
0

(x, 0) = =

1 A(p) exp [i(px)/ ] dp 2 1 A(p)dp exp [i(p0 x)/ ] 2

Thus is signicantly nonzero only for |x| < h/p0 . Thus xp0 h/2.

p0

p0

p0

p0

p0

p0

Figure 2.1: The three graphs in the rst column are that of A(p), cos(px/ ) and the product of the two when x h/p0 . The second column contains the same graphs, but for x h/p0 .

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Example 3. Let A(p) = 1/

if |p p0 | < p /2. Then the wave functin is given by

1 A(p) exp [i(px)/ ] dp 2 2 p sin (p x/ ) p x/ 2

(x, t) = =

The plots are shown in the gure.

Ap x

x p

To analyze the wavefunction (x, t), when t = 0, remember E is a function of p. Let = (px Et)/ be the phase of the exponential function. If changes rapidly, then exponential function is oscillatory. Alternatively if is stationary, exponential function is nearly constant. Thus, the peak of the wave packet is at x0 if
(p0 ) = 0 p E x0 (p0 ) t = 0 p E (p0 ) . p

when

This means that the peak of the wave packet is moving with speed
vg =

This is called as group velocity as against the phase velocity of the wave which is dened as E/p0 . In macroscopic limit, the velocity of the particle is p0 /m, this suggests that E (p) = p2 /2m. This ts nicely. Now,
E (p) = E (p0 ) + vg (p p0 ) +

Thus if t is suciently small, then

(x, t) = 1 ei(p0 xE (p0 )t)/ 2

A(p) exp [i(p p0 )(x vg t)/ ] dp

And compare this with

1 ei(p0 x/ (x, 0) = 2
)

A(p) exp [i(p p0 )x/ ] dp

the wave packet just moves without changing shape with speed vg . 12

Gaussian Wave Packets

Now let
A(p) = 1 p

1 2

exp

(p p0 )2 . 22 p

Note that this function is normalized to 1, that is, The wave packet is
(x, 0) = = 1 2 p

|A (p) |2 dp = 1.

1 p
1 2

1 2

exp

(p p0 )2 px dp +i 2 2p

exp i

p0 x

exp

p x2 2 2

(See footnote1) The following gures show the plot of Gaussian wavepacket.
Re

Figure 2.2: The left gure shows Re and right hand gure shows ||2 .

Dierential Equation (Schrdinger Equation)

If the wave function at time t = 0 is known, that is (x, 0) is known for all x, how does one nd (x, t)? Remeber that em waves are governed by a dierential equation called as wave equation. What is the dierential equation for matter waves? Here one borrows the classical energy expression E = p2 /2m. The wave function (x, t) of a free particle is
(x, t) =

Then
i
1

1 2

A(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp.

(x, t) =

1 2
2

EA(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp

1/2

eu eu du =

/4

13

and

2 2m x2

(x, t) = =

1 p2 A(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp 2 2m 1 EA(p) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp 2

since p2 /2m = E . Thus,

(x, t) =

1 2m

(x, t).

This is called Schrdinger equation. Note this rst ordered dierential equation in t. Thus knowledge of (x, 0) is enough obtain (x, t).2 It was implicitly assumed that A(p) is time-independent. In classical case, momentum of a free particle does not change in time. Simillary, in QM, the pdf of momentum does not change in time and so does A(p). Then there is another way to nd (x, t) from (x, 0): 1. Given (x, 0), compute momentum space wave function: 1 A(p) = (x, 0) exp [i(px)/ ] dx 2 2. Then

(x, t) =

Example 4.

1 2

A(p) exp [i(px Et)/ ] dp

A wave function of a free particle at t = 0, is

(x, 0) = B is a real constant. Find (x, t).

First normalize the wave function.

B 0

|x| < a otherwise.

This implies that B = 1/ 2a. Now the momemtum space wave function is 1 (x, t) exp [i(px)/ ] dx A(p) = 2 a pa = sinc .

| (x, 0)|2 dx = 1

Of course, one also must know (, t), since its a second ordered dierential equation in x. For free particle, the square integrability requires that (, t) = 0.
2

14

Now

But this integral is not easy to evaluate in terms of simple functions. But it can be numerically evaluated and plotted. Clearly the average momentum is zero, thus the peak of the wavefunction remains at x = 0.|

1 (x, t) = (x, t) = 2

sinc

pa

exp i px

p2 t / 2m

dp

Expectation Values
Thus, if the wave packet (or wave function) of a particle is known then all other information can be obtained. Let (x, t) is the wave function of a particle.

Probability density function for nding the particle at x is

P (x, t) = | (x, t)|2

The average position of the particle or expectation value of x is

x(t) = =

xP (x, t)dx (x, t) [x (x, t)] dx

Let

Then probability density function for nding the particle with momentum p is given by
P (p) = |(p)|2

1 (p) = 2

(x, t) exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dx.

The expectation value of p is

p = =

p |(p)|2 dp (p) [p(p)] dp

Now, notice that

1 i (x, t) = x 2

[p(p)] exp [i(px E (p)t)/ ] dp

15

Then
p

1 dx dx (x , t) i (x, t) dp exp[i p(x x )/ 2 x 1 = dx dx (x , t) i (x, t) 2 (x x ) 2 x (x, t) dx = (x, t) i x E =

Exercise 5. Show that

(x, t)

(x, t) dx.

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