GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE

BY

JONATHAN

RIGDON

*'

Mend

your

speech

lest you little,

mar

your
"

fortune'*
Lsab

Kino

HINDS,
NEW YORK

NOBLE

"

ELDREDGE
PHILADELPHIA

tiarvard Umversi^)

Ubnuy-^L^ ^ 0 08f"koFEd"caHon
'

^^

'"

GHtof the Publishers.

V

RIGDON'S
Grammar
of the Gnimmar Grammar of the
in

English
for the for

Sentence. Common

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School. 40 with
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Infinitives

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Psychology.

iHANSf-hrtl.LL

to

oiVARD
miu

COLLEGE

LIBRARY

26

1921

Copyright,
By
JONATHAN

1890, 1903,
BIGDON.

J. 8. CuhlnK
Norwood

" and

Co.

"

Berwick

Smith
U.S.A.

Go.

Boiton, Mmb.,

TO

THE

MEMORY

OF

J"2

iFatfjer

WHOSE

INTEREST

IN

ENGLISH

WAS

MY

INSPIRATION

PREFACE

TO

THE

THIRTIETH

THOUSAND.^

Since years

the
ago,

Grammar the author

of the
has

English
it
as

Sentence
a

appeared,
in

twelve

used
ten

text

sixty
to

different There

classes,
could what

aggregating
been
are

nearly
no

thousand

students.

have

offered

better what be

opportunity points
has need

determine tion, elaboramatter to

positions
what be omitted.

tenable,
should The

further and been what

statements

modified,
riot

may pass every

opportunity
has been

allowed

unused.
sentence

The has

book been

entirely
but every

rewritten.
one

Not has been

changed,
of
that

carefully
The science

examined.
ideas

fundamental

the
the

old

book
"

th^ is

grammar

is

the the

of
it

the

sentence,
that

sentence

determined he
an

by

thought

eatresses,

English
thai
a

grammar

should

tion exposi-

of present
to

usage,
and

and

knowledge
"

of

it is

indispensable
in

ability
new

to
one.

speak
The

vrrite

correctly
feature done

remain has received much it It is

fundamental
no

the
"

historical others have

attention,
than
as

partly because
could
to

it

so

better

the
sential unes-

writer

do the

it,

but

chiefly
of this

because book.
now

regarded
been

purpose hundred
one

has

estimated
grammar

that
not

of
more

every
than age
one

pupils
will
ever

studying
a

English
of for

read This elsewhere

page is the

English
the

earlier and of

than nine.

the The

of

Elizabeth.
must

book

ninety study

find

exhaustive

historical

English
among attention

accidence.
the
to
new

Conspicuous

features

are

"

(1)
The work forms
care an

More

the

thought
the

founda/tions
teacher relations This
an

of

grammar.
to

Introduction
out

will his class verbal but made

afford the

opportunity
between will

with

essential

thought require
Yet

and and

their

expressions.
it
must not to

work

patience,
has well
and

be

thoroughly
this mind in

mastered. of the

effort it is

been
to
not

overdo

phase
that

work,
is

for

keep
logic
or

constantly
psychology.

gramvtvar

grammar

The

Preface

to

the

First

Thousand
v

may

be

seen

on

page

292.

VI

PREFACE

TO

THIRTIETH

THOUSAND.

fuller explanation of some fundamental which subject a verb, subject distinctions, among of (a) are, of a thought, and subject or agent of an ojct; (b) object of a verb, object of a thought, and object of an act; (c) a verb, the thought rekUion the related and in it expresses, action thought Any"

(2)

An

earlier

and

express

or

implied

identification ends in

of

these

closely related, but

confusion.
not

widely different, things

everlasting
It in is

(3)

systematic
master

series matter

of

reviews.

possible
reviews

for

class to

the

contained

these

without

in English grammar and being well grounded abundantly able to apply its principles in correct expression. exercises in the construction to of original sentences (4) More illustrate consideration. the Of all gramprinciple under matical

exercises, this

is

the

best.

such as grammatical difficulties, Transitive and Intransitive and Copulative Verbs; Attributive and Verbs; Voice, Mode, Tense; Participles; Infinitives and Indirect terrogativ InDirect Conjunctive or Relative, Inten-ogative, and Conjunctive Adverbs, Relative Pronouns; Ordinary Indirect Conjunctive Adverbs, Direct Interrogative Adverbs, and

(5)

fuller

discussion

of

all

Interrogative Adverbs,
Purpose
Grammar
text-book
of the Book.
"

In

its

present
is

and

final
to

form
serve as a as

the
a

of the English for high schools

that
want

Sentence and

intended

normal

schools, and
more

book hand-

for teachers of
not

something
in

than of
a

the

essentials it is

English grammar. well adapted

better that suited
cares

Except
to

the of

hands

master,
The

the

needs and
not

beginners.
for
the

author's Schools
; and

Grammar
are one

for Beginners
to

Grammar

Common

those
a more

yet ready for this book

extended

any

for

study
of
the

of

Diagrammed
Sentence

Analysis will find with Diagrams,

To
mar

it in

the

Analysis
have in

English

the

many the

thousands

that

of

English
this

Sentence

wishes with
more

opportunity to the hope that they will find interesting, and in every way
to
use

spoken kindly of the Gramauthor its original form, the his gratitude, together express
this
more

book

more

accurate,

helpful.
JONATHAN RIGDON.

Central

Normal June

Collbob,

1, 1903.

CONTENTS.

PART

I.

INTRODUCTION.
PAOX

SOME

THOUGHT

FOUNDATIONS
SPEECH
of
the

OF

LANGUAGE
. .

11

PARTS

OF Pbopebties OF

DEFINED Parts
of

16 Speech
22

PARSING

THE

PARTS

OF

SPEECH
....

23

SUBJECTS,
COMPLEMENTS

AGENTS,

VERBS,

ACTIONS,

AND

OBJECTS
.

24

26

SENTENCES Classes
of

27 Sextences 28

PHRASES Classes
of

.30 Phbases 80

CLAUSES Classes
of

32 Clauses 32

CAPITAL

LETTERS
.

33

PUNCTUATION
GENERAL REVIEW
.........

.33

35

PAET

II.

PAETS

OF

SPEECH.

THE

NOUN Classes
of

38 Nouns 38

Sub-classes
Pbopebties Person
op

of

Nouns

40 41 .42
.

Nouns

Number Gender Case vii

43 47 50

VIU

CONTENTS.

PAGB

Declension Fabsino
Review
of

op

Nounb
. . . .

,63 04 65

Nouns
.

of

Nouns

THE

PRONOUN Classes
of

66 Pronouns
........

66

Personal

Pronouns of Personal of Personal with Pronouns

68 71 72

Declension

Parsing

Pronouns Personal

Filling Blanks Interrogative

Declension

Pronouns
...

73 73
....

Pronouns of

Interrogative Pronouns
Pronouns

74 76

Parsing
Belative
or

of

Interrogative

....

Conjunctive
of Relative

Pronouns Pronouns and Personal Pronouns

.

77 78 79 80 81

Classes

Comparison
Declension

of Relative of Relative

Pronouns

Kinds

of Relative
to

Clauses
in Each

Relative Connective

be Use

preferred

Kind

of Clause
.

82
.

of Relative Pronouns

Pronouns
.

83
....

Parsing

of Relative with

.85
.
.

Filling Blanks

Relative

Pronouns

and

tive Interroga.87 88 90 108

Pronouns
Outline Syntax Review
of

Substantives Substantives Pronouns

of

of

THE

ADJECTIVE
Classes
of

109

Adjectives

109 109
.......

Sub-classes Comparison
Parsing
of of

of Adjectives
Adjectives

114 118 119 120 122

Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives Adjectives

Outline
Syntax Review

of

of

of

CONTENTS,

IX

PAOB

THE

VERB Classes Propebties

of

123 Verbs
of

124 142 143 146 148

Verbs

Voice
Mode Tense Person Inflection Parsing Outline Syntax Review
of

and
of

Number Verbs

153 163 167

. . .
^

Verbs Verbs Verbs Verbs

of

169 170 172

of

of

THE

ADVERB Classes
of

174 Adverbs 176 Adverbs 175 180 180 182 182

Sulhclasses Comparison Parsing Outline Syntax Review

of
of

of

Adverbs

Adverbs Adverbs Adverbs Adverbs

of

of

of

184

THE

PREPOSITION
Classes Parsing Outline Syntax Review
of

186 Prepositions Prepositions Prepositions Prepositions Prepositions 186 187 189 189 191

of

of

of

op

'

THE

CONJUNCTION
Classes
Parsing
of

192 193
.

Conjunctions
,

of

Conjunctions Conjunctions Conjunctions Conjunctions

194 196 196 199

Outline Syntax Review

of

of

of

CONTENTS.

PA"B

THE

INTERJECTION
.........

200

Syntax

of

Interjections

200

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES

202

Review

of

Infinitives

and

Participles
. . . ,

233

RULES

OF

SYNTAX
.

234

ANALYSIS

237

Classification

of

Sentences

238

Classification

of

Elements
.

241

Connectives
*
. . .

245

DIAGRAMS

AND

ANALYSES

248

Abridgment

266

Sentences

fob

Diagrams

and

Analysis
....

270

Review

of

Sentences

and

Elements

291

PREFACE

TO

THE

FIRST

THOUSAND

292

INDEX

297

GEAMMAE

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

INTRODUCTION.

1.

We

find

ourselves which the five

in

world mind that

of may
we

objects.
he

An

object
This

is

anything
not

toward

the

directed.

includes with those

only
the be

things
senses,

become

acquainted
;

through
that In and
can

material

things

hut

also

represented
class the

only
such

in

thought,
as as

immaterial and and

things.
stones

the

first in mind.

belong
second,

books fear

chairs,

stars;
and

such

hope,

melancholy
2. 3. The and is to Name But world relate form

terC material one's of real life is

objects.
is
a

Ten

immaterial

objects.
of

mental

life, a
till
we

life

thinking.
them mind
an

objects
in

meaningless
To is
a

represent

them
ideas.

mind. idea the

represent
mental

objects

in

An
in

representation of
of

object.

(Keep

mind

broad
can

definition be of

object^ anything
To A think

toward is to is the 4. affirm mental Uan He this that he will

must is

which

thought
the

directed.) objects.

mentally

relations
a

thought

affirmation of
a

relation.

social
to

being.
share his
to

By
his

nature

he

is

cative. communiTo do

wishes

life
in

with
some

others. outward outward

embody
others

thoughts
think

form
bodiment em-

induce of

them.

This of

thought,
It

this of for

instrument

communication,

is

language.
and
can

consists used

symbols

established

by by

agree^ those

ment,

be

communication
11

only

12

OBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

that the

in participate

the

agreement.

In

the

broad

sense

of

used in expression. word, Language is any and aU ayrriboh and colors, motions and forms, pictures sounds It includes

and

signs,as 5. (1) How the (2) Bo

6. It will been
a

well

as

words.
can symbols of expression think? animals (3) Do

many lower

yoy,

name

f have

they
should

language f

readilybe
time
are

seen

that
men

even

if there the
same

ever

have

when many

all
causes

used

system

of

symbols, there
them 7. have
8.

that would
to

have

prevented they might

will All
one

from Name acted. It is

long continuing
some

do

so.

of

these

causes

and

show

how

clear,then, that
as

at

any

time

there

be

as

many agree
use
a

languages
upon
one

there

are
use

systems of symbols.
one

that
can

system

language.
that he

Any

language to the symbols. A language is

9.

extent
a

is master

of

its

system of symbols established by

of thought. agreement for the expression

Name The several

languages,
process
moves

10. mind This

language

in two

directions in

The

seizes upon
movement

contents is

and

thought. mind seizes its thought is impression. The in appropriatesymbols. This embodies them symbols
and

interpretsthem

expression.
(o)
The

thought
also be

process included

in

which

the

mind

seizes

and
not

interprets

objects may language

11.
seen.

under

impression^ though

strictly a

process,

The

relation

between
can never

the

two

movements

is

easily

Expression
be
a

precede. Impression should

in advance. The
two
are

always

little but

not

much

should be so and of one inseparablemovements process developed. Expression without impression is impossible^ and impressionvnthout expression is worthless.

INTRODUCTION.

13

12.

The
to

unit of
a

language is the portionof it that is

sary neces-

express is the George

Martha

thought.
a

It

is called

sentence.

sentence

expressionof
works. teaches. studies.

thought.
George
Martha is is is
a a a

worker.
teacher. student

Henry

Henry
twenty
sentences,

Write

13. many
as

The ideas

elements
as

of
are

thought

are

ideas.

There

will be

as

there of

many

kinds all

ideas

objects mentally represented, and there are kinds of objects. To as

and

enumerate

objects,material
be
an

immaterial, real and

Yet

imaginary,
into
14.
a

would classes.
is

endless

task.

they

all fall

few

Language
and of analysis and

it expresses, final
matter

given form by the thought it represents. The thought by the reality

organized
has
or

science and

resolved inside
we

the outside

world mind the

into and

motion,
That

the

world, into
consider

thought.
or

is to say, whether
are

outside kinds of

the

inside

world, there
us

objects. Let
and mind A
as

see

what

ultimatelybut two think We they are.

;

of

matter
as

stances.

things having attributes is a thing having substance

Name
ah

that

is,
We

sviName think of
a

attributes. each.

twenty stibstances.
of motion and
as

attribute

of

and

thought as
of An
a

motion being, respectively, thinker. attribute That is any Name

mover,

thought

is, we

think
a

of stance. sub-

them

attributes. Name

quality of
a

twenty
be
a

attributes.

substance

of

which (a)
can

each
These

may

quality.
in
are a

definitions

ran

but circle, and

it is

so

of

necessity. Things
substance other.
nor

be defined is thinkable

only

as

they
each

thought, thought

neither

bute attri-

except

be

in terms

of the

15.

Since, then, realityincludes

and

but

two

general
must

classes include

of

substance objects,

attributes, thought

14

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

but

two

general classes

of ideas,stLbstance-ideaa

and

attribute-

ideas. 16. of
a

Define each.
This

easilyleads
"

to

thought,
and the
not

mental

understanding of the nature of the relation between affirmation

an

substance What there

are
are

attribute ; necessary
more

as, matter

moves,

mind

thinks.

elements than

of
a

thought

Certainly
and
an

two,

substance-idea

attribute-idea. 17.
a

We

have, therefore, the

"

two
a

corresponding parts
or

of

sentence,
a

part

to

express of

suj)stance-idea (Subject),
connect

and

part
of

to
an

predicate
attribute in

it

with

it

the

expression

idea
are

(Predicate).

three likelyto name parts of a thought, a subject idea, a predicateidea, and their this relation is the relation. But thought itself, and not a name thing as one of certainly a logician would

(a) Beginners
"

Logic

its

own

parts.

three parts of a some (li) Likewise grammarians name a sentence, subject,a predicate,and a copula; but it should be kept in mind that the predicate, the name as that predicates. It indicates, is the part of the sentence
"

includes

the

office of

copula

and

that

of

an

attribute. the the

Thus, in the

subject,and copula
the and

Q-eorgeis a farmer^ Q-eorgeis of whigh is is is farmer is the predicate,

sentence,

farmer
and

is the

attribute.

In

this

sentence,

copulative

attributive

offices of the but the

as

predicateare
are as monly com-

expressed by
What
are

different
a

words;

two

expressed by
the the three Besides indivisible contend and there the
are

single word,
is but

in ?

George farms.
it is
an

parts in this

sentence
one

subject there
some

word, and
one

part of the
the

sentence.

Certainly no
of

could

that others

of the

letters

farms
one

are

the

copula
that
to

predicate 1
in
a

Any

maintaining
when asked

three

elements

sentence,

INTRODUCTION.

15

point them obligedto

out

in such

sentence

as,

by adroitly leaving it But after its stead its equivalent, George is a farmer." such a performance it is always in order to insist.What ? the three elements in this sentence, are George farms The must answer be, The subject is George," the predicate
do it
"

George farms," is and substituting in

"

"

"

"

is
"

"farms,"
"

and

there
a

are

no

others.

The

word

farms

does, indeed, have

does
two
;

double

office, copulativeand
whether it contains
as

attributive, as
one
a

every but
"

predicate
farms
no
"

word

or

is the
more

and predicate, than

two

part of the

sentence

it is

divisible

is the ments, ele-

A sentence, subject "George." and predicate. subject

then, has
resolvable mind but

but

((?)Just
and
so

as

all outer

realityis
form verb.

into and
two

matter

motion, and

all inner its and

into reality

thought,
parts of

language
the

in

early
the

needs

speech,
it could element
as a

noun

Indeed, if
be
not

one

should

feel inclined to
the

push
is

the

synthesis,
an

made further

that plausible resolvable

;

sentence
no

is itself such

for there

thing

without a a subjectwithout predicateor a predicate In the is the unit of language. subject. The sentence of all form mental world, the thought is the elemental if we And push on into the thinking. It is the unit. field of reality, the parallelis perfect, for we do not have and motion have only matter matter moving or moving ; we There not the two matter. are things mind and thought; but only the one thing, mind thinking or thinkingmind. So it is next that in the very to certain beginning of not two even language there were parts of speech, but The substantive contained in only one. (subject) was the that verb, so a single word expressed an entire find good evidence sentence. of this even Indeed, we in a highly developed stage of language. For example, take awo, it rains^ etc. meaning I love ; pluit^

16

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

FASTS 18.
to
uses

OF

SFEEOH. classes Let

us

By parts of speech
their
the
uses

we

mean

of
now

words learn

ing accordthese

in the

sentence.

corresponding parts of speech. Incidentally have and the verb. we two, the noun already named 19. Ifoim. of words is use Perhaps the most common to name be very inconvenient to converse objects. It would about write A or objects without naming them. is a name noun of an object; as, Henry, man, Indianapolis, city,Ohio, state, St. Lawrence, river.
"

and

(a) Observe
"

again

the

broad
our

sense

of the

word

object^

anything
includes also such

toward

This but

thought may be directed. not only such things as those just named, mind, hope, love, beauty, laziness. as
that may be stand the in
a

which

(6) Any
noun,

expression
that
a

sentence
a

as

anything
is called
to

may

made

subject of
How you
can

tence, sen-

substantive well
so names

; as.

To lie is
;

disgraceful ; For
be
so

one

do when

all his work you work

is difficult

happy
20. and ahout
a

hard

puzzleshim.
named
a

(1) Write as differing each. (8)

over

the

not of twenty objects

as
a

above
sentence

much Draw

possible, (2)
line under
one
over

Write
noun.

line 21.

each
"

subjectand

Pronoun.

Many naming
and

times it.

we

objectwithout
pronoun. I

This

(4) Draw each predicate. wish to designate an done is commonly by a

you and her. Here

each

like him

he likes

J,

Aim, Ae, you^ and her designatethe would. Also, in the sentences,
"

tfiat tries learns,

"

who

and

that words A

their names objects Who spoke ? and A boy designate objectswithout

same
are

naming they are

used often
to

them.

Since

such

used

instead

of nouns,

called pronouns.

pronoun

is that

part of speech Or,

as noun.

designate an

objectwithout
is
a

naming
used

it.

it is

defined, a pronoun

word

instead

of a

PARTS

OF

SPEECH.

17

22.

(1) Designate
them.

in

sentences

twenty

objects without (3)

Overline

naming
each 23.

(2)
each A

Underline

each pronoun.

subjectand
Verb.
;
"

predicate,
class blows of
;

large
wind

words The
man was are

is used

to

assert

attributes
smms;
were

as, The

reels ; The

duck tools
are

The dull.

boy
All

is tall; The italicized

child words
not

sick; The verbs, but

the The

they
but

not

all alike.

first three last

only assert, only

asserts

also

express, that
are

attributes; the

three

assert

attributes

expressed by
verb The is the definition

other

words.
an

The

part of speech that

is
so

attribute. infinitives should

(a)
and be

stated
assert

for but

brevity;

which participles, classed under verbs. that the

do not

only assume,
contains the
a

(6)
You

Remember

every

sentence

verb.
tence sen-

may that

know

verb

by

its

being
or

part of the

asserts^

declares^ affirms^
that every verb

tells. is
a

("?) Remember
contains
one.

predicate either
asserts

verb

or

If the

both is the

and If

expresses the verb

the

attribute, the
asserts
or

predicate

verb.

only

the

attribute, then

the verb

together with
the

the word

words

expressing by

the attribute

constitutes

predicate.

Make
24.
ten

this clear

illustrations.

(1)

Name

verbs. thirty

(2)

Use

them

in sentences^

"

of them
and

and only assertingattributes^ attributes.

twenty both
out

ing assert-

expressing

(3)
;

Point

the

subject

and

of each sentence predicate predicate ; the attributive part ;

25.

the

the

asserting part of each

and
to

the

nouns

pronouns.
express We
an

Adjectives.
"

It either

is often

necessary

attribute

without

asserting or naming
a

it.

have

already learned
and
asserts
an noun. an

that

when

part of speech both

a

expresses when it

attribute, it is
attribute We have
or now

verb

and

that

expresses
it
'%
a

any

other
to
see

object by naming
that it is the

it,

office of

18

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

another

class of words

to express

attributes
are

without
italicized struck

either words

asserting or
in the floor. little the The

naming
old master Such

them.
:

Such The the

are

the

following sentences
made words

heavy ball

the hard

pupil.

lesson plain to his difficult adjectives. An adjective is

an

part of speech that expresses

attribute

of

substance

without 26.

assertingor naming

it.

(1)
each.

Use

in

sentences

nate twenty adjectives. (2) Desigthe nouns, pronouns, State and verbs. and

(3)
each

Point

out

(4)

Also

subjectand
each
totters.

predicate. (5) Frailtyis

sentence,
"

fully
The

of clearlythe office
The is
man

italicized word

in the
man.

tences: following senman

in the

frail. (6)
27. Adverb.

Give
"

the In the
we

part of speech of each.

We watched that the

(7) Why
the

slowly
note

descending
expresses that the
an

sun,"

see

adjective descending
We has is
must

attribute

of the

object sun.
of
man an

attribute

expressed by descending
attribute In
"

itself the

attribute,slow.

This

attribute

expressed
only
was
prising sur-

by
as

the
we

word have

slowly.

The

greatly surprised us,"

verb

already learned,
an us

the

surprised not
man.

asserts, it also expresses

a man. surprising

attribute
see

of the that word words He is the

He

Let

also The Such

"

attribute

had
an

the attribute of called

are an

great.

greatlyexpresses
as

attribute

attribute.

slowly

and

greatlyare
and
"

adverbs.

Also, in
"

You the

probably mistaken,"
in which used The the like adverb Words

certainly right," and probably certainly

affirms attributes of

express

modes

mind

substances.

certainlyand
is the
an

also called adverbs. expresses mental (a)

mode

probably are part of speech that

or a

either

an

attribute

of

attribute

mode

of

connection.
Adverbs may be

commonly
called
common

express

attributes When
a

of

attributes.
an

When expresses

they
the

do, they

adverbs. it is called

adverb

of mental

connection,

modal

adverb.

PARTS

OF

SPEECH.

19

28.

(1) Definean Adverb,

TJ%e in sentences
ten

Common

Adverb, Hodal
and

Adverb.
common

(2) (4)
out

modal

adverbs

twenty

adverbs. Draw each is

so

(3) Explain
lines
noun^
over

the

pronoun^

carefullywhy each is so called* and predicates. (6) Point subjects and tell why verb^ and adjective^
verb
it is the chief relational element Maude is

each 29. in
a

called.
"

Preposition. The
Whether

language.

only

asserts,

as
an

in

"

singer,"or both asserts and expresses "Maude it always expresses sings^^^

and attribute. It Two In the is the other "The
can can came

attribute, as in
between of

relation

substance that

only part

speech

affirmrelation.
express

ever, parts of speech, how-

relation. expresses

gentleman
between relation the

by
the

me

/or him," by
and
act

relation

tleman gen-

myself; and /or coming

It may
a

expresses

between the of noun prothese

the

of

and be

the

object represented by
also called
to

him. words it The s^nd and

observed

that its

each

governs that
ms

substantive
substantive and that him
are

object.

That

is,

requires
pronouns

for.
govern

Words

express called

objects are

objective case. the objects of by respectively relation without affirmingit prepositions. The preposition
relation its without

be

in. the

is the it and 30.

part of speechthat expresses

governs
a

affirming

substantive in and
sentences

called

object.
Draw
out

(1)

Use

prepositions. (2) twenty-five

a

Designate each
each

the

parts it relates.
adverbs. you and

line

over

subject and

each

predicate. (3)

Point

the

nouns^

pronouns^
reason

and verbs., adjectives^

(4)

Q-ive your

for thinking each is what Conjunctions.

"

call it.

81. will words

In

"He

I is

came,"

"She

or

he

go,"
and
;

"

Paul

is

strong but Peter

In this Unlike verbs

weak," the italicized

express

relations.

respect they resemble

not

verbs

prepositions.
and unlike

verbs, they do
and

affirm

relation

both

they prepositions,

20

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

have

no

governing
relations
a

power without

over

substantives.

Words and that

are

that
are

express without

aifirming them
over

governing
The

power

substantives

called that

conjunctions.
lacks
a

conjunction is the part

power and

of speech
relation

governing
Use

expresses

without

affirming it.
32. in sentences relates
or

ten

parts

each

conjunctions. (2) Designate the out connects. subjects^ (3) Point

adverbs^ and verhs^ adjectives^

predicates^ nouns^ prepositions. (4)

and the verb like the

pronouns^ Q-ive
reasons.

(5)
(6)

How In

are

verhs^ prepositions^

conjunctions alike?

what

respect is

prepositionand unlike the conjunction? (7^ In what respect is the prepositionlike the conjunction and unlike the verb ? (8) Justify your answers by reference
to the sentences

you
"

have written.
If
we

33.
we

Interjection.
see

observe

our

thoughts carefully,
in between them. called

shall

that

feelingsare expressed by
in

thrown words

These The

are feelings

interjections.
the Such words

interjection is the part

of speech that expresses

isolated
as a

feelings thrown
bah
ten
are

between

thoughts.

A, ha^ and
Name expresses.
we

interjections.
and interjections tell what

34.

other

feeling

each

(a) If
the

adhere

closely to

the

definition

of

language,
be
garded re-

expressionof thought^ the

as a

cannot interjection

part of speech
express
all

but

without

it

we

should
our

not

be

able

to

that

takes

place

in

mental

processes.

(J)
35. into
one

The

excessive is
"

thought

process

indicates interjections abnormally interrupted.

use

of

that

the

Expletives.
of these

Any

word

in

our

language
a

may few

be

put

eight classes,but there are that are often merely introductory and without Those most dependence. frequentlyused

words

cal grammatiare

and^for^

PARTS

OF

SPEECH.

21

thaU there;

as,

^^

And
to
none
a

it eame act
so

to

pass."
a

''''And I say
to

unto

you."
in their

"jPor
"

him is

is but
an

disgrace
"And

his

ents." parwas

There

good
n[ian

one." unclean
"

there

synagogue
a

with

spirit."
That you, he that

"^nc? the Elias

there

came

voice

from "But Such

heaven." I words say

are

did

mischief is indeed

is settled." come."

unto

called

Introductory

expletives.
36. (a)
necessary the
power

Grammar
Its end is

the

study of

the
of

sentence.
of the

scientific mastery for the

the

structure

sentence,

preparation
of

higher language studies,a development

the habit of correct

of

discrimination, and

expression acquired
treats in

by intelligent practice. (6)

classes words ItB and
are

divisiona

are

etymology
sentence.

and

syntax.

Etymology
the

of the which'

properties of words,
related
to form
a

while

syntax

discusses

ways

(c) Orthography Grammar,

but
are no

and

prosody
so

were

formerly
the form

named

as

divisions

of

longer
be

considered. under of either

(d) Syntax (e) Analysis

relation

may

studied

analysis

or

is such

separation
combination

of

the

sentence

as

will

show

the

of its parts. is such

a

(/) Synthesis 37. of It may may

of parts

as

will form

sentence.

be be

seen

from

the under

followingthat
five classes:

all the

parts

speech

grouped

(a) Substantives.
^

\^^{
1(2)
^

Pronouns.

(6)

Verbs

(3)
^ ^

{^^"^l^^' flnfinitives.
(In-finite, i
^

( Participles.

X3

j.-

"

(rf) Connective
ie)
/^
\

or

Relation

words.

\ 'i
r^
*

'

[ (7) Conjunction.
Independent ^
T J J
J.

j.-

wordsJ
"

\^
(

fC8) ^

Interjections.
/,.
^

Expletives.

22

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

PB0PEETIE8 38.

OF

THE

PAETS

OF

8PEE0H.

Property is any

of the modification
called

sentential

force of a
Form

part of speech. It is sometimes

or

Grrammatical

Modification.
89. Thus than

number,
one,
;

mode

of

distinguishingone
nouns

from
;

more

is

property of
of

and

pronouns

as,

book, books
40.

I, we,
a

Tense,

mode
"

denoting time,

is

property of the

verb.
41.

(Walk

walked.)
"

is
"

Comparison, a mode of denoting degrees of quality, longer property of adjectivesand adverbs. Long
The

longest.
42.

following are

all

the

properties

of

the

parts

of

speech.

rJ\
(3)

7"r

^0P"rt^"s
^ ^.

^^

nouns,

pronouns,

and

verbs.

Gender
n

1
I

)A
(6) (6) (7) (8)
The

Properties of

nouns

and a

pronouns.

Voice Mode Tense

\ Properties of
"

verbs.

J
A

Comparison properties.

property

of

adjectives and
and the

adverbs.
no

preposition, the

conjunction,

interjection have

matical gram-

43.

Inflection
to

is any

variation

in

form

part of speech
It may be

undergoes (1) by (3) by

44.
a

denote
in

grammatical
the of auxiliaries.

property.

change

ending, (2) by
is indicated

different

words,

the

addition
a a

Sometimes word in

property

by

the

positioh

of

sentence.

and pronouns. of nouns inflection and adverbs. of adjectives (6) Comparison is inflection of verbs. (^) Conjug^ationor Synopsis is the inflection

(a)

Declension

is

PARSING.

28

45. word

Exercise.

"

Tell

the

Part

of

Speech
name

to

which

each

and^ if you belongs^

The

know

them^

its

properties.
all free
a

1.
ment

liberty of
could

the
not

press exist
It

i^ the highest safeguard

without it. the 3.

to

govern-

2. Ours

It is like of from

great, exalting,
which distil

and
their

abounding
sweetest

river.

4.
to

is fed it.
6.

by
It

dews

heaven,
the

drops
caverns

form
of the the

gushes
It is

as rill,

it breaks thousand
a

from

the

deep

earth.

6.

augmented
7. On

by

affluents, that dash

bounteous bears
9.
a

irom

mountain

top to separate again into

around. its broad its

sand thouit sail.

and

irrigatingstreams
barks. 8. There
oar.

bosom

thousand

genius
10. There

spreads

purpling
11.

There

poetry

dips

its silver

art, invention, discovery,

float.
of

science, morality, religion, may through

every

safely and

securely

It wanders and
spiration in-

land

12.

It is a

genial, cordial
and

source

thought Upon

wherever
there I am 15. not

it touches, whatever
every to

it surrounds.
every

13.

ders its bor14.

grows here
not

flower that

of that

grace river

fruit of truth.

Sir,

deny
to

sometimes sometimes

oversteps
becomes

its bounds.
a

am

here

deny

that
towns

that and

stream

ous dangerI am

torrent, and
here makes ancient
to say

destroys
without

cities upon

its bank.

16.

But

that

it,civilization, humanity,

government,
would
return

all that
to

would society itself, barbarism.

"

disappear,
Baker,

and

the

world

its

E.

D.

PAEsrsfa. 46.

Parsing
a

is

naming

in

order

the

part

of speech

to

whigh
and

word

its class^its properties^ its construction^ belongs^

the rule (a) Parsing

governing
is
an

the construction,
exercise for their is meant

excellent and
to

leading beginners
relation. its

to

distinguish other,
be

the

parts of

speech

determine
a

(6) By (c)
either The oral

construction

of

word

dependence

on

some

its government.

abridged parsing
or

may

be

oral ; the

complete parsing
that the

may

written.

In

all written

parsing

see

spelling,punctuation,

and

capitalsare

correct.

47.

Abridged

Model 2.
234

for

All

the

Parts

of

Speech. Rule.

1. (a)
See

Species.
Rules
on

Construction.

3.

page

24
"

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(1) 0,
instruments. 0 is
an

how

well Mattie

and

Susan

play

upon

their

new

interjection; it
adverb
a

has

no

grammatical
R. XI. I. Mattie

tion, construc-

R. XVII. Well Mattie And R. XII. is is

an

and

limits

play^
connects

is
a

noun,

subjectoiplay^
and

R.

conjunction
verb and

and

Susan^
and

Play Upon
Their New

is

agrees

with

its

subjectsMattie
relation

Susan^ R. XV.
is
a

preposition and

shows

the

between

instruments is is
an a

and

play^ R.
and

XIII. limits limits

pronoun

instruments^ R. VIII. instruments^ R. X.

adjectiveand

SUBJEOTS,
48. We
must

AGENTS,
be
:

VEBBS,
to

ACTIONS,
mark the
"

AND

OBJEOTS.

careful In the

following important
cut
;
" "

distinctions
"

sentence,
a

Bob

the Bob
"

tree,"
is the

cut

"

is

verb

representing
a

real action and

tree
an

subjectrepresenting
of "cut" and of

real agent;

"tree

is the the

object

represents the real

Observe
The the Now
we

that

was

object
an

of the
action and
or

act

cutting.
an

that

agent performs
doer
of the is the and say

upon

object.
upon which
act.

agent
act
we

is the

act,

the

thing

terminates
are

receiver of

of the

thinking

object ing speakthat in

reality.
cut
we

But
is

if
a

talk

of

language^ we things.

our

sentence,
Here The

verb^ its subjectis Bob^ and

of words^ not verb shall

its

object

is tree. 49.
an

speak
a as we

objectof
an

always
better

expresses

the

objectof
later, the
the

action; but
verb but

understand

object of
of
a

action

is not

always representedby

object

sometimes

by

its

subject;

and

the

agent of

PRBDICATB-ATTBIBUTES

AND

OBJECTS.

25

an

action

verb, but
50. With the (1) (2)

always represented by the subject of sometimes by the object of a preposition.

is not reference
to

the

statements

made

cuss above, dis:

"

italicized
broke
were

words
her
vase.

in the

following sentences
the

Matilda The

sheds

bloion

down

by

storm.

PEEDI0ATE-ATTBIBUTE8
51.
to
a

AHD

0BJE0T8.

By

attribute We

we

mean

attributed primarily a qttalitt/

svhBtance,
But
an

say

transparency
is also

is
a

an

attribute

of

glass. meaning
of
an
"

the

word

attribute

language
in the is

term,

attributive
or

that is, the expression^ of attributes.

"

expression
tences, sen-

attribute Glass is
an

group

Thus,
old
man

is

transparent,"
artist,"we
say

The

infirm,"
artist is
a

and of
an

"

Ruth

transparent is an
of man^ and attribute

attribute

glass;

old and of

infirmare
Ruth.
a

attributes
an

attribute

When

completes
modifier of
mam.

predicate,it
same as

is called

This predicate-attribute.
an

is the of

to

say

transparent is

attributive

glass;
In this 52.
to

and
sense

old and

infirmare

attributive

modifiers

attributive have learned

is often

used

instead

of attribute.

We

that the term

an

objectis applied both

to the

the

realitythat
this verb. both that

receives

action, and
the
same

word

that
a

expresses transitive refers

to

reality and
We
to
a

at
seen

time that
to
a

completes
term

have

also

the

bute attriand be used

qualityattributed
this
terms

substance
must
now as

the

word
to

expresses

quality. objectand

We

careful

the distinguish

attribute

in grammar. 53. verb 54. An and A

Object is any
the expressing Predicate-Attribute

expressioncompleting a
receiver

transitive

of

an

action.

is any

attributive

that expression

verb. completes a copulative

26

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(a) (6)

An

objectis always
a

noun

or

an

expression

used

as

noun

; that

is,it is always
A

substantive.
an

predicate-attribute is always
so

adjective or

noun,

or

an

pression ex-

used.

55. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 56. (1) (2) (3) (4) 57. the and

Distinguishthe objectsand
Men

in predicate-attributes
"

love
sun

pleasure.
is

(6)
(8) (9) (10)

We

like to
are

sing. help.
did it ? will come.

The

golden.

(7) They
The I know We

without

It is unbelievable.

question is, Who

that he in need.

John It is

lost his hat.

surprising.

are

Complements.
Children Flowers God Birds

play.
bloom. the

(5) (6)
world.

Some Smith She

men

are a

agreeable.

is

detective.
ill.
a.

created build

(7)

became

7iests.

(8) George the first two

became

scholar.

By comparing
bloom

of these that
some

sentences

with

last six, it will

are

be

observed in

verbs

like others

play
like of

complete
are^

themselves, while

created^ builds
other scholar be
seen

is, and

became, require the

addition

words
to

like

ill,and world, nests, agreeable, detective,

their

complete
into

meaning.
verbs

Verbs

may

therefore it may and be

divided

complete and

incomplete.
like

Again,
created

that, some
"

incomplete
words them
"

build

require objects
"

that while

represent recipients of action

other verbs like the last four

to

complete

require attributes
(a)
became In the
sentences

words given
build and

expressing qualities.
above
are

play

and
and

bloom

are

intransitive
; are,
was

and

attributive
are

; created

and

transitive

attributive in
**

is, and

intransitive
"

copulative ;

and the

She
are

considered and

honest,"

and

He

was

appointed

captain,"

verbs

transitive

copulative.

(1) an affecting
59.

58.

verb

that

represents the action

does
not

of

an

agent

as

is object A verb

Transitive.

(2)
as

that

represent the action of

an

agent

an affecting

objectis

Intransitive.

KINDS

OF

SENTENCES.

27

an (3) A verb that requires completeit is Capulative.

60.

attribute

of

its

subjectto of
its

61.

(4)

verb

that

does

not

requirean

attribute

subjectto completeit
62.

is Attributive.

(5)
(6)

Whatever

completesan

verb incomplete

is

plement. Com-

63.

The

objectthat completesa
attribute

transitive

verb

is

an

Objective Complement.
64.
an

(7)
In

The

that

verb completesa copulative

is

Attributive 65. the

or

Complement.

following

sentences

tell whether
or

the verbs
;

are

attributive each

transitive copulative,

intransitive

designate

complement and
Columbus God She

tell whether
America. be

it is

objectiveor attributive.
light.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Senate.

discovered
there
to(i8

said, Let

light,and
Lost. of the

there

wets

thought
lorote

mistaken.

Milton She
was

Paradise

made
never

secretary
becomes
a

convention.

(6) Slang
He
was

lady

or

gentleman.

reported absent.
for
us

It is

good

to

be here.

Whatever He became

is, is right.
President after he had served several
terms

in

the

(1)

Ask

ten

on good questions

articles 61-65.

(2)

swer An-

them,
EUTDS 66. OF SEITTEirOES.

the Observing the attitude of our thoughts toward that of them realities they represent, we some are see emotional are tions^ connecmerely intellectual declarations^ some and others represent real relations some are questions^ not as of yet established^but to be requestedor demanded
some

agent.
:
"

We

have, therefore, four kinds

of sentences

as

to use

67.

Declarative
as

Sentence has
a

is

one

that merely affirmsa

relation;

"John

bird

in his

pocket."

28

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

68.

An

Exclamatory
"

Sentence

i"

one

that
;

expresses
as,
"

the has

feeling aroused
a

bird 69.

in his An

hy apprehending a pocket !
of
a

relation

John

InterrogativeSentence
relation ; as,
"

is

one

that John

inquiresas
a

to

the

existence

Has

bird

in

his

pocket?"
70. An

Imperative Sentence of
a

is

one

that

the establishment your

relation;

as,

requests hr demands "John, have a bird in

pocket." 71. Observing

or

also

the

form
are

of

onr

thonghts, some
hut another.
as
a

are
dinate^ coor-

isolated

single^others
others
us are

closely connected
one

and

dependent
is the

upon

Their
"

expression gives
72.
as,
"

three kinds

of sentences

to form:

A The A

Simple Sentence
flowers
are

expressionof

singlethought;
two

fragrant."
Sentence

73.

Componnd
but the

is

one

that expresses
as,

or

more are

connected

coordinate rain has

thoughts;
nourished
is
or one

"The

flowers

fragrant and
74. A

them."
expresses subordinate
are a

Complex

Sentence
one
"

that
more

principal
thoughts

thought
the rain

togetherwith
it ; as, has nourished last

depending upon
(a)
In the the

The

flowers

fragrant because
are

them." "The flowers

"

example,

fragrant"
has
ished nour-

expresses

principalthought, and them," the subordinate thought.

In
a

the

rain

expressingthe complex sentence, the sentence principalthought is called the principalsentence, and any one tence expressing a subordinate thought is a subordinate sen(b)
or

clause.

75.

Classes of Sentences. As
TO FORM:
"

(1)

(a) Simple.

"

Paul
"

walks. Paul

(b) Compound. (c) Complex.

"

walks
walks

and

Peter

rides. rides.

Paul

because

Peter

'

KINDS

OF

SENTENCES.

29

(2)
(d)

As

TO

USE:
"

"

Declarative.

The
"

boys
the

are

honest, honest honest ?

1

(c) InteiTogative. (/) Exclamatory.

"

Are The

boys
are

boys
be

(gr)Imperative.
76.
use
:
"

"

Boys,

honest.

Classifyeach of
The last of all the
can

the

following sentences
he.

according to

(1) (3) (4) (5)

77.

Bards have

was

(2) Slavery they

When Stand What should

anywhere.
be commenced ?

education

by
a

your

convictions. these

contrast

boys present

each Classify
:
"

of the following
Arabia the the

sentences

accordingto

form

(1) (2) (3) (4)

In

the

sands

of Africa

and but live.

camel

is valuable.

The
Let

gain
us

is doubtful
we

danger
the

is certain.

live while is

The

harvest ye

plenteous,

but

laborers

are

few.

(5) Except 78. both

repent, ye shall all likewise

perish.

Classifyeach of
and
rise :
"

the

following sentences
increased
no

according to
of the

form
(1) (2)
The
A

decision

of the
man a

judge
borrows habit

the

irritation

people.

truly great
to

lustre

from

splendid ancestry.

(3) Study (4) (6) (7) (8)

1 He

acquire
is
us

of accurate the world

expression.
turns

that

giddy
our

thinks
as

round. debtors. fast.

to be utter

(5) Forgive
Now It is What

debts,

we

forgive our
the shutters

stir the fire and

one

close well

thing

to be

informed this

; it is another

wise. if it could

thrillingexperiences
that for
a

old

oak

might

(9) (10) 79. (1) (2)

The It is

song

moves man

nation's he bear

heart the

is in itself

deed.

good
"

that

yoke

in his

youth.

Write:
three three

simple sentences, compound (7)

sentences, sentences,
three

(4) (6) (6)

three three three

declarative

sentences,

interrogativesentences, exclamatory sentences,

(3)

jthree complex

imperative

sentences.

30

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

FHBASE8. 80. that A ThiBAe

a

is any

group
as,

of

words

forming

modifier
**The
men

is not

sentence;
our

"The
came

history of
great part
of

country
to drive

is full of the wolves

thrilling events^
away

with

clamor

/rom
word

thefiocky
may
or
"

(a) Any
called
a

speech

together with
from
a noun

its modifiers its chief

properly
basis. little
an

be

phrase,
to

which
we

is named may
as, is
" *'

Thus

according
cried"
;
a

basis

have

phrase^ by the old

as,

The

hoy

verb
**

phrase,
Grammar
very

George

stood

elm'*'* ;

adjective
as,

phrase,
**

as,

very

interesting'*'' ; an
phrase, infinitive
as, as,

adverbial
as,
**

phrase,

We

advance
a

rapidly

an

He

likes to walk toward

us

rapidly'*'* ; Major"
We
or a

participial phrase, speak

of

'*The "The

dog

coming
stands '"''Alas
was

is

d, even

prepositional phrase,
an

captain
as,

by for

his

wicn."

may

interjection phrase,
"John
as

maiden'*'* ;

conjunction phrase, as, (") In the following classification

are

well

as

Susan
two

mistaken." of

only

kinds

phrases

as

to

basis

considered, prepositional
word of

and in
a

infinitive.
very broad
sense.

(c)
bad and

The

modifier is

used

Ordinarily
In of
"

we

speak only
boys

adjective,adverbial,
us are we

and is
an

objectivemodifiers. adjective modifier

Us is

Those
us

tease

constantly,"
modifiers may
as

bad

boys;
its

constantly
But

of

tease.

objective,and
a

constantly,

adverbial.
as

correctly say
its verb. When the

that
we

verb
an

modifies

object
its
; and

that
we a

the

object modifies
the modifies form its of

say

object
the

modifies action

verb,
to say

mean

object expresses object

means

recipient of
that

the verb's

verb

it determines

case we

relation may and form say

its

and
a

often

the

its

object.
a
"

With

equal
modifies

correctness

subject
and

modifies

its verb, and In

verb
are

both

its

subject
the he.

attributive
are,
are

complement.
in turn

You

he,"

you

determines you and

of

determines

the

form

of both

81.

Classes As (a)
TO

of Plirases,
FORM
"

(1)

"

Simple.

We
"

left in the To
came

evening.
well and
to

(6) Compound.
things. (c) Complex.
"

direct

do
at

well
noon,

are

different
at

He The
"

in the morning,
over

and

night.

kite flew

the tops

of

the trees.

(2)

As

TO

basis:

(jd) Prepositional."ThQ
New York.
"

city of Brooklyn
to learn.

is in

the

state

of

(e) Infinitive.

He

came

He

asks

permission

to remain.

PHRASES.

81

(3)

As

TO

USE:

"

(/) Adjective.
"

The

road
vote,

through

the

v"Uley

is

rough.

All

have

the
"

right to
He
"

(jg) Adverbial.

does To

his work is

-voUh

care.

(Ji) Substantive.
alone.

forgive

divine.

He

likes

(o be

lei

82. 83.

A A

Simple Plirase
Compound

is

singlephrase.
is
one

Phrase

consistingof

two

or

more

coordinate 84.

phrases.
Complex
Phrase is
one some

in modifier

which

is

or prepositional phrase. infinitive

85.

PrepositionalPhrase
its

is

one

whose

basis is

tion preposi-

and 86. 87. 88. 89. (a)

object.
is is is is
one

An
An

Infinitive Phrase

whose
used used used
used

basis is
as an

an

infinitive.

Adjective Phrase
Adverbial Substantive Phrase Phrase

one

adjective.
adverb.
noun.

An A
A

one

as

an

one

as

prepositionalphrase In

is not

often

substantively.

90.

(1)

as

each following sentences, classify toform^ (2) as to basis and (8) as to use. the
j

phrase,

(1) (2)

To He We

see came

is to believe.
to learn not

and

to

improve
from
to unite

his health. your with

(3)
(5) (6)

do

v^ish to detract been invited

reputation.
our

(4) They
To

have

class. your father. than

to

I got the

information in

in the up

letter from
a

succeed it.

covering

fault

is harder

keep

from

committing

91. (1) (2) (3)

Write
three three three three

sentences

containing:

* "

simple phrases, compound phrases, complex phrases, prepositionalphrases,

.

(6) (6) (7) (8)

three three three three

infinitive

phrases, phrases, phrases.

adjective phrases,
adverbial
substantive

.(4)

32

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

GLAUSES. 92. A claxue

as a

is any

group

of

words

forming
when
he that
was

sentence

that is used She said

was

that worth

modifier;as, He came she was hungry. The

five thousand
clause is often used

wanted.

horse

died

day yester-

dollars.
as a

(a)
above,

The

word

synonym with

for

sentence,

but

throughout
to

this book

it will be used subordinate

in accordance

the definition

given
fiers. modiand

signify a
careful
are a

sentence,

(6)

Be

to

distinguish a phrase
in that does
a a

from

clause. contains

Both
a

are

They (c)
cannot A

unlike

clause

always
in
'^

subject

predicate, while
clause hid'* how be

phrase

not.

may
;
or

contain
a

phrase,
may

as

A
a

house

that ia set
as

on

hill
were

phrase

contain

clause,

in,

^'

We

talking

about

it

happened,"*^

GLASSES 93.

OF
:
"

GLAUSES.

(1)

As

TO

FORM
"

(a) Simple, (6) Compound,

evident.

That
"

he

was

wrong
was

is evident. wrong and that he knew it is

That

he

(c) Complex.
94.

"

That
use:

he

was

wrong

when

he said

it is evident

(2)
(c)

As

TO

"

(d) Adjective,
"

Here
"

is the

boy

that

is sick,

Adverbial,

He
"

lies where thinks he did

motto

he fell. that lam

a

(/) Substantive.

He How His His

not

honest.

it is

mystery.
men men

is, All
Most

should
may

work. be

motto,
one.

trusted, is

safe

95. 96.

A A

Simple Clause is Compound

clauses. Clause

singleclause.
is
one

consistingof

two

or

more

coordinate 97. clause. 98.

99.

Complex

Clause

is

one

some

modifierin
as an

which

is

An
An

Adjective Clause is
Adverbial Clause is

one

used used

adjective.
adverb.

one

as

an

PUNCTUATION.

33

100. 101.

Substantive the

Clanse

i%

one

used

as

noun.

In
to
We

(1)

as

following sentences form, and (2) as to use.

seek
are a

classify each
is near.

clause.

(1)

must

shelter, for
whole child need
I

the
not
as

storm
a

(2) They
(3)
(4)
you. When He

that
I
was

physician.
children in

spoke

speak.
when I went
to
see

is the

gentleman
should
to not

that

I met

Washington
all the

(6)

That

he

have

failed

when

conditions

were

so

favorable,

is hard does

understand. believe that he will do what he

(6)
102. (1) (2) (3)

Who

promises

Write
three three three

sentences

containing:
(4) (6) (6)

"

simple clauses, compoimd complex clauses, clauses,

three three three

adjective clauses,
adverbial substantive

clauses,
clauses.

CAPITALS. 103.
A
The The The All

CapitalLetter should
first word first word first word proper of
nouns

begin :

"

(1) (2)
(3)

of every of every of every and

sentence.

line of poetry. direct proper

quotation. adjectives.
and of the

(4)
(5) (6)
not

Names Names

things personified. days

of the week months

of the

of the year

; but

of the

seasons.

(7)
(8) (9)

All All The

words words

used

as

titles or
the

particular names. Supreme Being.

and

referring to /, the
be

pronoun should

interjectionO,

single

letters

forming

breviatio ab-

capitals. PUUCTUATIGir.

104.

Pnnctnation

is the 4irt

of indicating the construction

of the different parts of the

105. A. Terminal The The The

sentence.

Marks

"

period
mark interrogation exclamation mark
. "

?
. .

34

GRAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

106.

The

Period

is used

at

the end

of

declarative

or

an

imperative sentence.
(a)
any the The

period
used

is used
as a a

within

sentence

after

all

abbreviations^after
letters used
to

expression
sections
or

heading,

and

after

figuresor

mark

parts of

production. is used
at

107.

The

Interrogation Mark

the

end

of

an

interrogativesentence.
(a)
The

interrogation mark uncertainty Exclamation

sentence.
used word. within
or

may
to

be

used the

after

any

word

in

the

tence sen-

to denote

imply

opposite

of what

is

expressed. of
an

108.

The

Mark

is used

at

the

end

exclamatory
(a)
other It

is often

sentence

after

an

inteijection or

any

exclamatory B.

109.

Marks The The The

comma

used

within

the

sentence

-^

"

"

semicolon
. . . .

;
:

colon
. . . "

(a) Only
each
are

those

most

frequently used,

and

only

the

principal

uses

of

named

here.

110.

General

Sule it would

for the render

Comma.

^"

Use

comma

when

the omission

of

the construction

of some

part

of

the sentence 1
.

obscure.

To

separate elements

having the
are

same

construction
of
success.

"

Intelligence,integrity, industry, hopes

From

the up

elements the

Our of life. able miseras a

and

fears,pleasures and
till

pains,

make

interestingside
whiled her

night

morning,
When
as a

from
was a

morning

till

night, she
as a

life away.

child, I spake

child,I

understood

child, I thought
Excbption.
no
"

child.
two

When

elements
; as,
"

are

closely connected expands

and

by

junction, con-

comma

is needed

Learning

elevates

the

mind."

2.

To

set

oflf appositive,explanatory, clauses

:
"

or parenthetical,

words, phrases,or introductory,

PUNCTUATION.

35

Dickens,
which and
to

the

great novelist,is
all

teacher

of human

nature.

The
can

mind, think,

studies all
can

things,

should
not

study

itself most To

He

that

do

that, need
him.

be

lonely.

speak plainly, I

do

not

care

associate with

3.
The

To
wise

mark
man

the

omission
what he

of

verb
; the

"

considers

wants

fool,what
"

he

abounds

in.

111. letween

General elements

Sule less

for

the

Semicolon.

Ufie

semicolon

closelyconnected
wisdom avoid

than

those

separated
to

by

comma.

It is the

first

point

of

to

evil ; the

second,

make

it

good. 112.

Improve

every

minute

; for time

lost is lost forever.

General

Snle

for

the

Colon.

"

The

colon

is used

to

precede a supplemental or explanatoryremark.

1 admire
was

the sublime

passage

''

God

said, Let

there

be

and light,

there

light."
EXERCISE IN

PUNCTUATION

AND

CAPITAI.IZATION.

113.

of

and closelythe capitals punctuation (1) Observe everything you read. and sentence capitalize (2) Punctuate correctly every write. In

you

114.

the follomng
correct

Review^
"

let

answers

be

given

in

complete and
A.

sentences:
Name f
to two

(1)

Define

object, (2)
What

kinds.

(3)
a

Hlustrate.

(4) (7)
What

fine De-

idea. is

(6)
f f

is it to think How do
we come we

(6)

Define

thought.
?

What is
a

language

(8)
(10;
How

have

language (18)
Name

(9)
f six.

language

How many

is it that may

have

different languages

(11) (14)
Name

trate. IllusState them.

(12) clearly the (16)

Define the wm'e
are

there the the

be ?

two

directions

of
State

language
relation

process, between Define many What

a

(16)
them.
sentence.

each.

(17)
?

(18)

What What

is

o/language
elements

(19) Why?
to

(20) (22)
f
How

(21)
are

the What

of thought? language
how

ideas

possible?
to

(28)

gives /orm (26)

classes.
two

(24)
and and

gives/orm
material each. and

thought f
how,
class. the
two

(26) Explain.
fall into

Show

all

objects,both
define
matter

immaterial,
Show
same are

according

to this
are

(27) Name, mind classification,

and motion

(28)
to

belong

the

(29)

How

thought

alike

(30) What,

then,

36

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

elements

of every
are

thought

(31)
not

Define

each.
every

(32) Why
sentence

not

three Define

(33)
and

What

two

correspondmg (36) Why

parts

of

(34)

illustrate

each.

three?

B.
or even

In

a reality, sentence^

two

parts, is
(2)
Make

an

having inseparable unity,

statements

instead

of

three

parts"

(1) Explain. (3) Explain.

of

similar
is meant

about

thought (6)

and What your

reality.
parts
ment. state-

(4)

What

by parts

of speech f
?

speech

are

indispensable

in

all

expression

(6) Explam

C.

the following order Observing strictly State Name

seven

"

(1) (2) (3)

sense

offices that

words

must

the

corresponding parts
part of speech.
is
an

of

perform, nitely speech,statingdefi-

their Define
In what
?

and respective offices,

each
sense

(1)
used

interjection
is
an

part of speech ?

(2)

In what
most

is it not
as

(3)

What

expletive f

(4)

What

words

are

expletives?

D. (1)

Arrange
Define

all the

parts of speech under

(2)
Illustrate. of What

jiveclasses.
all

property.
tell to what

(3)
each

Name

grammatical

properties^ and inflection,

part

speech

belongs.
f

(4)
and

Define is it to

(5)

Illustrate. of
a

(6)
word?

is parsing

(7)

What

give (0) (13)

a

the

construction

(8) Distinguish subject

verb verb the What and and action. the

agent.

Illustrate.

(10) Distinguish
the

(11)
the
uses

Illustrate.
an

(12) Distinguish
State and f their the verb

object of

object of
between

action.

relation.

(14)
an

State

relation
are

subject of

agent

of

act.

(15)

the

two

of the word

attribute

(16)

Define

predicate-attribute. (17) (19) (21) (27)

illustrate bases Illustrate.

Illustrate.

(18)
Each

tinguish Dismay

object and
be what

predicate-attribute.

Illustrate.

(20)

part

of speech ? verbs. verbs.

(22)
verbs. of

Define

complete

verbs. verbs.

(23) Incomplete (26)

and

(24)

Transitive

verbs.

(26)

Intransitive

Copulative explain
two

Attributive
two

(28)
classes
as

Complement. (30) of
use.

(29) Name, (31) Name,

to

define,and define,and

kinds

complements.
to to

Name

thought

that

give
kind

rise

sentences.

illustrate each

of sentence

(32)

As

form. E.

Referring
:
"

to

the

outline

of

sentences.

Article

75,

illustrate

PUNCTUATION.

37

ad
J

ae^

qf^ 5/, cf,

ag

Id, cd,

he,
cCj

hg;
eg.

(1)
each of

Define the

phrase.
kinds

(2)

Illustrate.
of

(3)
:

Name, verb,

define,

and

illustrate

following
participial,

phrases

noun,

adjective,

adverbial,

infinitive,
the the

prepositional,
of the word

interjection, modifier. (6) (")

as

conjunction, Name,
to

(4)
and
to

plain Ex-

broad kinds

use

define, (c)
as

trate illus-

of

phrases

(a)

as

to

form,

basis,

use.

F. illustrate

Referring
:
"

to

the

outline

of

phrases,

Article

81,

adf, adg,
adh,

hdf, hdg,
bdh,

cdf; cdg
cdh;
;

aef,
aeg,

hef,

cef;
ceg; ceh.

beg,
beh,

aeh,

(1)
phrase.

Define

clause. which the

(2)
may

Illustrate. be of contained

(3)

Distinguish
in the
to

clause

from Name,
use.

(4)
and

Show

other.

(6)
as

define,

illustrate

kinds

clauses

(a)

as

form,

(b)

to

G.

Referring
illustrate
:
"

to

the

outline

of

clauses.

Articles

93

and

94,

ad,
ae,

bd, be,

cd

ce

"/

*/"

^"

(1)
illustrate

Name
one

and of

illustrate each of

five the

uses

of
most

capital commonly

letters. used

(2)
in

Name

and

use

marks

punctuation.

PARTS

OP

SPEECH.

THE

NOUN.

115.
tenee
as

Having
a

made
we

general
now

examination for
a

of
more

the

sen

whole,
of

are

ready
Parts
of

thorough
form
it.

investigation
We shall 116. A

each with is the

of the
name

the

Speech

that

begin
Sfonn

Sfoun.

of
farmer

an

object;
^

as,

Kate^

James^

Columbus^

Brooklyn^

water^

angel^ worlds mind^

Porter.

flock^

love^ brightness^ Mary thottffht^

(a)
+ do
"

Jane

Any
X

word,
and
-^

sign, phrase,
are
**

or

clause, signs.

may There

be
was

used Tom

as

noun

;
"

as,

mathematical

with

his

How

you Such

do

?"

and

What
have

can

I do
uses

for
of

you
nouns

?"

expressions
words So but upon there
can

the

only
rather be

so

far

as

their

relation
names

to

other

is

concerned,
this be
is

but

they

are

things

than
to

of
them

things.
nouns,

groimd
no

there

may
to

objection
them

calling

objection
word
or

calling

substantives. that
may stand

A
as

Substantive

any

combinatioii

of

words

the

subject of

verb,

GLASSES 117.

OF of
name

ITOimS.

There
We may it Common We of may

are

two

ways it
a

naming merely

any
to

object
denote

"

(1)
to

give belongs;
or

the

class

which
"

as,

Joy, planet^ city^ river^ people^

state^

Class it
as,
a

Name.
name

(2)
others

give
;

that

will

distinguish

it from

its class
"

George^ Mars^
or

London^
Name. classes

Orinoco^

lish, Eng-

Ohio^
118. Common We

Particular

Individual
two

have,

therefore,

general

of Noons,

"

and

Proper.
38

GLASSES

OF

NOUNS.

89

119,
to

Common the class

Noun
to

is

name

given

to

an

denote

which

it

belongs; as,
given
;

objectmerely hunter^ woman^

mountains^ book.
120. A

Proper Noun
others

is

name

to

an

objectto

tinguish dis-

it from

of its

class

as,

Daniel

Boone^ Queen

Victoria^Rochys^ Standard
(a)
common, the is
men a

Dictionary,
a noun

It may and

readily be
that
'*

seen

that

ustially proper
may become

may

become
In

noun

usually
was

common
a

proper. Daniel from of

sentence,
proper
; but

Daniel used
we

Webster
to
"

great

statesman,"
man

Webster all other

noun,

distinguish one
Where
name

particular
Daniel
to

when

say,

are
a

the

Websters may be

to-day

?"

Daniel
one name

Webster

is used of

to

class

which

admitted
a

any class
man

having
or a common

certain

Webster's And

characteristics;
in the
to

it is therefore
an

common

noun.

sentence,
denote the
**

^^

saw

old man,^^ which the

is

noun,

used the very

merely
rude

class Old

to

object
Man
"

belongs;
about here

but

when has
a

boy

says, used

The

Man
7%oun,

knows
The may say

nothing
Old

it," he
denotes

improperly
the

proper father.

particular person,
noun

boy's
common

We

then,

(1)

proper its

becomes others

when
same

it

ceases

tinguish to dis"

object from
"

of the

class ; as, Such

the

"the Coesars^''
are

Oiceros^^ "the
same
"

Beethovens.^^

sions expres-

the

as

the

warmr*,"

"the

"the orators^"" rest." "He

nor a

musicians^'* "Bolivar may

was

succeed

Milton here may inglorious the Washington of South America." but he is neither Solomon a tolerably,
mute

Some

Samson.'*'*

(2)
"

common

noun

becomes

proper

when

it is used

tinguish to disclass ;

as,

from object particular Boatman, do not tarry."

any
A
common a noun or

others

of the

same

(a)
is
cannot account is soon

has

meaning
of
At to
an

and

can

be defined.
; it is without
noun

proper

noun

merely

symbol,
be

sign,

object
a

meaning
a

and
on

therefore of which lost.

defined.

first

proper

has

meaning,

it is selected

represent its object ; but

the

signification
the We

(Jb) Our
may
be

language
increased

has
as

more

than

40,000

common are

nouns,

and

ber num-

new

classes of objects

formed.

have

40

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

almost
names

an

unlimited

number

of proper

nouns.

There

are

more

than

80,000
Nevo

of

places
or

alone.
more

(c)
York Parse

Two

words

are

often

used

to

form Dr.

one

name

; as,

City,
such

Webster^s combinations

International
as

Dictionary,

David

Starr

Jordan.

single nouns. distinguish a

*"*'

(d)
In
^^

It is often

difficult to

common

from

proper Earth

noun. are

Sunday
the and show
^^

follows

and Saturday,'*'*
nouns are on

Mercury,
but
in

Venus,
"He
are common

and

planets," Sunday,
the

italicized *'The
sun

proper; the the

preaches
common.

every

shines

earth,^^ they
of

(Let
and proper

pupil

why

by applying

definitions

nouns.) 121. Noun

The
may^

Proper
for

Noun

has

no

subclasses.

2^e

Common

convenience, he divided
Class.
abstract.

into three

subclasses,

Collective^ Abstract^ and

(a) A
a

All verbal

nouns

are

Collective group
A

Noun

is

one

whose

singularform
swarm.

may

sent repre-

herd^ of objects; as, Jlock^

noun

(a)
Such

collective
as

always

represents

group

of

animate

objects.
of

nouns

pile, heap, and

collective.
noun

bunch, although they suggest collections

either

objects, are (")

A

not

collective

may

refer

to

its

object in

of two

ways

-^

(1) Singly, separately, individually;

as (2) Collectively, one

unit,

one

whole

in which

the

individuals

are

lost

sight of.
first use, the

In the

gender
the have

of the verb

noun

is determined pronoun
on

by
to

the

sex

of the be

objects represented, plural ;

of these
as,
"

and

and

referring
their

it should

Your the
a

club

silver buckles
noun

caps.'^

In the second fore there"

uses,

collective

is of the
a

neuter

gender

; it would ; as,

require
club beats is This
assurance

singular verb,
every very time

and

singular, neuter
No

pronoun

Your

ours a

it tries." distinction. it. is

as,

important
has mastered
noun

student

can

speak

with

till he When
the
a

(c)
noun

collective

pluralized, it usually
were seven or

becomes

class

of
the

neuter

gender;
are so

"There of.
to

eight swarms,^''
may
"

Here in the

individuals number

lost
as

sight

But the

collective

noun

be

used the

plural
were

to

refer

individuals
"

; as,

All
wear

day

regiments
bells
on

calling on
necks."

their commander."

The

herds

all

silver

their

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

41

122.
as a

An

Abstract

Noun

is the

name

of

an

objectconceived

of another quality
of the following

object; as,

the

of velvet, the softness the

man.

drunkenness (a)
The

city,the honestyof
a

are

few

of

our

abstract

nouns

Timey space,

life,

death, hope, virtue, wisdom,

magnitude,

disease,

war,

peace,

government,

youth, goodness, happiness, beauty, whiteness, softness, hardness,

sorrow,

murder,

revenge,

cold, heat,
rest, flight,

brightness, darkness,

motion,

silence, existence, height, depth, growth, custom, glory, industry, economy,

added It must all
not
one

fashion, strife, honor,

To these

esty, indolence, grandeur, religion, knowledge, hon-

deception, drunkenness,
must

poverty,

destiny, ambition, power.

such words

be

names

of actions. understood may be that used

are

(b)
nouns.

be

always
ways
:
"

abstract

Any
To To
name

of them
an an

in either

of two

(1)
(2) fatal,"
noun,

attribute

of
it is

an

object;
attributes. abstract
noun
*^

name

object as
uses

having
an

In the
'*

first of Your
as

these

; as,
use

His it is

disease
a mere noun

was

silence

is my
more

answer."

In the

second

class

or,

it is often

appropriately called,a
^^

concrete
more

; as, than

^''Disease

is to be
"

dreaded,**
a

Silence Death

is sometimes
comes

eloquent

speech," 123.

She

is

beauty,^'*
are

**

to

us

all alike."

Class

Sfouns

all those not

included

in the other

divisions ; as,

girl^man^

house^ knife.

124.

FBOFEBTIES

OF

NOnirS.

(1) I, Theodore Roosevelt^ do issue this proclamation. (2) Theodore Roosevelt^ you are President. Roosevelt. is Theodore (3) The President bad books. (4) One good book is better than many (5) A boy and a girl tore the child's hat.
125.

By observing the italicized words

we

in these

five

tences, sen-

may Nouns
or

see

"

Firsts

"

may

denote

the
as

speaker^ the
the
noun,

person Theodore

spoken

to^

the

objectspoken of

Roosevelt^ does, respectively,in (1), (2), and property is called Person.

(3).

This

42

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Second^
than
one;

"

A
as

noun

may and hook%

stand in

for

one

objector for

more

look

(4).
an

This

property is called
the male
not

ITumber.

Thirds
an

"

A the
an

noun

may

denote
an

objectof
sex

%ex^

objectof
Fourth^

female

aex^

objectwith
sex.

definitely
ferent difit.

or specijied^
"

without object
noun

This in any

property is Oender.
one

may the

stand

of several that governs

relations For

to

part of the
be in the

sentence
a

example,
in is called

it may

subjectof
and

President This

(3),
a

book

(4),

Nominative

Relation.

verb^ like finite boy and girl in (5). be the object It may
hatia

of

verbj like proclamation in (1), and

an

(6).

This

is called
noun

Relation. Objective
to denote

Also, it may

limit another

so

as

Relation.
noun

to

the

possession. This is called a Possessive This property^ depending upon the relation of a that governs it^is Case. part of the sentence
simplest
form of each relation is

(a) Only
several three

the

given

here.

There

are

nominative

constructions,
Nominative because does

several

objective constructions,
to

and

possessive constructions.
The
term not

(6)
one.

appear

be

very

appropriate Case, belong

for
not

It is retained

universally used. Number^ Gender,

not

(c)
to

All

these

properties, Person^
and Pronouns, observed the the that
our

and

both

Nouns It will is shown

to

(d)
which

be

nouns

are

inflected
; and

Person,
for Case, and

by

noun's

position in

the sentence
are

except
Gender.

denote

possessive. They

inflected

for

Number

126.

Nouns,

then, have

four

properties: Person,

Nam-

ber, Oender, Case.

PERSON.

127. whether

Person

is the

property of the

noun

that

indicates^

represents the speaker^the person the object spoken of. Hence, there are three Firsts which
denotes
the the

it

spoken
persons

to^
:

or

the

spoken

to ; and

speaker ; the Second^ the Third, the objectspoken of.

person

PROPERTIES

OP

NOUNS.

43

Person
a
^^

in

nouns

is indicated

by

their

tise

and
am

not

by

change in form. Henry Anderson,

the
Most All The

"I,
you
are

Henry
a

Anderson^
^^

guilty."
Anderson

thief."

Henry

stole (a) (b) (c)

of other

horse."
nouns are

of the third
are

person. third person.

to
names

predicate
first and

nouns

of the

second

persons

belong only
is found of the in

of

persons,

or

objects personified.
A
noun

(d)
that of

of the with

first person
a

no

other

construction in the

than

apposition
A of
a

pronoun

first person

; and

tive nomina-

absolute

by subscription.
the

(e)

noun

second

person the second

can

have person,

but and

two

constructions: absolute

apposition with by direct

address.

pronoun

of

nominative

NUMBER.

128.
noun

Nxunber

is that
one

property used
more

to

show
one.

whether

the

represents
129. There

or object,

than the

are

two ;

numbers: and

singular, denoting
more

one,
one,

as
as

box, child,star

the

denoting plural,

than

boxes, children, stars.

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

130.

Nouns

form

their

plurals by ordinary or

terminal

or by a radical or root change. inflection Most 131. nouns form their (1) By Terminal Inflection : s or as, book^ books ; hat,hats; apple, es; pluralsby suffixing flowers ; church, churches; bench, apples;pin,pins; flower,
"

benches

kiss,kisses.
whether
8
or

Euphony determines The following classes singular:

(a)
Nouns
a
"

es

is to

be

suffixed.
es

of

nouns

generally suflBx

to

the

ending
consonant

in

ch
:

(soft), s, sh^
motto, mottoes,

x,

or

z,

and

some

nouns

in o,

preceded by (b)
i
:

trench, trenches; miss, misses; blush^ blushes;

tax, taxes; topaz, topazes;

Nouns

ending

in y

preceded by
;

consonant,

after

changing

y into

glory, glories; story,

stones

lady,

ladies.

44

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

In

Old

English
the
ie has

we

find such

words when
y.

written
we

glorie,storie, ladie^ with

*^

suQixed
mean

for

plurals. Hence,
been

say,

Change fe
has

y into

we t'e,^*

that

changed ending
in

into

(c)
intov:

few

nouns

or

/e/

after

or

been

changed

thief, thieves ; Badical

vjife,wives; life,lives; wolf

wolves,

(2) By by
radical of sound geese ;

Change

"

few
a

nouns

form

their of the

plurals
vowel goose^

change ; that is,by the singular: man^

mouse^

modification
wom^n^

men;

women;

toothyteeth;

mice;

louse^lice.
NUMBER.

FECUIXA^RITIES

OF

(a) Singular
A the few
nouns

and have

Plural

the Same
same

"

the

form

for

the

plural

as

for

singular: sheep^deer^ grouse^

number of such
;
"

series,salmon^ heathen.
from
"

The

a
"

noun

must

be determined
was
"

some

other

part
were

of the sentence in the

thus,
"I

The

sheep
one

in the
**

garden." bought

The

sheep

garden.

bought

sheep,

five

sheep J*^

(6)

Double

Plurals

"

one

(1) Some nouns two or foreign,

:
"

have

double

plurals
"

English plurals with

English and significations different

one

PBOPERTIBS

OP

NOUNS.

45

(2)
double

Another

class of the

nouns same

from

foreignlanguages
:
"

has

plurals with

meanings

snrouLAB.

Bandit Cherub

(Italian),
(Hebrew),

Dogma

(Greek), Formula (Latin),

Except
to be

in technical

or

scientific

language

the

English pluralsare

ally gener-

preferred.
^
"

((?)Plurals only :
Some
annals
nouns are

found

only

in the

plural :

"

entrails

scissors shears

antipodes
breeches drawers

nuptials i"antaloons pincers

scales

tongs
victuals vitals

(d)

FlnraLs

as

Singalars:
nouns

"

Another

class of

has
meana^

the

plural form

with

the

gular sin-

signification ; as,

molasses^ news^

oddsy pains^

riches^tidings^ amends^ gallows^thanks^ etc.

Also, politics^ ethics, optics, mathematics,
represent
is science of Greek

physics, and

some
^'

others matics Mathethe

plurals, but
the science

are

regarded
of

as

singular. Thus,
"Ethics is

(not are) duty."

quantity."

(not are)

(e) Singulars only :

"

plurals; etc. harshness^ meekness, prvdence, tenacity,

nouns
no

Many (/)

abstract

have

as,

decorum^

Plural
nouns as

of

Proper Nouns

"

Proper
or

es.

But

generallyform to those ending

their

plurals by adding
is unsettled

in y, usage

good writers add 8, others drop y and add Mary, Marys, or Maries ; Story,Storys, or Stories Henrys, or Henries; Tally,Tullys,or Tullies,
some

ies;
;

as,

Henry,

46

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(^)
formed
must

The

plurals of letters,marks, jBgures,and

the

signs
as,
"

are

by adding
dot your

apostrophe and
your
"

('s);

You tion addi-

i'" and

cross

^'"." At the

"We

prove

were

by castingout the ^'"." placed *'s, 's,+'s, and

"

bottom

of the page

D's/'
words of the word

(K)
is that

The

plnral of compound

generally formed
is described

the part by pluralizing

by

the

rest;

as,

mouse-traps,

ox-carts,

brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law,billet-doux, courts-martial,

aids-de-camp, cupfuls,spoonfuls,coachfuls, wagon-loads,

commanders-in-chief.
A few

compound

words

ploralize both

paxts

men-servanU^

women-

servants^

knights-templars (or knights-templar),

PLURALS

OF

PROPER

NAMES.

132.

Plural

of proper the

names
name

preceded by
or

titles is formed
never

either by pluralizing

the

but title,

both.

RULES.

(1) If the pluralUsed :

Miss Scotts The

title is Mrs,, "The Mrs. been

or

is

preceded by
"The flowers.** be
"

numeral,
Mrs.

the

name

is always "The
two

Browns.^'

two

Barlows.''''

had

gathering
always

Irving.
when
it is

(2)
"The

title should

pluralized
a

Mister^ Miss,
Messrs

tor, Doc-

Professor^ etc., not preceded by

Misses On

numeral:

"The

Johnson.^^

DilV

"The

Drs.

Bank.'*' unsettled. In

(a)
more

this

point
and

usage
same

is somewhat
name

speaking

of two

or

singleladies
the
name,

of the
some

many the

good

writers the
name.

pluralizethe title,
Perhaps
most
we

many

both

title and
name,

grammarians
most

prefer
not

to

pluralize the
title made

while

in

polite literature
as

commonly
and the

find the the

plural.
will
to
"

In this case,

in

all others,

usage,

grammarians,
custom
us

prevail; and
the
true to

finally,I believe, it
titles of such
terms.

will become

universal tell
to

pluralizeonly
the law the of
not

(b)
that the

Grammarians
s

that
noun

the
*'

language requires
but the first and

be affixed

the upon say

one

and

title ;

greatest of all demands

intended.
Now

language
"I
saw

is that it express Miss

clearly the thought

it cannot two

if
we

we mean

the named

Banks,''
or

be

mined deter-

whether

lady

"Banks**

named

"Bank."

PBOPBRTIBS

OP

NOUNS.

47
doctor
we

**

I called
**

at

the

office of Dr. but there

are

Motts,'' would

probably imply
"

one

named
*^

Motts,"
Misses

really two
*^

named
at

Mott" Drs.

But

if

say, there of be

I
no

saw

the

Bank,^^
that
name.

and

called

the law

office of
next

Mott,*'

is

of ambiguity. possibility

Then

the

in

importance,

that

analogy, Would

require
not

Mister, Professor, and

similar

titles should

pluralized,and

the

GENDER,

133. several

As

already pointed out, nouns relations their objectsbear to

may
are

may
sex.

express This

the

property
male

is Oender. 134. Such 186. Nouns

nouns

represent
Masculine

objects
Oender.

of

the

sex.

of the may

Nouns
are

represent objects of the

Oender.

female

sex.

They
136.
are

of the
may

Feminine

Nouns
Neuter

represent objectswithout
Oender.

sex.

They

of the 137.

Nouns

may

represent objectswith
are

sex

not

definitely
that

specified. They
138. expresses (a) 139. male Oender

of the Common

Oender.
a noun sex. or

is the

property/ of

pronoun

the relation
of
noun

of its objectto
pronoun the

Instead

and

word

substantive

will be used.

Substantive
as,

of the

Masculine

Oender

represents

object ;
A

boy,uncle^ bachelor^ Joseph.

of the Feminine Oender

140.

Substantive

represents

female object; as, girl^ aunt^ maid^ Josephine.

(a) they
When be his The inanimate

objects
"

are

personified
and her

"

conceived nouns,

as

persons

"

may

expressed by light; "

moon

masculine

feminine sails."

as, "The

sun

dispenses

The

ship spread
on on

looks down
the shades of
a

old

Cronest

;
breast. which of
a

She

mellows
lowest

his

shaggy

-^Drakb.
an

(5)
and

In the
as

degrees
neuter

personification,in
characteristic
"

object

is conceived
noun

manifesting only
remain

minor The

person,

its

pronoun sea."

; as,

gentle

brooklet

hastens

to its home

in the

48

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

141.

Sabstantive
sex

of

the

Neater

Gender

represents

an

objectwithout
(a)
be In The called **A "The
neuter

as,

book^ stump^ table^ snow.

and small animals such the
sex

speaking
nouns

of children and pronouns

is often should

garded. disrethen

representing

objects

as

"

simple
robin

child is

that

lightlydraws
for its mate.'*

its breath."

"

Wordsworth,

looking

142.

A with

Substantiye
sex

of the

Common

Oender

object
persons,
(a)
A

not

as definitely specified,

represents an child,parent,

children.
substantive of is of the
sex common or a

gender
number

when

it represents either may

single object
sex.

unspecified

of

objects that

differ in

143. in three

Nouns
ways,
or

may

distinguish the
kinds

sex
"

of

their

objects

three

of Inflection:

(a) (6)
earlier
terms
women.

Most

words

of

this class

are

appellations of office, occupation,

in
ess or

or

rank, and

the feminine
are

generally
now so

ends

trix, in best
ess as

There

not
our

many At

feminines

there

were

in such
to

stages of
as

language.

present
as

the

usage

regards
to
men

doctor, author, writer, engraver,

applicable both
SUFFIXES.

and

(3) He-bear,
Man-servant,
Mr.

BY

PREFIXES

AND

She-bear. Maid-servant.

Jones,

SMiss
Mrs.

Jones. Jones.

PROPERTIES

OP

NOUNS.

49

144.
not

Kemarks
the

on

Oender.
of its

"

(a)
to

if

the

substantive its likes will

itself

does

show from

relation words

object

sex,

determine

gender
the

if possible
^

other we"

in the

context.
*'

"The

pupil

teacher,^
you,

**

You

hurt

(common
and child broke "The of
a

gender).
you,
her

7, your

uncle,
"The

help

Ber-

nice"

(/is masculine;
"The

feminine).
doll"

child "The

is sick" child

mon). (comlost his

(feminine).
in its cradle" is neuter as,
"

sled"

(masculine).
The

child

sleeps

(neuter).
when it represents enacted burned the the

(b)
a

gender
of

collective
as one

noun

collection

objects acting
before it

whole;
"

Congress
in its

following
town."

laws

adjourned."

The

mob,

fury,

But,
gender

when

it represents

a sex

collection of the

of

objects acting separately, its

; as,
"

is determined task is not

to

by
to

the

objectsrepresented
labors of

The

fair
own

sex, whose

mingle

in the

public
it

have life,

their

part assigned them

Here
"

act." pronouns in their

sex

and do

the
not

three agree

representing

are

feminine. the pronoun

But

in

The

jury

opinions," jury

and

their

are

masculine. When collective

neuter
saw nouns are
"

pluralized they usually

herds the when counted
are a

become

class

nouns

in the
"

gender

; as,

The

numbered lost

fifty-four."
each be then
were

We

five flocks." becomes

an as

Here

individuals

sight of, and

noun

collection
used in the

individual
to

object.
"

But

collective

may

plural so
the
sex

refer

to the

individual All The

object.
action

Its

gender
herds of
was

depends

upon

of the individuals. the green

the ^ocA;s and

quietly grazing performed by objects.

common

upon

pastures."
as so

spoken by
the

not

the

groups

acting

many
nouns

wholes, but
in the

individual and

Herds

and

flocks are
In mind the

collective

plural

number

gender.
Bear well
to

(c)
Sex of
a

distinction
to
nouns nor

between pronouns.
noun

gender
We the male

and

aez.

belongs
man

objects,gender

and of
a

never sex.

speak

of
Some

the masculine

gender,

of

(d)
an common

granmiariana
since there

reject
can

"common
no

gender" thing
as an

as

implying
object
the of

absurdity,
sex. an

be

such
common

This, however,
to

is but

the

blunder

which

always subject
"

follows

attempt
The

be

hypercritical without
arises from
to
our

understanding
"

discussed.

confusion

confounding
some

gender

"

and is
a

sex."

Sex

is

characteristic
to

belonging
In
one

objects. Gender popular

ascribed grammars
to

property
be found

belonging
this and
a

all
:

nouns.
"

of

may

expression
similar

Gender
may

is sometimes be found is

inanimate grammars. the

or

objects,"
This There of the is

expressions
in

in many

other
to

carelessness
no

expression
as an

which

confusing

learner.
a noun

is

such

thing

object of the feminine gender,

50

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

female
need be

8ex,

And for that

to

although
reason

there

may

not term

be

an

objectof

common

sex, We We

we

not

reject the
term
even man a

common

gender.
same reason.

should say,

compelled
is

reject the
and "man"?
man,

for

the

'''"Man but who

moHal,^^
ever saw

not

grammarian
have
a

wishes and of

to

criticise
man,

it,
and
we

We and such

man,

the
men, 1 see

this man,

and the

that

thousands
a

and

millions
man,

but
no

explore (e)
since

universe the
term

for
common

material

object as

valid

objection to
Neuter

gender,
been Has

geader
this is the
no

has

objected
no

to

on

the
noun

same

ground,
has
a

that
no

the

object represented
but
same

sex,

the

therefore
sex.

gender,
tells
us

confounding
it does

of

gender

and

When of its

noun

anything,
the different therefore
tree

matter

what, concerning
but

the

relation The each

nouns

object
and

.to sex, tree

property by which

it,is gender.
sex; tells
us

John

tell each and

things concerning
has
us

tells

something,
male much
is as

and sex,

gender.
its

John

that its
sex.

object
noun

is of the

tells
as

that

object

is without neither
to

One
more

without

gender
sex.

the

other, because
been
as

tells any substitute from the

than
term

the other
no

concerning
for
neuter

It has

proposed
may be
seen

the

gender
do

gender ; but,
we

above,

such
not

nouns

have for
us

gender, and
the
terms
are

must

therefore and but

have
common

name

for it.

I do

contend for

neuter not

gender

gender.
the
no

Unfortunately suggested
The
sex

they
is

good terms,
determined

they
and when

are

best

ever

; much

better
noun

than

undetermined
much
as

gender
it indicates
as

gender.

gender
of the
or

of

'

just as

it indicates
that when
sex

that the

object
female. is

is undetermined And
a noun sex

when

the

object

is male that

has
as

gender just
it

much

it indicates
the
mean

its

object

without Neuter
never can

when

specifiesthe

that

object has.
neither

construed gender literally

so

would

gender,
the best neither

but

it has
^e

been

intended
to true

by grammarians.
nouns

It is

simply
but

term
sex.

get

to

apply

those that

that
nouns

represent
have and
no

objects of gender;

It

is

certainly not
be in that
to

such

if it were, it would

they
not

would be

respect

like adverbs

and interjections,

necessary

speak
miss

of

gender
of
not
our

at

all.

(/)
we

We

may

most

difiBculties here

by keeping

in mind

that

parse

substantives,

objects.

CASE.

145.

Nominatiye
a

Case.

"

As

may

be stand

seen

from
one

the following of several both

sentences,
relations the
nouns

substantive

may that

in any it.

to

the

expression
the pronouns.

governs

Observe

and

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

61

(1) George
(2)
It is The

came.

/came. It is /.
came.

George,

(3)
146. In

boy, George,

The

boy, /, the

came.

verb^came.

and (1) Q-eorge In (2) they are In

a

Zare each

each the

suiject of the finite

copula^is.
the

(3)
three

each

is in

complement of the finite with Joy, which is apposition grouped together

A substantive the Nominative is in and in

subjectof
These

finite verb. relations

are

147. called
a

dependent nominative
nominative

constructions. construction

dependent
148.

Case. The Nominative in

a

Case

is the

case

substantive

has

when

it is used The

dependent nominative

construction,
are :
"

149.

Dependent Nominative
;
as

Constructions
:
"

verb (1) Subject of a finite

WiUon is my
wrote

lawyer.
the letter.

Henry
You We

have

my

consent.

shall wait

for him.

C2)

Complement of
;
as :
"

verb copulative

whose

subject is

nominative

am

student,
is
a

Martha

musician.

They
She

are was were

detectives.
not

/.
we.

They
We
The

shall be
men were were

learners. been

have

good
be

citizens.

We

thought

to be to

they.
we,

They

supposed
a

(3)

In

tvith apposition
Your

nominative
is here.

substantive

as

"

brother, Paul^
is your

He

brother, Pa'iil.
you. you.

I, your
Your

brother, plead with

brother, /, pleads

with

62

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

150.

AU

verbs

axe

jBnite verbs may

ciples. except Infinitives and Partiverb

or

The

finding its changes as

For

distinguish a finite and observing whether present form its subject is changed in person or beginner
take is the verb in the last two

by
it

not

number. Its

example,
its

sentences.

present form
when brother. form

plead when its subjectis Z, but it is pleads subject is changed to the third person noun,
a

It is therefore

finite verb. its

to
to

Also, is is the present

in the its its third person

required when singular,but it changes and first person singular, second person singularor

subject is
am are

when when

subject

is in the in the

subjectis
or

in the
are

first, second, 6e, and

third person the

sponding corre-

plural. These, therefore,

verbs^ while finite

to

to plead and infinitives,

participles, pleading and

shall learn later that the in the is

being^are
an

corresponding verbs. We infinite

infinitive
a

the

subject of
and the
or

is

monly com-

objectivecase
in the iised called
a as

subjectof
nominative
a

participle
absolute.

commonly
151. A
noun

possessivecase
the Predicate the

complement of
Noun.

verb copulative construction

a

is

commonly

This

applies chiefly to copula, that is, some

be, are,
was, were,

substantive of the

completing
verb
to

pure
am,

finite form

be
:

"

is,

been.

The

general rule
is in the it
as

is
same

tive substanas

completinga
subject. We
case

verb copulative
see

case

its

shall the

later that
as

appliesto
to the

the

objective

and

to

absolute
to
case

well
must

nominative.
:

(a)
is in

An

exception
nominative
whose

the

rule

be the

remembered

A
a

substantive

the

when

it is

complement

of

copulative

participle

subject

is

possessive.

152.

substantive

is in

appositionwhen,
another in the

without
same
case

necting con-

element, it modifies
of
term to

and

the

same one

is the all
cases.

the appositive that signification.Observe the other. that explains Apposition applies in careful Be to distinguisha substantive

PKOPERTIBS

OP

NOUNS.

63

as apposition,

"

Jones, the lawyer^ came," from

of
a

one

used
is

as a

the

complement
^^

copulative verb,
in the the
same

as
case

"Jones
as

lawyer,
used
case

An it

appositiveis
it of
a

the

stantive sub-

modifies, and

means

same.

substantive
same

as
as

the its

complement

copulative verb
the
: same.

is in the So far

subject
This

and

means

they
has^
it to

resemble. and the

an

is their

difference

predicatenoun
to

has not.,a connecting element appositive substantive it explains. Nominative Absolute Case.
"

join

153.

When

noun

or

noun pro-

or

tive when it is the subjector attribuindependently., that is used independently., complement of a participle when substantive it is in apposition with another so used^ is used Absolute Absolute
:
"

it is in the Nominatiye 154. The Nominative

Case. Constructions
are
:
"

(1) By

direct address
William^
come

here.

(2) By

exclamation
Good old

"

England
"

(3) By pleonasm:
Out

fathers,

where

are

they

: (4) By inscription
"

Dewey^s

Psychology.
an : independent participle
"

(5) Subject of
Wilson

having

overbid

us,

we

failed

to

get the horse.

(6) Complement of an
:
"

participle independent copulative

doctor, we hopeful.

Philip being

our

were

: (7) In apposition

"

Wilson,

the

merchant,

having

overbid

us,

we

failed to

get the horse.

54

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(a) (6)
another

substantive
case.

used

in any

of these

constructions

is in the

nomina"

tive absolute
A in

substantive

in any with

one

of the Illustrate.
use

first six

constructions

may

have

apposition
statement

it.

(c)

Pleonasm
a

is the

independent
or

of

substantive the

before

sentence ;

that makes
as:
"

asks

question
are

about

object it

expresses

These The Pleonasm is to be

an

problems^ they problems^

how

troublesome.
can

many
we

you

solve ?

avoided

except when
emotion

wish

to express,

along

with

the

thought of

object, the
are

it of

produces.
inscription, such
on as

((2) There

several isolated

forms
names

superscriptions,
monuments.

subscriptions,and 155. in
a

written

coins,signs,and

Possessive

Case.

"

When

noun

or

pronoun

is used

construction possessive The Possessive

a

it is in the Possessive
are :
"

Case.

156.

Constmctions
noun

(1) Limiting
Mary^s

of different signification ; as,

PauVa pony, JohrCa

bonnet,

book,

Brown^a

philosophy.

(2) Limiting

noun

of

same

signification apposition;
=

as,
Her

Majesty, Queen Victoria's government.

a

(3) Subject of
substantive
John's Tour The

participlethat
use

has

dependent

;
to

as,
me

whispering

annoyed

her. your

speaking good
may HilVs denote

French

secured of

appointment.
Brown^s the

(a)
com

possessive
author,
Indiana's
as

the

owner

an

object, as

; the

Rhetoric

the
as

kind, meiVs
the sun's

clothing ;
rays.

location,as

oil-fields ; the

origin,

TO

FORM

THE

POSSESSIVE.

157.

Singnlar nouns

and

plnrals not ending in sform

's to

their

by annexing possessive
The child's

the

the nominative;
books. The
men''s

as,
hats.

book.

The

children's

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

65

158.

Plurals

ending

in

"

form
as,

their

possessiveby

nexing an-

only

the

apostrophe ;
Birds'

JBoy"'sports, (a)
**

wings,
old

Banks*

charters.

The

's is

contraction
*'

of the

Ehglish genitive ending

"

es

or

is.

In

vndowes For
nouns

habite.'*

The

Kingis

crowne."

Chaucer. omitted from

**

(b)
law,"
in most
*'

euphony
that

the end

posBesslve
with
an
"

sign

Is sometimeB
"

singular

s-sound

; as,

Xerxes^

army,"
but

Moses^

Socrates^
cases
"

philosophy,"
**

Demosthenes^
as
^'

orations";
works." Prescott
"

it is better
^^

to annex

the s, also ; Charleses

Dennises
"

Pope.
The

Louis's usage

reign."
sanctions
etc.

Macaulay,
the forms the Bank^s

affairs." Mr.
no

best

Mrs,
s, there

Hemans^s,
would be

Banks^s,

Jameses,

loitnesses^s^

Without Mr. should

in spoken language, distinction, Bound!*

s

between
The
s

and

Mr.

Banks'*
in

; Miss

and in

Miss

Bounds\ unless it

always

be used

spoken

language
and then

and

prose the the

brings together
may
as,

too' many

hissing sounds,
*'The law

perhaps
before "The

possession
objective;
of

be much "The army

more

elegantly expressed by using of

Xerxes,"
orations of of

of

Moses,"
As
we

philosophy
Jesus'

Socrates,"
to

"The

Demosthenes."

well-established "For

tions excep-

the

statement

just made, however,

"For

have,

sake,"
sheep
needs

"For

goodness' sake,"
The

conscience'
or

sake."
such
nouns as

(c)
to be

possessive,singular by annexing
some a

plural, of

deer

and

is formed

's to the

nominative.

If the must

noun's do
it.

number

shown,

other

part of the sentence

series of
nouns

(jA)Wheh used,
the
s

pair

or

implying

common

possession

are

the
name

possessive sign is annexed

limited
; as,
"

only
CasKs "

to

the

one

immediately preceding
store,"
"

Wade Clark

"

furniture

Beed

" Kellogg'*
"

Grammar

is made shoe
a

by

Maynard*s
not

Publishing House,"

Lee

"

Shepherd* s (e)
When
the

store,"
or

etc.

pair

series

of
to

nouns

implying
the
name

common

possession

are

used,
"

sign

is annexed before unless

each, and
of the

limited

by

the

last

possessive is understood Logic

that and

each

others

; as,

Day''s and
or more

Fowler^s works
on

(not Logics,
"

each and

is the

author

of
"

two
=

subject),
In

Swmton's Readers.

McGuffey's
the
s

Readers

Swinton's

Readers

McGuffey's (/)
"The

compound

terms

possessive sign
"The

is

annexed

to
s

the sions." deci-

last;

as,

court-martiaV Decisions
in
a

decisions,"

courts-martiaV

(Better, " {g)

When
with
a

of the

courts-martial.")
is

noun

the

possessive
the
term

limited
or

by

noun

in

position ap-

it, by

descriptive
to

phrase,

by

pronominal

adjec"
the
noun

tive, the

sign is annexed
as, "The

immediately

preceding

limited;

emperor

Napoleon'*s grave,"

"The

secretary of

the

56

GRAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Navy^" report,"
noun

'*

What
a

I do
common

is

no noun

one

else
in

business." with

When

proper the the

is

explained by
noun or

apposition
may be
; as,

it,and
to

when either

limited
common

is the

omitted,
proper

the

possessive sign
but
never

annexed
**

noun, or,
"

to at

both

We

stopped
substantive of

at Ao-

ton^s, the jeweller,"

We

stopped

Acton,
a

the

jeweller*8 y
use tence sen-

(Ji) The
must

subject
in the

of

participle

having
Otherwise
a

dependent
the is not
not
one

be is

put

possessive case.
The writer^s man^s

meaning

the and
same

changed.
heard

being

scholar do office, No

doubted,
mean ever

No

one

ever

of that
a

running
is not

for

the heard

as.

The
man

writer

being

scholar

doubted, and. only

of that

running (t)
The its form.

for office.

poBBeBsive

is the

case

an

English

noun

distinguishes

by

159.

Objective Case.
is in the

"

substantive

having

an

objective

construction 160. The

Objective Case.
are,
"

Objective Constructions

(1)

Objectof
God
made

transitive
the world,

verb /
God made

as

"

U8,

(2) Objectof a preposition ;

She

as

"

spoke

to her

sister.

She

spoke
:

to

me.

(3)

Svhject of an
He
wants

infinitive ; as
brother
to
come.

"

his

He

wants

me

to

come.

(4)

Complement of
is
He

an

infinitive copula whose

as
:
"

ject sub-

objective ;
me

thought
her.

to be

your

sister.

He

thought

me

to be

(5)

In
I I

apposition ;
saw saw

as:

"

George, George,

the him

hoy you
you

spoke of.
of.

spoke

161. may

substantive another in

in any

of the

first four it.

constructions

have

apposition with
cases.

Illustrate.

positio Ap-

applies to

all the

Illustrate.

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

57

162. verb

Direct

Object.
the

"

The

object of
as,

an

active

transitive

is called

direct Henry
The He
men

object;
buys

cattle. the
me.

will cut and

grass.

likes you

The with the

direct the Latin

but objectcorresponds closely accusative. It is therefore

not

completely
called

sometimes

accusative The

objective.
an

163.

Object of

IntraiLsitiye Verb
as

is sometimes if there
cannot

tioned men-

by undiscriminating students
such
a

could
be is

be
the

thing.
of
an

But

there

cannot.

A A
to

word verb

object
when
so

intransitive may be used

verb.
so
as

that
an

often

intransitive used

govern

object,but

it is transitive. falls on
the

The The

rain

just and
trees.

the

unjust.

(Intransitive.)

woodman

/aZZ" the

(Transitive.) is
:
"

164. similar

A in

Cognate Objective or Accusatiye

to signification
He

direct

object

the
a

verb
noble

as

lived

life. It is called
a

Life
take

is the

direct
are

objectof
a

lived.

cognate
seldoni

objective. There
any

few

verbs, like live,that

in the

but

cognate object.
a

165. The

The

Object of
should

is Preposition
over

objectivecase.
list of each

student and

read
a

a carefully

tions preposia

construct

sentence

in which is doubt
a

governs the
case

noun
a noun

or

pronoun.

When
a

there

about

of the

following
place and
may

preposition, put
the form that

pronoun In
"

in

noun's

observe

it takes.

It is for

we George^^^ noticingthe

easilysee

George
in,

is

by objective,

substituted
It is for It is for
me.

pronouns

It is for him. It is for tfiem.

us.

58

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Also, if there

is

question

as

to

whether

the

case

of

/or or the verb i", by the preposition it may be answered by omitting the preposition. Then we have It is Q-eorge^''* in which Q-eorgeis nominative, as be shown above : as by substituting may pronouns
"
"

Q-eorgeis determined

It is /. It is
we.

It is he. It is

they, verb is often

"

166.

The

Indirect
two

Object.

"

transitive

objectivesof different significations, direct object^ a denoting that upon which th" action of the verb directly terminates, and an indirect olject^ denoting different a thing that is also affected, but indirectly, by
followed

by

the

same

action

as

"

My The hook
act

teacher

gave

me

book.

of

giving
also
;
me

terminated
direct is for All

directlyupon
object.
this
reason

the
same

book
act

is

therefore
me

the

But

the

affected
as

often

spoken

of

the

indirect be

object.
as

these

so-called
a

indirect

objects

should
or

parsed

the

object of
and

/or, always clearlyimplied

:
"

preposition^ usually to sometimes expressed.

pencil to
to

Thus

Give I sent She

him my

your

pencil
a

Give
I sent

your
a

him, my

friend
the

present
9,

present
a a

friend. girl. boy.

the

made

girl
a

dress

She

made

dress

for the
to

I asked

the

boy

question that

I asked

question

objects allow, ask, bring,buy, get, give, leave, lend, make, offer, are pass, pay, present, promise,refuse, send, show, sing, teach,
are

The

principalverbs

followed

by

indirect

tell, throw, and

The dative. 167. When
to
or

write.

indirect

objectivecorresponds closelyto
the
to

the

Latin

verb

teach, meaning

either

to

give

structio intwo

give instrtiction in,

is followed

by

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

59

either objectives, the Thus other

:
"

may

as

the

and parsed as the direct object^ object of a prepositionto be supplied. be

He teaches
me

**

Algebra,"

may
**

be
He

equivalentto either,
teaches

Algebra

to

me,"

or

**

He

teaches

me

in

Algebra." Oovand

168.

The

Adverbial
"

Objective
used

or

Objective without
intransitive
measure,

erning Word.
to adjectives,

Nouns denote
are

after

verbs

timcj distance,
in the
as:

value, and
without
a

similar

ideas,
word
**

often

objectivecase
"

governing

expressed;
die many

Cowards

times

before

their

deaths."

"Full We The The

fathom

five thy father

miles.

lies."

walked river
cannons

three is
a

thousand thundered

yards wider.
all

nigJa.

Such
must

substantives
be the

are

called

adverbial

objectives. They

parsed
verbs power

a^

the objectsof

for

are

not prepositions expressed, intransitive, and adjectives have no

governing
the
sentence

over

the is

case

of

substantives.
In

times Somethe last

;

preposition during ;
be third

clearly implied.
next
or

it is

in the

to

the In

last it is such be

by

in
as

the the

first it may second and

on,
no

at,

in.

sentences

preposition can
relation. Our

supplied

that does

adequately
not

expresses the the

the

language
it may

yet have
But

proper

preposition, and
the is is

never

have.

mind

thinks that

relation, and
a us

precisely
tion. preposithat in such

that kind
Of

of relation
course
no

expressed only by
he tells inserted

Abbott

right when
was

early English

prepositions were
the relation I should rather
are

before

objectives. But
as

always thought precisely

parse much such words
as

it is

now

and

the

we objectsjof prepositions

very

in need

of but

60

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

do

not

yet have, than

words. This

to

say I must

they

are

objectivewithout
is rather
a

governing
case

admit

notable is

of

thing exerting an
it is
one.

centuries influence
an

before it
not
even

lorn; but
an

by

no

means

unnatural

case,

unusual 169.
The

Besnltant followed
one

or

Factitive

Object.

"

transitive

verb

is often

The action of the is the verb's

"

direct

by two objectivesof similar significat expressing the receiver of the verb's object. The other expresses the result
is therefore called
a

action, and
Cigarettes have
We Simon

resultant

object; as:

made her

him

an

idiot.

appointed
he

leader, Peter.

surnamed

Such
not

words

should

be

parsed
but in

as

resultant

appositives^
"

objects of verbs objects. A verb cannot

connective. Since

apposition
two

with

the

direct

govern

resultant
are

objectsnot joined by a objects always follow verbs

sometimes called

signifying to mdke^ they

objects.
170. The finite
an

factitive
Just

Objective Subject of
takes its

an

Infinitive. the

"

as

a so

verb

subject in

nominative in the verb

him her ;

case,

requiresits subject to be infinitive unless it is also the subjectof a finite

"

case objective as :
"

We

want

George
Iva

to

go."
mistaken."

**

We

want

to

go."
mistaken."

**

They Some

think

to be

**They think that verbs such and such the

case
a

to be

erroneously

suppose

words
not

are

governed
the ing follow-

by

the

preceding
we

transitive

by

infinitives.

The

fallacyof
that is

position becomes

apparent when
when

observe infinitive

changes
a

to

native nomi-

the

replaced by
verb remain

finite verb,

although the preceding transitive

as:
"

unchanged

**We

think

Iva

is mistaken."

or

**

We

think

she is mistaken."

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

61

The

construction

is

common

in

the

Latin

and

Greek

languages, and is recognized by all English grammarians deserving the name. the subject of an When infinitive is also the subject of
a

finite

verb, it is nominative
George
wants to go.

as

"

He

wants

to go.

171. The

ObjectiveComplement
"

of

an

Infinitive

Copula whose

Subject is Objective.
noun or

The
as

rule, correctly stated, is, "-4

verb complement of a copulative this rule
a

pronoun
same case

used
as

the

is in the
one

its

To subject.^^

there

is the

exception. When

the

mbject of

copulative participle
as :
"

is

its complement is nominative; possessive^

John's

being

lawyer made

his services

valuable.

The

rule

itself

appliesto
Case;
as:
"

The

Nominative
We We

thought George thought Absolute

a

was

Tom,

she

was

he.

The

Nominative

Case;
we

as:

"

George being

lawyer^
we

employed
him.

him.

George being he, The

employed

Case; Objective
We We

as:

"

thought George thought also

her

to

be him.

Tom.

to be

This and
not

construction
to be

is

common

in

other

languages,
always
Thus in

dispensed
of when
an

with

in

English.
copula
is not

The

complement

infinitive its

but only objective,

subject is objective.
a

Henry
You

tries to be

teacher.
to be

were

thought

he,

the

complements

are

nominative.
"

172.

Objective in Apposition. Apposition is the

a

use

of

substantive^without

connective

element^

to

modify

another

62

OBAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

in the

same

case

and

of the
Case:
the

same

Apposition signification.

appliesto
The Nominative
"

Peter, The Nominative

doctor^ came

Absolute Peter,
the

Case:

"

doctor^ come
"

here

The

Possessive

Case:
Peter the

doctor^

horse

is sick ;

The

Case: Objective
We
sent

"

for

Peter,

the

doctor.

Observe

that

the

explanatory
Passive
an

term

is the

one

in

sition. appo-

173. The voice

cannot

Object of
govern
an

Verb." Its

verb

in the

passive
the

object.

subject represents
as,

receiver When

of

action. verb
"God

the

in all such

sentences

called the firmament

heaven,"

is

changed

to

the of

passive voice, it
the active resultant

becomes the the

copulative,the

direct

object

becomes

subject
active

of

the

passive,and
the

the

object after
after the

becomes

attributive

complement

passive.
have, "The
course,

Thus,

in

changing
ment
are was

called to the called

passive voice, we

jiriwanouns

heaven^'^in which, of
case.

both

in the And

nominative the verb

"He

when

in such
gave

sentences
me a

as,

[to]

dollar^'^'*

is

changed
should

to

the

passive voice,
the then remain

the

direct

object in

the the

active indirect
;

become

subject

in the the

passive,and

object would
as :
"

object of
by
him."

its preposition

"A

dollar

was

given [to]

me

PROPERTIES

OF

NOUNS.

63

This have

is easy, it.

and

it is tbe

way

all

grammarians
nominative

would

But, unfortunately for the

and writers often make the the

grammarians, good
form
;
as :
"

speakers
the

of

indirect

object the subject of

**

passive verb
"

was

given

dollar.

In

such after

cases,

the

original direct object remains

but
our

tive objec-

the
to

passive verb,
parse it. is It
no

we

attempt
be

passive verb,
can

and

there

begins when be the object of the cannot appropriate prepositionthat

trouble

supplied. In such cases, about all we can say is, that the noun without is idiomatically or objective^ objective grammatical construction^or again, the objectof a preposition
we

do not

yet have, but greatlyneed.

It
as

Such
not

disposition
the

is not peace,

entirelysatisfactory.
but that
no

does
comes

bring perfect
from
ance assur-

only
one

such

consolation

likelyto do better. 174. Objective by Enallage. By a figureof speech called is sometimes enallage the subjectof a participle given the
else is
"

objectiveform
usage
sentence

when
not

it should be

have

the

should
a :

encouraged, for
different from

possessive. This it always gives the

the
one

meaning
is
no

intended.

Thus

"

**

There

harm

in the

man

sittingon

the

counter,''

expresses
"

an

different entirely
is
no

thought
sittingon should

from
the

There

harm

in the

man's

counter."

What
175.

is the

difference?
of Nouns.

When

each

be usedf

Declension

SINOULAB.

PLUBAL.

Nominative. Possessive.

Boy.

Objective.
(a)
form
to

Boy's. Boy.
English Only
nouns

Boys. Boys'. Boys.

have but little variation
a

It will be

observed

that
cases.

in

distinguishtheir

the

possessive has

distinct

form.

.64

ORAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

PAESma 176. To parse classes any and word

OP is to

-HOUHS.

give, in order,

its

part of

speech, its
or

sub-classes, its properties,its ernment govconstruction, and the rule applying to its construction.
may

Rules but the

commonly
often

be referred

to

by number,

full.

require them to be stated in to its appropriate rule exercises Referring a construction of generalization mental the same as citing process
teacher should authorizes
a

the proposition that

demonstration. 177.

certain

step in

rical geometness, neat-

Parsing
of

affords

good opportunity to
Some in be vrritten

teach be

carefulness, and
but
most

accuracy.

of it may

oral,

it should and

ink, with

correct

punctuation
178. A

capitals.
amount

parsing is excellent, but be easily overdone. It is not it can nearly so helpful as exercises in constructing original septences to illustrate But parsing is easier,and should constructions. specified
reasonable

of

always
179. 1. 2. 3.

come

first. for

Model

Parsing Nouns.
4. 5. 6.
never

Species.
Class. Sub-class. Wise
n.,
men

Person. Number. Gender. time.

7. 8. 9.

Case.
Construction. Rule.

(1)
Men^
waste^

waste

com.,

class, third, plu., mas.,

nom.,

subj. of
of

R.

I.
n., com.,

2?me,
wa%te^
(a) 180. R.
See

class, third, sing.,neut.,

obj.,obj.

IV.
Bules
on

page

234.
nouns.

Parse

the italicized
Tender The
men

(1)
(2)

sometimes

have

strong loills.

beauty of her disposition is its cheerfulness.

PARSING

OF

NOUNS.

65

(3)
(4)

bent

twig
seeks
set
a

makes

crooked
a

tree.

Water

its levels and

loafer

companion.
moments

(6) Boys, precious (6) (7)

his "on*d

high price

on

your

leisure

; they

are

sands

of

groZd.
One Give

day
John

ran

mile best

through

the

woods. \m

your

cjTorto and

father

will

make

your

brother

asdis^an^.

(8) (9)

Smith
The

was

chosen
wants

secretary
Charles
to

of be

the

c^a^s.

c2u"

its leader.

(10) George

wishes

to

be

our

leader.

181. (1)
nouns.

Beyiew
Define
a

of Nouns.
noun.

(2)
do
we

A have when

substantive. these
a

(3)
classes?
noun

Name

the

classes

of

(4)
Explain
when
nouns a

Why
ajid
common

(5)
becomes Name
two

Define

each.
common,

(6)
and of of

illustrate
noun.

proper proper.

becomes

(7)
the the do

the

properties
methods
names

and

define

each.

(8)
a

Explain
talk
on

general
of have proper
?

forming
by

plurals.
titles.

(9) (10)

Make What and

plurals
nouns

preceded

genders
sex.

(11) gender

tinguish Disof

carefully
collective and
nouns.

gender

(12)
classes

Explain
of

in

full

the

(13)
the

Name

the

substantives.

(14)
(15)
Name and

Name and trate illus-

illustrate the

dependent

nominative

constructions.

illustrate the is

nominative

absolute

constructions.

(16)
Tell how

Name the

three

possessive
and

constructions.

(17)
Name
a

possessive
of from the the

formed,

singular
constructions. of
a

plural. (19)

(18)

and
noun

illustrate in

each

objective complement apply? (22)

Distinguish (20)

apposition
does

copulative
what full of
an case

verb.

To

what of

cases a

apposition
verb? ject. object Obtwo

(21) Explain

In
in

is

the

complement
each verb, of
the

copulative
:

and

illustrate

following

(a)

Direct

(Jb) Object
of
a

intransitive

(c) Cognate (/)

Verbs

objective,
that
a

(d)

preposition, {g)
Adverbial

(e)

Indirect
or

object. objective subject

govern

objects, (h)

objective

without of
an

governing

word.

Resultant

object.
of
a an

(/) Objective
infinitive verb,

infinitive,
in

tive (j) Objecapposition. (23)

may be Show made

complement (I) Object

what of is meant of

copula. (w)
of

(Jc) Objective by

passive
the

Objective
nouns.

enallage.
use

by

declension

(24)

What

parsing

66

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

THE

PRONOUN.

182. my book.

(1)
Who
We

The

man

told

me

that

hh

wife

left her pen

in

(2)
183.
are

took
see

the that

money the

that you

had

?^ in these
sentences

italicized

words

used
are

substantively without
Pronouns.
Pronoun

naming

objects.
to

Such

words
184.
an

is the

part of speechthat is used

it. used

nate desig-

without object A
Pronoun

naming
a

Or,
instead

185.

is

word

of

noun.

GLASSES 186. Pronouns To avoid

told

OF three

FSOITOnirS.
uses
:
"

have the

(1)
**

of repetition
that
**

nouns;
write

as:

"

Alexander his

Elizabeth of
name

she

might

her

name

in her that

book

with

pen*^;

instead

Alexander

told book

Elizabeth with

Elizabeth

might

write

Elizabeth's

in Elizabeth's

Alexander's

pea"

These

are

Personal
a

Pronouns.
as
:
"

C2)
Who

To
came

ask
?

question ;
can

What

she

do

These

are

Pronouns. Interrogatiye
a

(3)
The This

To dog,

join
which

modifying
a

clause

to

an

antecedent
his
owner some

as

"

was

costly animal,
the
cat.

caused

anxiety.

is the

dog

that

worried

These 187. 188.

as:

are

Belatiye

or

Conjunctiye Pronouns.
is whose

We A
"

have, therefore, three classes of pronouns.

Personal
Pronoun
one

form

shows

its person;

or

toe or

is

always firstperson always

; thou^ you,

or

ye is

always

second

person

he, she,

it is

third person.

CLASSES

OF

PKONODNS.

67

189.

An

Interrogatiye
in
?
a

Pronoun
as
:
"

is

one

used

as

the inter

word rogative
Who
are

question ;
are

you

What

you

190.
a

Belatiye

or

Conjunctiye Prononn
;
as :
"

is

one

that joins

clause My
The The The

to its antecedent
which that
was was was

horse,
horse
woman,
woman

sick, trayelled
sick died.

slowly.
resented the criticism.

who that

impulsive, quickly
needs much
on

is

impulsive

time

for regrets. better

one.

(a)
very

The

term

*'

conjunctive^^ is
it is retained

the

Belative

is not
in

significant ;

only

account

of its

long standing

the grammars.

191.

The

Antecedent

of

pronoun It is be
a

is the

substantive
noun^
as,

for
the
;

which
lost

the pronoun
his

is used. but it may

usually

as, John

pencil ;
is the
as.

phrase^

To

pay

debt^which
or a

only honorable
That
the clerk

way
was

out, will be diflSeult

clause^
for
us

dishonesty which
;

was

hard his

to

believe, has been

now

proved

He

has given up

course

of study and
antecedent of
a

regrets it.
is sometimes such
a

(a)
Who dishonest

The

relative could else. pronouns

another
statement

pronoun
?

; as,

thai, is

honest strictly every and

one

make

He

that

is

suspects
Personal

(6)

relative

follow

their
come

antecedents before

in

tences sen-

not

inverted, but
as:
"

sometimes

in poetry

they

their antecedents;

**

Can Back

storied

urn

or

animated call the

bust

to its mansion

fleetingbreath
its antecedent
in
noun

*'

(c)
modifiers it bum."
as

In

thought,
; as,
**

pronoun

represents

with

all

its
saw

saw

the

most

beautiful
in

residence the

the

city, and
be

But

for convenience

parsing, only

may

named

the

antecedent.
The

(d)
therefore
are

antecedent the

of

an

interrogative
Here the

pronoun

follows and the

it, and
wrote

is

called

subsequent.
; as.

pronoun

subsequent
the

in different

sentences

Who

wrote

the

Iliad ?

Homer

niad.

(e) gender.

pronoun

agrees

with

its antecedent

in

person,

number,

and

68

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

THE

FERSONAIi

PRONOUNS.

192. person; the

There thou

are
or

six you of

personal
these of has

pronouns and

for

the
or

first
it for

for the

second;
its ye the

he, she,

third.
we

Each is the

corresponding plural.
thou;
you is either

Thus,
Each

plural
and

I;

of

singularor plural ;
cases,
as

they is
forms

has, also, different

is shown
are

plural of he^ she^ or it. ferent corresponding to the dif198.

always
for
or

by
called

the

declension. Article
because stand for their form

(a) Tfiese
shows do
not.

pronouns ; not

their person It and

because stand

personal they always

for persons,

for persons^ brute

they
for

they

may

animals,

inanimate

objects,
You should
was now or more

(6)
but
it

originallyonly plural, and

be

still
or

requires

plural verb
as

regarded
than
one,

as

singular

plural according
Thou

it

repiresents one

(c)
its the of the the

Thou
ye

is the
are

original second
common use

person among in
or

singular
the

pronoun.
or

and in

plural
Bible

still in

Friends,
and

Quakers, poetic

and

other
; but

sacred in all

writing, and
and

antiquated writing, you

for either the
the

forms

expression

ordinary speech

is used

in both for the

some

singular and

the

plural. Thy,
and

thine

possessive,thee
nominative
seem or

objective, and
used
to

thyself for emphasizing

like thou
an

objective,are
time have literature.

ye.

These

pronouns

also

at

acquired
At Walter

still insulting signification,

traceable

in

our

Raleigh's trial,Lord
insulted the
at

Coke,

having

failed
him

with

argument
**

and Lord
thou

evidence,
Cobham traitor."

defendant

by thouing

thus,
; for

All

that

did,

was

thy instigation,thou
used instead but
are

viper

thou

thee,

(d) Mine,
your,
one

thine,

yours,

ours,

theirs, hers
noun

are

of my,

thy,
cff

our,

their, her when

does
not

the

limited that
not

is

omitted, They

the

parsing

form

differ from

of

the

other.

all

personal illogical
are

pronouns
U)

in the
a

possessive
class

case,

possessive pronouns. possessive pronouns,

unless
we

It is

make

separate

for the

so-called in case, for

we

which

like all other

also basis for the

personals except
nominative,
and

make If

a we

separate
make
reason

class
case a

one

the

objective.
have and the

for classification

of pronouns,
to person, the

shall

just as good gender.

and Its
We

for
no

classifyingthem
pronouns

according

number,
and

have

representing
/ is the

**both

possessor of the

thing possessed."
should

(e)
used
my
or

singular pronoun speaker

its refers
to

first person, alone.

always
form

be is

when

the and

himself is
me.

possessive

mine,

objective form

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

69

(/)
used,
with refers
"

We

is the
When

plural
the

pronoun
or

of

the

first person,
to

and
as

should

be

(1)
to

speaker
or

writer

refers When of
a

himself the

associated
or

some

other himself

person
as

persons;

(2)

speaker
latter

writer

the

representative
or

class, school, doctrine,

The is known of the
or as

people, community,
the

section, state,
we,
use

nation. it is
an

editorial, or
himself
form

representative,

and

exhibition of

bad

taste

and

unpardonable
to

ignorance only.
is
us.

to

it instead of

/, when
is
our

speaker
and

refers its

The

possessive form

we

ours,

objective (jg) They

she

often

refers used

to

persons in the She

same

indefinitely ;
way. knows
"

aa,

**

They

say."

He

and

are

sometimes
a

He

that how

wilfullyinjures
to

another and

is

bad
never

man." make

**

that

merely

dress, dance,

will flirt,

good
has

wife."
no

(A)
need

The

English language
an(^
common

personal
and shall

pronoun
we

of the third
are

person, much
cessful unsuc-

singular number,
of one,

gender,
that
we

although
ever

very Some

in

it is not have

probable
been the

have word

it.

attempts one,^^
*'

made

to

adopt

the

thon, from
and

^Hhat
as,

but

usage

sanctions wishes

masculine
to

forms, he, his,

let him

him;

If any

person when

to contribute

this cause,

drop

his money

into

the hat

he hears

his

name

called."

(i)
son, to

Peculiar

Uses

of It. and

"

It is

personal
**

pronoun

of the like other the

third

per-,

singular number,
a noun

neuter

gender.
it agrees

It is used

pronouns

represent
it to

with
But

which

; as,

He
"

bought

book

and

gave

me."

it has
names

also

peculiar

uses:

(1)
mother."

It is used

for the

of

infants;
verb
^^

as, "The

child

stood

by its

(2) he";
In
name
"

It is used

as

the and

subject

of the
as,

to

be, followed
; **7it is

by
you"

ment comple; **7iC is

in any "/(is such

person

number;

It is I"

we";
sentences

"JMsthey";
the antecedent

"Whoisii^"
is not the

"What

is i"?" but the

; as,

predicate pronoun, by
the

of "the

understood object not given, but definitely that

as we

speaker
which
;
^^

It

(the thing by

see)

is he."

(3)
followed

It is used their

the

grammatical
as,
"

subject
"

of

certain

verbs

are

logicalsubjects ;
; "I
as

It is human understood of the

to err^^

It is evident

that In such
or

he is mistaken
cases

wish the

it to be

that I did my and the

best^

parse

it

subject
it.

verb,

following obviously designate

in

phrase (4) (5)

in any as,
"

clause, in apposition with

to

It is used

represent
used
state /( rains

an

antecedent
it

not in

expressed

but

understood

; as, "Princeton

makes

(a mile)
what of the

2.19|."
cannot
a or

It is sometimes other way

" :

to denote
or
"

speaker

the
"

condition
;
"

things,
o'clock."

point

time

/i{thunders

/( is two

70

6RAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(j) Owr'w, your^n, his'n, her^n,

too not

we

uns, that

and
uses

you

uns

are

barbarisms should

gross bother

to

be

mentioned. about
two
or

Any
grammar.
more

one

such

expressions
the the

himself

(A;) In
person
as
:
"

using

pronouns the

of second the

different should honors.

persons,

third third
;

should

precede
You,

the

and first, and

precede

he,
of

I received

But

this

is

matter

courtesy,
the order

not

of

grammar.
pronouns to as, *'I

The be and

same

rule if

of
we

politeness would
wished
the
use

require
in
an

of the

reversed you

to

speak
'*

uncomplimentary
one

way; be either

deserve he

blame.

Of

course,

should he may

never

impolite, neither
or

should

profane language grammatical

; but

do

both

without

violating

any

construction.

SUB-CLASSES

OF

FERSONAIi

PRONOUNS.

193.

Personal

pronouns

have

two

sub-classes:

Simple and
he, she, it,

Compound,
194. and The

simple personals
declined
forms.

are

/, thouy you^

their The

195.

compound personals are

myself,thyself, yourself,

themselves. himself,itself, ourselves, yourselves, herself, in use They have two principal uses : (1) a reflexive in the nominative the objective intensive use case ; (2) an the objective case. This second is merely for use or. emphasis. 196.
The
saw

bear him

hung himself.
do it. in

The

house

was me.

divided

against itself. I, myself,

You,

yourself, told

(a)
form
**

Sometimes alone that

poetic or antique
nominative;
was some

forms
as,
^^

of

expression
smi

the

compound
"

stands
out

in the

Myself
"

hell."
But

Milton.

Giving

himself only

great one."
with the

Acts. another

ordinarily
as,

it is nominative

when
;

in
or

apposition
is used
as

nominative,
of
a

"She,
as,
"

herself,is coming"
She is not

complement
instead thee
'*

copula,

herselfa,ny
the

more." is used "Make

as,

(")
as, **6et

Sometimes thee wood." the

simple personal
behind such
as

of the

'Compound
an

(thyself)
But
in

me."

(thyself)

ark

of

gopher
to

expressions

Haste

thee,^^ it is better
thou.

regard
"
* *

objective thee
is sometimes
own

idiomaticallyused substantively ;
as,

for the nominative

**

(c) Self
self.

used
' '

He

is

great lover of

My

self,

etc.

CLASSES

OF

PBONOUNS.

71

(d) place,"

It

seems

to

have

an

adverbial
to
**

constniction
very
were same

in,

**

The

self same they

which

is

equivalent hisself and

is

The

place."
common

(c) Formerly
now

theirself

in

use, but

are

obsolete.

Ourself

peculiar to

the

regal style.

197.

Properties of Pronoims. relative,or

"

Pronouns,
the
same

whether

sonal, per-

have interrogative,

properties
have also

as

nouns,
same

"

Person, Number,
as

Gender, Case.

They

the

constructions Declension

nouns.

198.

of the Personal (1)

First Person.
plural.

Pronouns. (2)
singular.

Second

Person,
plural.

singular.

(a)
never

The lose

pupil sight

should

fix the fact that

declension the

firmly

in

mind,

and

should the

of the

object of declension different persons^

avoid all
"

is to

show

differentforms
and
cases.

corresponding

to the

numbers^
in the
use

genders^
of the

Knowing by mastering
and with

this,he
a

may few There

errors

pronouns

very

rules,
is
no

especiallyRules
other
can

I.,II.,III.,
to
use

IV., v., VI., VII.,

pronoun
any
a

XIV.

way

to

learn

the

degree of
declines

assurance. a

It he

never

be done

by imitation,
to
or use

(6)
case

When in

pupil

pronoun, to

should any
to

be

allowed

each

form

sentence,
teacher

and thinks

illustrate

nominative

objective

construction

the

it advisable

call for.

199. 1. 4.

Model

for

Parsing
Class.
or

Pronouns. 3.

Species.
Antecedent

2.

Sub-class.

Subsequent.

72

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

5. 6.

Agreement
Case. The John 7.

in

(a) Person, (6) Number,

8. Rule.
we

(c) Gender.
his.

Construction. took
come

boy
has

your and

top and

took

I like him,
name

Your^

pro.,

per.,

simp., antecedent,

of the
it agrees

person in

or

spoken to, with which R. singular or plural,com.,

persons limits

second,
and

XIV.,

poss.,

top^ R. VIII.

We^ pro.,

per.,

simp., ante.,
R.

name

of the persons which it agrees

represented
in

by

the

speaker,with
XIV,
nom.,

first, plu.,
I.

com.,

subj. of took^ R.
name

-Hi*", pro., per., simp., ante.,

with poss., which and it agrees limits

of the

person

spoken of,
R.

in

third,sing., mas.,

XIV.,

Him^

top^ R. VIII. it agrees in pro., per., simp., ante., John^ with which R. XIV., obj., third, sing., obj. oilike^R. IV. mas.,
Write
the

parsing of italicized pronouns^ observing the italicized and spelling. Parse orally punctuation^ capitals^ Read and to the teacher nouns. class^grammar authority constructions, on questionable
(A)
adored. 5. Ours 1. 4.
are

200.

We
I
as

think.

2. will yours,

She

prattles.
me

3. I

Thou

art

hope good
loss.

you
'e^

give
4.

the book
must
moon

lent you, selves yourcometh 9.

to

You the

blame
;

for forth that 11. in honor He

your her
me^

7. Behold 8. He

she I,

beauty.
I I
was

is taller 10. She

than

Them blame.

will honor. she,

for flowers, them
me

herselfis

thought
1. JMs
it, too

(B)
knows
to be
a

early
wanted

2. She
me

is very chairman.

beautiful 4. He desired
the

and

she

3.

He

to

elect
to

wanted him
to

preacher^
She

but

he wanted him
8.
a

be

tailor.

5. She
that

go.

6.

compelled
10. He

to go.

7. And
a

methought
9.

lighthouse
him
I to

looked

lovely as Hope. being

I 12. 1 14.

He

is

good boy.
we

We

believe him.
11. you,

be

good hoy.
he
was

good hoy^
him
to be
to

do

not

fear

thought
try

you.

thought
was

you. you.

13. He

being

I must

to like him.

supposed

be

CLASSES

OF

PBONOUNS.

73

201.

Fill

the

blanks

with

he, she, him, her, I,

your John
not

or

me,
:

and

give the
1. 3.

number and

of the

rule that governs may go. go. 2. 4. that 6. that

ate

selection and

John John

May
Let

go ?

Let

and
on,
.

boast
it off.
to me,

that He

puts his
calls
no

armor

but

takes
cometh oranges 9.

5.

May
were was

and
out.

I will in
was
.

wise If I
;

cast

7.

Who

the

? it

It

8. No 11.

1 would 10.
.

resist.

Was

1 and

saw

?
.

it

They

came

with them.

Harry
12.

Harry
and

and
to

came

with

She

wants

be

good.
not

13.

O,
And

no,

my

child, 'twas
that kills
a

in war. his
are

singleman
;
we

neighbors all abhor.

running.
15. He

14.

Look

at

Lucy
to

and
.

thought
I make be
.

be the
was

16.

that 17.
to

overcometh, will

pillarin
18. He

temple.

We

thought
.

him

to

thought

be
:
"

Fill blanks 1. but

or

with we,

ns,

to rules they,and them, referring

That

is whom

good
he
were

for seeks chosen

to

Americans.

2. 3. told who Did

It is not you say and pure throw

are

please.
4. Let touch you She

that

? 5.
none

Helen
are

boys
the clean. have
want

to

speak plainly.
6.
was

first stone. 7. been ? It

Let

it but
saw.

who 8. Could did

whom did the

it he

who

mischief

9.

Whom

girls.
INTEBBOGATIVE PRONOUNS.

202.

There

are

two

interrogativepronouns,
classed of who The among and the what. that

who

and

what.

(a) Which
but

is also

commonly
from
or

interrogativepronouns,
Which
noun

its
a

use

is different of

refers referred book

you

to

one

of

number

persons
or

things.

particular
; as,
"

to

is

always expressed
want?"
**

definitely understood
the

Which will

do

you

"I

want

large book."
It will be

""Which

[hat]
the

take?"

The

cheapest [hat]."

observed

also that

responsive word

74

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Is not
as an

noun,

but

an

adjective.

Which

in such

sentences

should

be

parsed

adjective. interrogative

203. 204.

Who

and

what

are

used

less

than definitely that

which. the word

Who
to

is used

when the when

it is
name

supposed
of
a

answering
205.

it will be is used

person, word

What
to
is

it is
name

answering
(a)
"

it will be the
an

supposed that the of anything else.

a noun

What
horse

adjective when
"

it is

immediately precedes
never

; as,

What

shall I ride ?

Who

used

adjectively.

206.

Declension

of the

InterrogativePronouns.
Who. Whose. Whom. of
an

Nominative, Possessive.
"

What. Whats. What.

Objective.
case

207.
are

The

and
same

constmction
as

interrogativepronoun

always
as,

the
"

that
?
"

answer;

TTAo

came

responsive word in the ''TFAoisit?" "6reor^e came."

is it?"
" "

of its

"It

is

''Whose Gf-eorge:'
"

book ?

"It wanted
same

is

book." 208. the

Whom

did

he

want

He

George's George.''
in has in the

word Every interrogative

as answers

has the

construction

sentence interrogative sentence

the

declarative (a) (6) (c)

either This

that

word responsive the question.

Let ask found
a

rule will be found kind

very

useful.
can

the

pupils illustrate

it

by

applying
An

it to every

of word

that is
never

question.
in the nominative absolute

interrogative pronoun
is
never

case, and
An

in

apposition.
has
no

interrogativepronoun
or

compound

forms,

but

may

be

direct

indirect.

THE

INDIRECT

INTERROOATIVE.

"

209.

These

same

words, who
to

and

what,
to

are

often

used

in

substantive
as :
"

clauses, not

ask, but

imply, questions;

(1) (2)
(3)

I know I know He

who who
me

discovered took what the

America. teacher's pen.

asked

I wanted

CLASSES

OP

PRONOUNS.

75

210.

In

all such

sentences

who

and

what

are

indirect

interrogative pronouns.
211. An Indirect clause have and what
to

Interrogative Frononn

is

one

used

in

substantive 212. Some

imply a question. proposed to avoid

relative for pronouns the

this

distinction

by
position disan no

callingwho
But the

in such

sentences.

slightest regard
impossible.
A
to
a

thought
these

makes

this

relative pronoun

always joins
pronouns have clauses.

adjectiveclause
connective
cannot

substantive;
are

force
that
not

and the

used

in

substantive of who is

We

say does

antecedent "I
now means

understood, for

(1)

mean,

know

America."

No

one

discovered [the man] who make such livingcan truthfully that from

statement, unless
the
not

he

history he
discovered
who

has learned is

character

of Columbus. "I "I know know

But who

certainlythis thought
America." took

expressed by,
does

Nor

(2)
pen."
a

mean,

[the boy]
give
no we

the

teacher's

This fellow
"

would

information, for he
all know. Or if it

is doubtless is insisted

pupil, whom

[the boy] who took the teacher's a a pen," expresses possible thought, and it does, even beginner will readilysee that the thought is not the one
expressed
213. relative when the it Nor in "I
can

that

I know

know what

who in

took such is into

the

teacher's
as

pen."
be called pronoun preserve be
so panded. exa

sentences
a

(3)

pronoun.
can

What

double the

relative and

be

expanded
;

thing that
in

meaning

intended in

but

what who in

(3)

cannot

What

(3)

and

(1) and (2) are

or

indirect

interrogative pronouns.
214.
Here
are

the

Tests.
a

"

Who

what

as

direct

rogative interin
or

pronoun either what

a as

asks

direct
or

questionand
substantive

may

be used Who

principal sentence
an

clause.
never

indirect

interrogative pronoun
is

asks^ but
in
a

and a always implies^ question^

always used

substan-

76

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

tive clause.

Who

as

relative pronoun

is

always

used What

in
as

an a an

adjectiveclause^ which
relative pronoun antecedent into fhe (a)
No No

it joins to its antecedent.

"

is and

always double^
a

is
"

to equivalent

both

part

relative part^

and

can

be

expanded

thing that.
interrogative "word,
is needed declension for
a

direct

or

is indirect, clause.'

ever

connective.

connective

substantive indirect

(6)
as

The

of the

interrogativepronouns
each

is the in
a

same

of the

direct

interrogatives. Illustrate^ using

clause three

form

sentence.

(c)
be used

The

substantive
one

containing the
nominative
or

indirect

interrogativemay

in any

of the

five

objective constructions.
is the

Illustrate.

(d)
in the

The

construction
as

of the indirect would be that

interrogative pronoun
of
a

same

implied question
were

the

direct
or an or

interrogativeif the
indirect

question

asked. may

Illustrate. in any

Either of the

direct

tive interroga-

pronoun

be used

nominative

tions objective construc-

except

apposition.

Illustrate.

215.

Parsing of InterrogativePronouns.
Who
He is he ? asked who
was

(1) (3)

(2)

What
the

do

you

think

she has ?

behind

door.

TTAo, pro., inter.,direct, subsequent, the

in the per., R.
answer

responsive complement

word in

to

the

question, with
R.

which

it agrees of

num.

and

gen.,

XIV.,

nom.,

f",

VI. pro., the

What^
in

inter.,direct, subsequent, the responsiveword

to

answer

the

question, with
R.

which

it agrees

in

per.,

num.

Who^ pro.,
in the

obj.,obj. of Aa", R. IV. inter.,indirect,subsequent,the responsive word

gen.,

and

XIV.,

answer

to
num.

the

implied question,
and gen., R.

with
nom.,

which

it

agrees
was^

in per., I.
an

XIV.,

subj. of

R.
When

(a)
for the

interrogative pronoun
verb
to be

is used

as

the

subject

of

verb

it but

generally requires the

convenience the

of the third

person,

singular number,
as

interrogative may

always

be

parsed

agreeing

with

responsive word.

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

77

216.

Write
each
came

whether

parsing of italicized worda^ is direct or indirect. interrogative

with

the

and

tell

(1) Who (2) (4) (6) (6) (8) (9)

Island
was

you you A

? ?

To

whom

did

speak
?

(3) What
Who Who What

is he? is in the is that is your

are was

blacksmith.

garden opinion
what

? of

good
you,

nature

? what do
you want
was

(7) Who
Who

you, the

have

and ?

done

first President

Washington
Island ? The

the

first President.

Who

was

the

founder

of

Rhode

founder

of

Rhode

Roger
Who Who What What

Williams.

(10)

is your \s it? would would you her her

guest ?

(11)
(12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

a a

man man

give give
came

for his soul ? his soul ?

us

for ?

Can Ask Ask

guess what whom

who she she

wants wants

to be.
see.

to

217. number (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Fill

the the

blanks each

with

suitable

pronouns,

giving the

of

rule
he

illustrates,
?
am

did do do do

inquire for
say think think wish that
me

men

you you

to be

? ?

to
to

be

me

does The Do Can Could You

she

be ? you think
we me are

question,
you you you will know guess

do he he

to be ?

has

been

answered.

thinks

? ? you
were

thought
he she

it

was

imagine
never

thought

?
to be.

know

guessed

you

BELATITE

OR

CONJUNCTIVE

PRONOUNS.

218.
to

Relative
a

or

Conjimctive

Frononn
; as,
"

is A

one man

that

joins
is in

its antecedent will be

limiting clause

fhat
was

honest very

bad

respected." "The buggy, condition,brought a good price."

which

78

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

219. what. their

There

are

five relatives
not

"

who, which, that, as, and

person and number
"

They
form,
as

do may I You He

show
seen

their from

by.

be

the

following:

that went She

to

town^ etc.

They
We

by the relative clause, is the antecedent. called It is usually a noun or personal but it may To stay be a phrase or a clause^ as, pronoun^ be to acknowledge his inabilityto do would which away^
220. The substantive
"

limited

the

work, would
closed
an

keep

him

from

being
the

selected
"

"

;
or

"

The

hoy
be

the

door^ which
been

darkened
as

room;

it may for

interrogative pronoun;
has
ever

"TTAo
It

that

has
never

asked

bread

refused?"

is

another

relative. 221.
or

The

antecedent

is may

commonly
sometimes

in the be

nominative

case

the

objective;but
;
as
:
"

in the

nominative

absolute

^^John, who

had
"

been

promised

the

position,having

declined

it,they,

give
or

it to

me

;
as :
"

the
'*

possessive ;
thou the

Be His

first true

merit waits

to

befriend

;
"

praise is lost, who

doctrine is not

till all commend." his that

sent me."

Pope,
"

**

My

mine,
OF

but

John

vii. 16.

CLASSES

BEIiATIVE

PRONOUNS.

222.

There and

are

three

classes

of

relatives:

pound, Simple, Com-

Donble.

223. 224.
ever^
or

(1) (2)
and
as

The The

simplerelatives are who, which, that, and as. compound relatives are formed by annexing
to

soever^

the
no

simple relatives,who

and

which.

That

have

compound

forms.

The

compound

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

79
less definite

relatives
use

are

more

comprehensive
double

and

in their

than 225.

the simple relatives.

(3)
it is

The

relative iawlidit.
two

It is called double,
antecedent

because
a

equivalent to
The is

parts, an
of
or a

part and
or a

relative

part.
sentence

antecedent

simple
contains

pound com-

relative

always expressed
;
a

understood

in the its
own

principal

double

relative

antecedent, and parts before

what

is

always expanded thing that.

and what the he

into its two in most

equivalent
cases

it is

parsed.

It is better

to

pand ex-

into

the and

What

has also the

are

compound
into the shall that he you

forms, whatever
the

whatsoever^ which

expanded
Thus,
"

thing

whichever
"

thing whichsoever.
gave
"

sentences,
have gave want." (a)
double Whoever

I took you
''

me,"
I took any

and the

You

whatever

want,"
You

mean,

thing

me," and

shall have

thing

whichever

and

'whosoever
are

have but

been
not

erroneously
understood

treated

as

relatives.
to be

They
used and

compound,

double.
are

It is their

peculiar they

characteristic do

when

their antecedents
their

j but

not, like what

whatever, contain
form of is not the

antecedents. who Whom is also the sometimes love die

(ft) The
used when

objective

simple

relative
;
as
^'

its antecedent

expressed

gods

young." 226. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 227. (1) (2)
the The The

Personal
Both Both
Both

and
nouns.

Relative

Frononns

are

alike in

"

represent
have agree have admit
the

properties and
their

constructions in person,

of

nouns.

with
the

antecedents

number,

and

gender.

Both
Both

sub-classes, simple

and

compound.

of Declension.

Personal
relative

and
has has
a a

Relative
connective

Frononns
use,

are

nnlike

in
has

"

and

the

personal

not. person,

personal
has
not.

distinct form

for each

grammatical

and

relative

(3)
tences

The ;

personal
relative

may

be

used

in either

principal

or

subordinate

senr

the relative, only in subordinate. may be

double

(4)

The

; the

personal

cannot.

80

GRABIMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

228.

Declension

of fhe Relative
SIMPLE.

Prononns

"

DOUBLE.

Nominative, Possessive.

Who,
Whose.

which, that.

What.

Objective.

Whom,

which, that.
COMPOUND.

What.

Nominative.

Whoever,

whosoever,

whichever,

ever. whichso-

Possessive.

Whosesoever.

Objective.
(a) (6)
which. Whose That is the is

Whomsoever,

whichever, whichsoever.
or

possessive of who, which,

said
to

that. it is
aa

usually
the

be

indeclinable, but

declinable

as

(c)
used

What

as

double

and relative,

the

simple

relative

as,

cannot

be

in the

possessive. of other

229.
or

Kinds for

Objects Eepresented.

"

Who

is used "The
"

tor persons

objectspersonified;as,

architect,
goose, words who dressed ad-

who

lives

in the the

city,came
an

to

see

us." in

The

thought
Who

dog

intruder, thus

winged

him." (a)
should
never are

be

used

for

brute

animals,

or

for

inanimate

objectsunless 230. inanimate his father's is

they

personified. be
as,

Which

may

used
"

either

for

brute
was

animals

or

for with

objects ;
money,

His

horse, which
has left." own."

bought

is all he is all

"The

house^ which

heavily mortgaged,
(a) Which,
in earlier in the

they
used
"

English, was
Bible
; as,

for persons.

This
art

use

of which heaven"
;

is very but

frequent
now

Our it
was

Father, which

in

it is not

good English.

Also,

formerly

used

substantively ;

as, "In

theio^icA."

231.

That

may

be

used
"The sold
near

for persons^
man

brute is sick died

animals^
wants

or

animate in-

objects;as,
"The
tree
cow

that

food." "The

that

was

yesterday
the
corner

to-day."
house."

that

fell stood

of the

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

81

232.

Kinds

of Relative

Clauses.

"

Restrictive

and

atory. Explan-

233. the
are names

Restrictive

Clause

i"

one

that restricts
as,
"

or are

narrows

of application
better
are
"

the antecedent that "A

are

Men y
"

that Words

honest that
to
are

than

men

dishonest

nouns." The

boy

that that

will

lie is not
to this

be

trusted."
was

Washington
of the

emigrated

country

the

ancestor

Washington
has the force
"

that is called the

father

of

his country J*^ (a)

A

Restrictive

Clause
'*

of

an

adjective ;
etc.

as,

^^

honest

men,"

^''dishonest

men,"

name

words,"

lying boy,"

234.

An
or

Explanatory Clanse is
expresses
a

one

that

explainsthe
to the
one

cedent^ antetained con-

thought

as

additional
as,
are

in the

principalsentence
are

Men, who
which
are

rational

animals^

better

than

brutes,

irrational which
are

animals. the

Words,
classes. Mr.

signs of ideas,

are

divided

into

Harris, who
who the

was was

there when the

it occurred, told his

me. was

Washington,
spiritof

father of
gave

country,
to

the

Revolution, which

birth

the American

Repullic,
(a)
a

An

Explanatory
sentence.
are

Clause Thus better

me,

has

the

force

of

an

appositive written,
"

or

of

co'drdinate

the than and

first above

might
when

be

Men,
the

rational

aniihals,
Mr. This Harris

brutes,
he
was

irrational there

animals;
it occurred.

and

third,
"

told

(h)
very and

distinction very

between

restrictive
The

and

explanatory

clauses

is

difficult and illustrative

out

important.
till he

pupil should
mastered in his it.

study
He

these
must

definitions be able
to

sentences

has

point

readily the
and

relative

clauses
and he to
must
or

Reader, Arithmetic,
each
is

History,
or

Geography,
school

Physiology,
why. Also,

tell whether become

any

restrictive
on

explanatory,, and

able

to talk

any

of the
or

subjects mentioned
as

above,
teacher
to

other, using either

restrictive

explanatory clauses

the

may be

direct,and
used.

observing the direction

given

in article for the

An

relative

(c)

explanatoi^

clause, but

not

is restrictive,

set

ofE by

commas.

82

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

235. 236.

Relative That is

to be Preferred

in Each

Kind who it is

of Clanse.
or

restrictive

decidedly preferable to In modern clauses. English

clauses.
or

which used

in in

never

explanatory
237. clause. (a)
be whom
use

Who

which

must

be

used

in every

explanatory
must

When
or

relative

is needed

immediately
be
so

after
In

preposition it
case we

which^ for that cannot

form with of
a

used.
even

this
a

must

either
or

the

objective
sentence

who

or

which^

in

restrictive
; as,
*'

clause,
He

close
man

the that

preposition.
**

Either
man

is allowable whom

is the

came

or with^''''

He be
woman

is the used

with
a

I came/' clause
to

(")
beautiful

Who

may

sometimes
as,
woman

in

restrictive had
a

avoid
was

the* very

repetition of that;
"

"A

that had
a

daughter
that and
was

who

or

"

who

daughter
use

very in

beautiful." restrictive that should of

(c)
neither

Good

writers

often is

carelessly
the

who
a

which

clauses,but
be

nothing

gained by

it ; it is

violation imitated

of rule

encouraged by

grammarian

nor

by

the

student

composition. 238. As may and

"

be

parsed
same.
a man

as

relative

after used

the in

adjectives
restrictive "As has the

"w"?A,many^
clauses many
same
as

It
as

is he
were

always
is,let
me

as,

Such

try

to be."

joined the church,

What and
;

baptized."
sometimes you

"He

as peculiarities

his father."
are

239. and

whatever
as,
"

used

like which
out

whichever you
are

What

consolation
"

get
money

of that have cede prethe

nectives. con-

speech
you may

welcome

to."

Whatever

you

keep." Although these words immediately be called for they cannot adjectives^ nouns, contain sentences are evidentlyjcomplex,and must
The consolation that the
sentences mean,
"

You that

are

welcome

to
"

the You

you

get

out

of

may be
"
"

keep
double

money

whichever

you
not
^'^

speech," and have." They

their is therefore is
a a

cannot

for they do relatives^

"

contain

antecedents^

and consolation^^^

money, and

What

relative^ equivalent to which;

whatever

simple compound

relative, equivalent to whichever.

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

83

240.

Connective found in
a

Use

of

the

Relative.

"

The

relative

is

always

complex sentence,
on

and

always depends
subordinate
in
tence, sen-

for its construction which it

some

word

in the

joins to
"

its antecedent

the will the

principal.
learn," is

Thus, the sentence,

A will

boy

that is studious is called

complex.
and ^Hhat

"A is

boy

learn"

principal,
The
dent its antece-

studious^^^the
The relative

subordinate
sentence

sentence. to

relative, that^joins the subordinate

"

Joy."
a

pronoun
account

therefore of which

performs

the

office of called 241.

conjunction^on
its
more

it is sometimes

by
out

Before the the

conjunctive appropriate name, pronoun. the pupil should always parsing the relative,
its then

point

principal sentence^ naming

antecedent then the of the relative
;

subject^ predicate^
the nate subordiin

and

sentence; the subordinate Remember

relative,stating its construction

and the also its connective antecedent
use. comes on

sentence

242.

that

always
the

in the
some

and depends for its principalsentence that in the principal sentence; word
comes

construction relative

always
its
con,-

in

the
on

subordinate
word

sentence

and

depends for
sentence.

struction 243.

some

in the subordinate it may

;

As

is indeclinable;
or

be

singular or
or

plural;

masculine^ feminine^
is

neuter

nominative

objective. It

always
244.

relative

after

the

adjectivesame.
be

Technical
Ab is

Notes

that may

omitted. comparisons
in two ; but

(a)
be
seen

chieflyused
after
to

like than^ in
or

making

it may
:
"

that It may It may

as

even

such
an

many

it is used

different mentioned. of

senses

(1) (2)
a manner

refer refer
to

identical different

object previously objects, or second,

see

to two
some

classes them.

objects,in
to be
*'

such

suggest

similaritybetween
not

It is the
a

first of these
pronoun.
as were

uses,
us

the
to

that

entitles

as

called sang

relative songs the

Let called songs

**

try

this

distinction. is that she

In

She

such but songs "All

the meaning for,*' that

were as

sang, songs gave

as

not

similar,
=

identical

called received

for.

"Such
to

as"

**the
"
=

that." that

(2)

As

many

him,
are

them
same

he power
saw

received,"

etc.

(3)

*'

These

the

you

y ester-

84

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

day"
three

**
=

These should
^*

are

the

same as

that,^^ etc.
a

In

such

sentences

as

the

last
tences sen-

as as

be

parsed
of

relative bananas

pronoun.
as

But
are

in

such

I have

often
the
use

bought
as

such is
are

you

selling,for bought,
The
**

five
not

cents

dozen,**
is

entirely

difierent. similar read

I have
ones.
;

the

identical

bananas

that

you

but selliug, full it would

are

above often

sentence

evidently
bananas dozen."
an

elliptical. In
as

have

bought
five
**

such
a

[those
relates
so

bananas
not
as.

that]

you

are

Celling,for
to

cents
"

As

to

"bananas,"
is
a

but

"such." used

Such the

is

adjective ;
of

is

It

predicate adjective
And
in

as

complement

[are], and
The So
...

modifies but
not

[bananas].
so

"Milton
as

has
is

fine

descriptions of morning,
not
a

many

as a

Shakespeare," comparison,
adverbs. adverb and
in
"

evidently
of which

relative.

sentence
as are

expresses

the /S'o"

basis

is number.

responsive
as
a

introduces As is
a

the

comparison
adverb
to

and

limits of

many ;

simple

of

degree. joins
its full the

conjunctive
sentence

degree
The

it limits

[many]
expresses has

subordinate
exact

so.

sentence above

that

thought clearly implied morning,

but
not
so

in the
as

is,Milton

fine
are

descriptions
many

of

many

[the descriptions
avoid

that]

Shakespeare
It
as

[has].
well in most after should for
cases

may

be
a

to

difficult distinctions
many,

by calling
same;
but

always
teacher

relative
at

the

adjectives such,
that

and

the

least

know

the

distinctions the

exist, and
very best

when

his classes for lessons

are

prepared thought.
the pronoun

them,

they

will afford

material

in

(6) by

When
a

it is the that follows

subject
the

of

sentence,
; as
:
"

it is often

ified mod-

relative

clause

predicate

(1) (2) (3)

It is very

^^

It is the

tree

that

frightens my

horse."

'"

It is I that

calls him."

"

/i5is you

that is to blame."

common

for relative

speakers, writers,
clauses. of In
the
most

and
cases

even

grammarians belong
to

to

misconstrue

such
It

they
third
the

the

subject
instead pronoun. relative

it.

is the

antecedent should in

and relative, of
the

the verb
person

in the

ordinate sub-

sentence

therefore and
a

be number

singular,
noun or

of

agreeing
It

person
sentence

with

predicate
to

gives
the
to

the

very

different three

meaning
sentences to

construe
are
:
"

the

with intended

predicate.
be
the

Thus

the

above

dently evi-

respective
is it that is it that is it that

answers

the

questions
?
"

(1) (2) (3)

"

What Who Who

frightens your
calls him is to blame
?
"

horse

"

"

"

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

85

The it?"
verb
answer

first sentence
Then tree

could be remain
**

be

the

answer

to

the

question,
relative the
?
"

"

What

tree

is the the

would

the

antecedent

of And

the

that, and
could it would be

frightens
to the

would

unchanged
is to In
or

third Then

question,
are

Who

be

censured
case,

read,

"It the would what

is you

that

to

blame."

this

the verb construction

very

would of
to

determine the clause

construction determine
is the use

of
the

the

clause,
of

rather verb.

the Be

form

the

careful

determine
or

of
Even

the clause, and President

then

construct

your
"

sentence,

parse

it,
"

accordingly.
says the
:

Bascom

in and

his

Philosophy
recoil

of Rhetoric thaX

*^It

is this

unexpected

union

quick

of ideas

please

mind."

245. pronoun

Constrnctions may have

of

Relative of the

Fronoims.

"

A
or

relative

any

nominative It Inay

objective
be sive, posses-

constructions

except apposition.
a

also

limiting
used
as

substantive
a

of

different
a

the
use.

subjectof

participlehaving

or signification stantive dependent sub-

246. in any 247.

RememheT absolute

that

no

relative

is

ever

in

appositionor

construction,
of

Parsing

Relative that

Frononns. with his

(1)

man

is careless

business

will

lose it. which with it agrees That^ pro., rel.,simp., ante, maw, R. XIV., nom., third, sing.,mas., subj.of i",R. I. in

(2)

He

will do

such

work

as

the

man

requires.

it agrees in As^ pro., rel., simp., ante, worh^ with which R. IV. third, sing.,neut., R. XIV., obj.,obj.of requires^

(3)

Whoever

looks

for

perfection will

be

pointed. disap-

Whoever^ pro., rel.,comp., ante, R. XIV., in third, sing., mas.,

[he],with which it agrees subj.of looks^R. I. nom.,

what the I receive
=

(4)

I shall

be

satisfied with
satisfied with

I shall be

thing that

I receive.

86

QSAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

What^ pro., rel.,double,

the

thing that.
com.,

part, Thing^ the antecedent obj. of withi R. V. obj.,

n.,

third, sing.,neut.,

in it agrees with which That^ pro., rel.,simp., ante, thing^ third, sing,neut., R. XIV., obj.,obj.of receive^R. IV.

(5)

Ask Ask

for whatever for the

you

want

thingwhichever
double,
=

you ^A^

want.

Whatever^ pro., rel.,comp.,

Thing^ the
of

ante,

part,

n., com.,

thing whichever. third, sing.,neut., obj.,obj.

/or, R. V.
ante,

Whichever^ the rel. part, pro., rel., comp., which it agrees in third, sing., neut.,

R.

with thing^ XIV., obj.,

obj. of (6)

want^

R.

IV. money
was

Whatever
The money

in the
was

purse

is mine purse

whichever
to

in the

is mine. pro., which

Whatever
comp. agrees R. 248. I.

is

equivalent
not

whichever^ and
ante,

is

rel.,
it
was^

(but
in

double),

money^

with

third, sing., neut., R. XIV.,

nom.,

sub.

of

Designate each
antecedent, and
or

principal sentence,
relative. Tell

snbordinate the

tence, sen-

whether

clause

is

restrictive

explanatory, and
words^
other all

why.
and

Write

in

full the parsthe the

case

i'^ff ^f
Be

^tt italicized

give orally designated by

relative and

and

construction

of

words

teacher.

the careful to distinguish

to

donble

/rom

the indirect grammar

interrogative. Read references on

the

teacher

class

construction. questionable Death is the

sees summer

(A)
2. that that The

1.

season

that tries
not
son.

our

affections.
3. He evil

eye, which in

all

things,sees
is
a

itself.
4. said

gathereth
men

wise 5.

The

do

lives

after

them.

Whoever

it must

CLASSES

OP

PRONOUNS.

87

have little

been

misinformed.
7.
me.

6. Where 8. lives lives She in in

him
to

He
are

is

man

in whom flowers that I

to
to
see

I have that you of.

confidence.

the

promised to send 9. My brother, 10. My brother

(B)
2. This said to 6.
we

is the

lady
came came

spoke
see me.

who that
has
we

Kansas,
Kansas
once

me.

1.

Who

that

heard
are

would 3. The

ever

hear who

him
saw

again
the

is the his
a was

book

that

study.
in all
am was a a

fox,
6.

trap,

companion. dream,
an

4.

I believe
was

religionwhose
dream. the
man

origin

is divine.
to

I had
came

which

not

The

place
Whom
to

which
me

open the
on.

field.
man

7.

not

that he 9.

thought
the

to

be.

8.

He him

is not

that he 10.
we

thought
man

to be.
we

shoe

let fits, 11. He 12.

put it
man

He

is the

whom
to be.

thought

be you.

is the
**

whom
to

thought
at this

you

Who The

stops
birds

plunder
tear

signal hour,
the

shall

him,

and

dogs devour.*'
"

Pope'^8 Homer,
whichever
are

13. best.

Whoever
16.

comes

shall which that

not
saw

be
are are

admitted. the
names

14. of

Take

you

like into what whai,

22.

Words,
Words I do He you what mindful 18. 20.

signs
are

ideas,
17. 19. asked
we

divided you
see

classes. I have I have?

me

16. ?

nouns.

Do you

care

what I 23.

she did.
For

thinks.
21.

Do

know I did. all

what

He have
are

what endured attentive

Give 24.

what

please.
was

what

this ? is the Whom

I remember than

said. what
was.

25.

Fops
I heard

more

to what

showy,
the 30. he

of he

is necessary. 27.

26. what

Conscience he wanted. turned Whatever

wakes 28.
to

bitter memory

of what die

gods
took.

love

young.

29.
heart

Whatever also

she

touched 31. 33. 35.

beauty. found,
may

TFAafercr 32. go. 36. Lord

purifiesthe
Whatever 34. Whoever

fortifies it.

he he

money

I get, I will

spend.
learn. these Whoso

Whatever
Whoever of evil. himself

do,

I shall
come.

studies is
more

will, may
37. of Whom
a

Whatsoever

than 38.

cometh boasteth

the

loveth. He
and

chasteneth. wind without

false

is like clouds gift,

rain.

249. number

Fill the is
a

each rule

blank

with

who

or

whom,

hy designating
each word plied sup-

illustrated.
or

Tell whether

relative

interrogative. When

change possible^

the

verb and the finite verb in the clause to a finite infinitive the ease and construction to an of noting carefully infinitive^ both before and after the change. every substantive

88

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

EltGLISH

SENTENCE.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (16) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) 250.
la.

He

knew married

not
a a

they lady,
man,
-^-

were.

He She

they
I
?

say

is very
to be

wealthy.

married do
men

I know
am

worthless.

say

that
me

does does I
saw a

he he

think think

to be ?

to

be

me

? is to deliver is ? the oration.

man, you

1 think

do do
was

think think

that him
to
see

he

you
he

to be ?

thought
wish you
to

be ? ?
to
see

do

you

is it that He He He He is is is is
a a a a

wish I
I

? you
to

man,

thought thought

to be.

man, man,
man, you you
a a

be you.
to be

was

thought
were

you.
to be.

you

thought

did do She She

inquu^e for
wish
to
see

? ?

is not is not

lady, lady,

we

supposed
was

her

to be. to be.

she

supposed
and

Ontline

of

Substantives,Nonns,
Mary,

Fronoiins.

Classes. Noun
:

16.

name

as

James, Washington,

water,

air,farmer,
Jane

angel, world, mind,

Porter. Ic.

thought, love, brightness, Mary distinguish an

class.

Proper
Common

name

used

to

object from

others

of the

same

class.
:

2c.

One One
:

that

names

Id, 2d.

Collective: Abstract other

that of

in the
an

singular may

name as an

group

of

objects.
of
some

Name

object regarded
included
a

attribute

object.
common noun

3d. Class 26. Pronoun Personal

: :

A
A
"

not

in any
noun.

of the other

classes.

word One
:

used that

to

represent
distinct

Ic.

has

forms

for

different

grammatical
forms.

persons Id. 2d. 2c.

/, thou,

you,

he, she, it, and

selves

their declined

Simple

(Without self or
:

annexed.)
with
an a

Compound
One

(A simple personal
that may and

self or
antecedent

selves

annexed.)
matical gram-

Relative:

represent

of any
:

person,

join to

it

limitingclause

who, which,

that, as, and

Id. 2d.

what.

Simple

( Who,

tohich, that, as.)

Compound:

{Whoever,

whichever.)

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

89

3d. 4d 3c. 2a.

Double:

{What.) (Whatever.)
and what when used in Who

Compound-double: Interrogative:

asking questions.

Properties.
Person.

16.

Ic. 2c. 3c. 26.

First.

Second.
Third.

Number.

Ic. 2c. 36.

Singular.
Plural.

Gender. Masculine. Feminine.

Neuter.

Ic.
2c.

3c. 4c. 46.

Common.
:

Case

That

property

of

noun

or

pronoun
or use.

that

indicates

or

is

indicated Ic. Nominative

:

by

its construction

Id.

Dependent
means

Constructions.

(Construction in
:

grammar

always

use.)
of
a

Ic. 2c.

Subject

finite verb of
a

Sarah

and

I whose

will go.

Complement
He

copulative verb thief. thief.

a

subject
were

is nominative. He he. is possessive

was

is the
to be the

thought
were

you

he.
to be

thought
3c.

You

thought
not

Complement
:

of His

copulative participle whose

capitalist should

subject
excuse

being
Jones
:

him.

4c.

In

Apposition.
With With
a a

If. 2/. 3/.

2d.

word

the

banker

died.
my

phrase
my sentence

His

objectingto
He
to my

statement,

very

rude

act, caused
With
a

defeat.
:

came

aid just in time, thankful.

ness kind-

for which Absolute

I shall

always

be

Constructions.
: :

Ic. 2c. 3c.

By By By

direct address exclamation

George, bring
I of about
a noun

me

your

book.

Mercy
use

pleonasm something
shine

(the

before
: object)

sentence

in which

is said

its

The

stars, they shall

forever. Blair^s
a

4c.

By

inscription: planted

Bhetoric.

5c. With

(subject of)
our

participle: Spring (See

Rule

having

come,

we

flowers.

III.)
told us,
we

6c.

In

apposition : Johnson,
it.

the preacher, having

lieved be-

90

6BAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

2c.

Possessive.

Id.

Limiting
hat.

noun

of different

signification :

Brown'^s

bank.

My

2d.

Limiting
Nelson

noun

of

same

signification apposition :
=

He

read

the

senator^s

speech.

(Better, He

read

Senator

Nelson's 3c.

speech.)
transitive verb
:

Objective. Object Object

of of
a a

Id. 2d. 3d.

They
went

saw

James him

and and
to

me.

preposition :
an

She

with the

her be
a

father.
liar. We

Subject

of

infinitive him of
to
an

I believed
us.

boy

wanted 4d.

leave

Complement
We her.

infinitive
to be
a

copula

whose

subject
We

is

objective :
him
to be

thought

him

merchant.

thought

6d.

In

apposition

We

saw

Brown,

the

new

minister.

SYNTAX 251. Rule I.

"

OF
noun

SUBSTANTIVES.
or

pronoun
case.

used

as

the

svhject

verb of a finite
Coesar all that is known. be

is in the nominative
Gaul. James We and sometimes / left the

conquered

find

men

that think
we

know th"ey it would

slate where

thought only

easily found. (a)

To

this rule

there

are

no

exceptions,
case. use

and

it is the

rule

that

is

exclusively applicable to (6)

There is
no

the

nominative
error

to liability not

in the

of for

nouns

according
nominative

to

this

rule, since
the

they

do

have

different

forms
i

the

case

and

objective. (c) (1)

In

applying
a

this

rule to the

pronoun,

"we

are

liable

to

error

"

When

personal, relative, or
as, "He

interrogative
John and

pronoun
me were

is the to
a

subject

of
"*

an

objective clause;
is
a man

thought
not

blame."

He

whom think

you is the I of

would best should ?

suppose

would

do

such

thing."
it

**

Whom In

do the
as

you

"

first sentence the

**

be

used In the who

instead

of

*'me,"

because

stands

subject
should

**toere."
should

second,
instead

the of

pronoun "toAom
"

is the ; in the of

subject of
"

would

dOj^^ and
be

be
to

third, ^^whom^^
is,''

changed

who, because

it is the

subject

(2)
1. 2. 3. 4.

When
as

the verb tall

as

is not
mc

expressed. Shakespeare.
than
as me.
"

Is she She
The

"

suffers nations

hourly
not
so

more

Swift.
"

blessed
ua

thee.

Thomson.
rulers of the land.
"

It is not

for such

as

to sit with

the

Scott.

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

91

6.

She

was

neither

better

nor

ymet

than

you
as

or

me.

"

Thackeray,

Such their

expressions should
;

be
not

condeifined excused
on

false

syntax, regardless of
of

authors The
a

they

must
a

be

the
a

ground
noun or

enallage.
eo^ession

(d)
used
"

subject of
It may
as,
**

finite verb
be
:
"

is always

some

as

noun.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

-4 noun; A An A A The
pronoun

God
^^

tempers
She
"*

the

wind

to the

shorn

lamb."

; 2",

plays
To

better

than

^Ae

thinks." desire." other work."

infinitive; as,
participle ;
subordinate pronoun
are

be contents

his natural than

came

as,

"

Thinking
as,
*^

is harder When the he

any

(6)
(c)
verbs the
sun

sentence;
it is often

is not

known."

used

as

grammatical
as,
^ **

subject of certain
7i(is

that

followed
'*

by

their

logicalsubjects;
he is mistaken.^ called because
an

pleasant

to

see

set;^^
the

It is

possible that
is sometimes of the

It, in such

cases,

expletive; but
it is the word

it should which

be

parsed
verb

as

subject
the

verb}
be

with

the
or a

agrees

; and

logical subject,generally an
should is often as,
"

infinitivephrase

subordinate

proposition,
adverb there its

parsed
used There
to

as

an

appositive explaining
a

it

(/)
the verb to(W"an." There

The

introduce
came

sentence
a

in which very

precedes
in such

subject ;
should

to

the town

strange

cases

be

parsed

as

an

introductory expletive.

252.

Point

out

the and

subjectsof
tell whether

the each
:
"

finiteverbs
is
a

in

the

followingsentences^

noun^

pronoun^

phrase^or participle^ infinitive^

clause

from cities lived a swain. (1) Remote in health to be idle is disreputable. (2) For a man (3) It is sinful to neglect the development of our powers. (4) Bestowing a kindness is better than receiving one.

(5) (6)

He
Let

that
him

is slow know grows

to

anger I have

is better

than it. is

the

mighty.

that

heard

(7)
263.

That

he

weaker

each

day with

discouraging. suitable pronouns^ and

Fill the

following blanks
your selection:
"

give

reason

for
the
met
a

(1) (3)
should

saw

man

they thought
young
man

was

dead.
was

(2) They
He
ever was

they agreed
those

nice

looking.
had forbidden

dissatisfied with
like himself. you think

circumstances

be do

(4)
(6) (6)

is in the
as

room

?
a

It is not

for such

to fillsuch

position.
than
.

is taller than
,

but

am

heavier

92

GRAMMAR

OF

TRTS^

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

254.

Rule

II. when

"

The

subject of
also

an

is infinitive

in

the

case objective

it is not

the

subjector complemerit

verb. of a finite
We She He

believe them
wants
me

to be

mistaken.

to

learn.
you
to

is the do

man, you

whom
want

thought
your

to

be

me.

Whom

have

money the

(a)
from in each

In the the of the

or

above

sentences,

the

subjects of
are

infinitives

being

ent differ; but

subjects of the

finite verbs, the

put in the objective case

of the infinitive

following sentences,
of the

subject

is also the

subject
case.

complement
We do

finite verb, and

to

is therefore

in the nominative

not

intend

be

mistaken.

She
He He Who

wants

to learn. to be man,

is

man

pitied.
was

is the
wants

who

thought
money know
?

to be

I.

to have

your
to

(i") It
of the and
not
on

may

be

well

for the above the

student rule

that

some

of the

our

very

best

grammarians

reject the
as

altogether,and
of the

parse verb

ject objective sub-

infinitive their

object
as

preceding
come

; but

their excellence this

eminence
of it.

grammarians
and

in

spite of

blunder,

account

To

parse
as

the

words

them^
their

me,

whom,

in

the

first four

sentences

above,

the

objects of
"

preceding gives
to

verbs, does
the
"

not

give just

the the
me

meanings
contrary
to

intended.

Indeed,
; as,

it sometimes wanted him has

sentence
**

meaning
liar."
in
**

We

leave
same we

She

believes believes say

in
one

be

Me

in

the

last sentence 7
am a

the

to relation
can no more

that /has
me

She

believes because

liar." the

Now

that

is objective than in the

it follows

transitive it follows in

verb

believe

sentence,
believe
to

that

/ is nominative The
two

because

the

transitive
same

verb

other.

pronouns

stand

precisely the
it is the to be.

relation

the verb
me

believe ; then be

if / is nominative it is the because

because

subject
verb the

of am, of

must

objective because
is

subject of
it

The

subject
or

an

tive infinibut

objective,not
it is the

follows

transitive
as

preposition,
the

because verb

subject of the
because is
so

infinitive, just
the subject

subject of

finite

is nominative the

it is

of

the

finite verb.
and the

In other

words,

language

constructed.

Neither

is this objective subjecta

common,

construction noticeable the of Greek those

on

peculiar
account

to the

English
more

; it is

just as

much
Latin

more

of their
so

extended and

in inflection, of

and

; and

it is

understood

disposed

by

the

grammarians

languages.

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

93
accusative**

"The
"

subject of
"

the

Infinitive Latin

Mood

is in the

(objective).
drews An-

Allen
**

Oreenough^a
of the Latin of the

Grammar,
mood

" 240
is put

(f).
in the accusative/*
"

The "

subject subject

infinitive

Stoddard's

Grammar,
infinitive that the

"
is in
men

239. the
went

"The

accusative; away^
has
"

as,

\4yoviri roi^s
s

Aydpas dreXBeiy, they say

Grammar,
^^

Goodwin'*

Greek

The
"

infinitive mood Bullion'' the

s

in

dependent

clause Art. 729

same

its

subject in
in Art. the

the

sative." accu-

Greek the

Grammar,
infinitive
same

; and

730, he

says, the

"

When

subject of
of the

is the case.**

with

subject of

preceding verb,
"The

it is put in the

subject
the

infinitive

is put

in

the

accusative.'*

"

s Crosby''

Chreek Grammar,
"

When

infinitive the

has

subject of
the it is not

its own,

it is in the different
"

accusative.
from the Greek

When,

however,

subject

of

infinitive

is not

principal subject of
Grammar,

the sentence,

expressed.*'

Kuhner^s

(c) (1) (2) (3) (4)

The A A A

subject
noun;
as,

of the
"

infinitive
want

may
to

be

"

We
"

Paul
want

sing
to

for us.'* for us.'*

to

pronoun

; as,

We
"

him

sing

participle;
clause

as,

Ha as,

thinks
"

cheating
thinks
I say

me

be to

beating

me."

Another A

infinitive ;
; as,
"

He

to cheat

be

to rob.**

(5)
that

He

thinks

that

nothing about

it to be evidence

I know

nothing.**
is
one

(d) (e)
the

This

of the

rules the

most

frequently violated,and
be known verbs

it should

be

thoroughly
The

mastered infinitive

by
may

pupil. by
"

usually
"

the

sign

to before

it,but
it ; *'

sign

is generally omitted

after the Make him

bid, dare, feel,do, have, hear,

We heard him say

let,make,
**Isaw him See

need,
do

see

; as,

he still ; '*

it.'* XVI.

(/) 266.

syntax of Rule
"

Exercises. and

I. Fill the
reasons

following Hanks
your selection
:

with suitable
"

pronouns (1) (3) (4)

from
"

give
to

for
a

I wish

go.
to be

(2) They
She For
"

expected
wanted
to

teacher.
to go

John do

and

with

her. for
to

his work

well

it is necessary

stay away

(5) (6) n)

We
He

supposed
is the do
man

to understand
we

it.
to be
an

thought

you. offer ?

you

expect

to

accept such

94

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

II
.

as

the

sentences containing personalpronouns five Five containing relative subjectsof infinitives.

Write

used nouns^ pro-

and indirect. III.

fivecontaininginterrogative pronouns^
sentences

direct and
^

Write
an

in which
a

noun^

pronoun^ used
as

ticiple^ par-

of
256.
not

an

and infinitive^ infinitive. III.

"

clause^ are

each

ject the sub-

Rule

When
other

the word

subjectof

does participle

depend upon case or possessive is used participle

absolute when the

any

in the sentence^ it is in the when the possessive and dependent construction^

:

nominative
as a noun

absolute in
a

with participle

its

subject is

used

pendently. inde-

(a)
student

This will

rule find

is

not

to

be

found

in

any

other

grammar, in which
are

but

the

it verified

by

all correct

sentences

found

subjects of participles. It must first be understood

a

the that, as the rule implies,

subject of
when the it

participle may
the

depend
a

upon

some

other

word;
not
"

does, it is always governed by the other word, subjectof

; as,
**

by

Thus, participle.
(1)
The The

participle may
blushing
**We
saw

be also

subjectof
object of

verb finite
a

Alice as,

answered John

yes."

(2) (3) by
the
us

transitive

verb;

stealing
admired

The

complement

of

copulative verb;
as, "Go

as,

**

He

is

man

all." The

(4)
(6)
scientist

object of
tell her

preposition;
come

to

the

woman

standing

in

door,
In
a

and

to

in."

apposition;
very

as, "Showalter,
business man."

the

gentleman
"He
wrote

making
to

you

the the

offer,is

successful

Jordan,

having charge In do the

not

of the

expedition."
sentences

267.

following

the

subjectsof
words. in
nouns

the In

ticiples parthe

depend
their

upon

any used
are

other
as

first

are three, the participles

dependent
put in the
fifth
are

constructions, and

subjects

therefore and

possessivecase

the

subjectsin

the fourth

in

CLASSES

OP

PRONOUNS.

95

the with

nominative
their

absolute, because
used

subjectsare

together participles independently.

the
with him. your

(1) Mary'^i leaving surprised everybody.

(2)
I understand your

quibbling
his left the been

(3)
(4) (5)

We Brown Our

were

not

surprised at
having

accepting
room. our

proposition.
had
to

coming in, we
leader

disabled,

undertaking

be

abandoned.

258. called the

Objective by Enallage.
"

the subject of enallcLge^ it should

not

figure of speech is often put in participle

By
a

objectivewhen
should
an

be

in the

possessive;

but

this

construction make 259.

be

encouraged, since

it is liable to

ambiguous
Point
out

sentence.

the

in meaning difference

between

the

first

four

and
The There No

the last
writer is
no

four.
a

(1)
(2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) 260.
^

being
harm heard
a

scholar
women

is not

doubted.

in

studying politics.
man

one

ever

of that

running
is not

for office.

Brown The There

No
one

being
writer^ is
no 8

politicianprevented
a

his election. doubted.

being
harm heard
a

scholar

in women'^s

studying politics. running

for office. his election.

ever

of that

man^s

Brown'^8

being

politicianprevented
a

The
A A A noun;

subjectof
as,
**

participlemay
having
in left us,
so

be
we

"

(1) (2) (3)

soon

The
"

train Be

walked."
we

pronoun;

as,
as,

appearing

sincere,

all believed much

him."
we

participle;
to

**

Speaking
ease." "To

public being

encouraged,

learned

speak

with

(4)
nothing (6)

An

infinitive; as,
work."
'*

whisper having
not

been

forbidden,

we

had

left but* to A

clause;
us

as,

That

he could
next

have

done

it Ainwcy*

having

been

established,let (a)
There

proceed
little

to the

proposition."
error

is but

to liability

in

using

either

nouns

or

nouns pro-

according 261. is in the Rule

to this Bule.

IV.

"

The

of object

an

active transitive

verb

case. objective

96

GRAMMAR
t

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

God He The Whom Then

rules
came

the
to

worlds which
grammar.

he

created.

learn

limb did

struck he
was

George
little

and

me.

call ?
a

there
Not

girlpeeling potatoes,
infinitives and

(a)
(6) (c)

only
and

finite verbs, but

participles as well, when

transitive
No

active,govern
verb in the Indirect
; for

objects.
can

intransitive verb the 169

have

an can

object.
govern 166
an

No

passive voice Object

see

object.
Resultant
see

(d) For
see

Article
a

; for the

Object
168.

Article

Objective
of
a

without

governing
may be

word
"

Article

(e) (1) (2) (3)

town

The A A An

object
noun;
pronoun as,

transitive solved

verb the

"MoUie
as,
"

problem^ play;
**
"

They
as,

saw
"

me."*^ I like
to

infinitive phrase ;
the children^
ii

"He

wants

to go

to

with

(4) (5) (/)

participle^ or
forbade
as,

participial phrase ;

as,

He

prohibited whispering;''^

"They
A

onr
"

proceeding
believe
most

another
are

8"ep."
mistaken.^^

sentence;
rule
a noun

We

they

This is

is violated and 7."

more a

frequently
; as, "He

when
saw

the

object
and the

of
"

a
"

tive transi-

verb called it

pronoun is
a

Edith and

/;

Mary
avoid
quire. re-

Henry

and

This than

very

gross

error, the

abilityto study

altogether will

compensate

for

careful

it will

262.
sentences:

Point
"

out

and

describe

the

in ohjects

the

following

(1)

Anna We We
saw

plucked
John
to
see

the

flower. prettiest
the nail. Anderson. but I like

(2)
(3)
better

driving Mary

went

(4) My (6) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) yourself (12)
He He Let

brother

likes to

study anything,
mountains

running
hills.

and

ing jump-

than

studying anything.
how to

knows
ordered
me

make

out

of mole

the horse
you

jto be

saddled.

give
offered

my
serve

pencil.
thee
seven

Jacob I I Bo
was was

said, I will
a

years

for Rachel.

lucrative
a car.

position. satisfy you,

but make

promised
not

let of

an

imperfect understanding
details. heroes.

master

all the them

We

called

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

97

263.

Fill
reasons

the

following blanks
your selections

with
:
"

suitable

pronouns^

giving
(1) (2) (3)

for

I found

assisting
in that ask will not invited he battle the hurt my had made

Success I shall

soldier.
I
.

question
Frank and and

when

see

(4) They (6) They (6)

brother
most

injured

he

had
can

the

greatest

reason

to love.

(7)
(8) (9) (10)
or
.

prejudice has biased, you

did We We heard both wanted you elect? you the nominated.

never

convince.

position, but
1 will honor.

he

does

not

want

either

John

(11) 264.

that

honor

Write

sentences

the illustrating

direct

object,or
the

the

accusative
;

objective; the indirect

resultant, or
factitive

object,or

the dative

tive objec-

the
a

objective ; and

objective

without 265.

governing word.
V.
"

Rule

A in

noun

or

pronoun

used

as

the

object

of

is preposition
ruins The is kindled of the

the

case. objective

The Athens, there

Parthenon of the

stand stands

upon upon
men.

the the

Acropolis,
grave; the

in

the

cUy of
bums

temple
from

fame
ashes

fire that

of great

266. (1)
A A A An

The
noun

object of
; as,
"

preposition may
came

be

"

He
**

from

the

fleldy
this letter."

(2) (3)
(4) (6) (6) (7) (8)
in that

pronoun;

as, as,

Speak
**

to we."
me

participle ;

Oblige

by reading nothing
but

infinitive;as, adjective; adverb;

subordinate raised

"She

did

cryJ*^

**I

am

about

to

leave,'^'^ An An A A as, "On

"

AigrA."
here
as, to

as,

From

there

is ten
over

feet." the sea."

assurance

prepositional phrase; sentence;

him

"From

as, "He the dead.^^

hath

given

unto

man

he hath

from

(a)
great

This
to

rule
use

is
our

never

violated

in

the

use

of

noun,

but

it

requires

care

pronouns

according

to it.

98

GRAMMAE

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(")
*"

Nouns

of

time,
a

distance,

measure, word child

; as,
"

etc., are
The years lake

said is
a

to

be

in the
"

objective case
The
to

without
a

governing
;
" **

mile but

wide

rule is

foot long
nouns
**

The

is ten

old ; "

it is better The rule is

regard
mean

such
:

as

governed by prepositionsunexpressed.
is wide
"

sentences

The

lake
"

to the extent

of a

mile

"

**

The

long

to the

length o/

afoot
are

The

child for

is old to the extent

reasons
:

often years." they

make

These

prepositions
The

omitted

two

because

awkward
them.
some

expressions if expressed
noun,
to

; and

because

the

out relation is clear withmust

be

in the

objective case,
follows it when

be

governed

by

word.

(c)
inverted.

The

object
It the

of

preposition
the

the

sentence

is not

frequently precedes rattlingcrags

to

preposition
and as,
"

in

poetry;
when

as, "From
we we

peak
call

to

peak,
of."

among;" object ;

in prose His

wish did

to not

particular attention
relative that
that 1
came

the

conduct

approve The the

man

precedes
with."

the

preposition that

governs

it ; as,

"

He

is

267.
sentences

Name
:
"

the

objects of

the

in prepositions

the

following

(1)

To

him

who

in the with

love her

of nature

holds she

Communion
A various

visible

forms,
the

speaks
of the State of South and other
*

language.
on

(2)
merits,

The

eulogium pronounced
the my the the honorable

character for her

Carolina, by
meets

gentleman,
concurrence.
"

revolutionary
Webster. of

hearty
Six

Daniel mouth

(3)

Into Rode

jaws

of Death, Hundred. in his

"

into

the

Hell,

Tennyson,

(4)

At

midnight
The Turk

guarded tent,
of the hour in

lay dreaming

When

Greece, her knee

tremble
no

suppliance bent,
"

Should

at his power.

Halleck. heard all the among the

(6) (6)

But A Run

now

sound wrathful

of

laughter
clamor

was

foes,

wild
to to

and your the

from your the

vanguard

rose.

houses, fall upon

knees. Shakespeare. brightest verdure

; the

Pray
That

gods
must
are now

to

intermit this

plague
"

needs
trees
are

light on
the and the

ingratitude.
fullest flowers
; the

(7)
the

The

in their clustered wild

foliageand
of the meadows and
"

woods

gay

with

laurel
are

air is perfumed with

to

by
clover

the

sweetbriar
; while

rose

enamelled

blossoms the

young among

apple, the peach,

the green

the

plum begin

swell, and

cherry

to

glow

leaves.

Ii*ving.

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

99

268.

Fill the

following blanks
your selections:
and
. "

with

suitable pronouns^

ing giv-

reasons

for
sat

(1)

He

by
you with
to

(2)
(3) Mary (4) (6) (6) (8)
water.

did
came

give
Susan

it to ? and and
.

He

spoke
did
was

you

complain
? and

to ?

it from you

(7) Between
There
are

I do
,

not

care

what

he
,

says. drink

still

few,

who

like

and

nothing

but

He (9)*

sat

between neither
man

and
.

(10) (11) (12) (13)

She He This All He

looks is the

like her I told

other you and

brother, nor
about.
,

life has
are

joys
but

for you and

gone

(14)

bought
sat

it for Kate

and
.

(15) They 269. Rule

just behind VI.

"

and

noun

or

pronoun is in

used
same

as case

the
as

plement com-

of subject.
Exception. the
"

copulativeverb

the

its

When

the

subject of

copulativeparticipleis possessive,

complement (0)
This rule

is nominative. is

usually
with the

stated it its

incorrectly,so applies subject

to

as

to be

applicable only
case

to the

nominative is
an

case

; but

the

objective
from
case

when of the

the finite is
a

copula
verb

infinitive

different

that

; and

it

applies to
its

nominative the

absolute

when

the

copula

participle having

subject in

nominative

absolute.

(1)

In

the Nominative
That If I Who He
man were

"

is you

soldier. I would

try

to be

musician.

is he ? is not the
man

that you

thought

he

vras.

(2)

In

the
He We We K I

Objective:
thought
want
me

"

to be

her. become
our a

the

boy

to

preacher.

expect them
were

to be

companions.
to

you

I would

get him

be

musician.

100
In of
a

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

applying
^

this rule the \a

to the

objective case by
of Rule II.

we

must

determine
**

the him

case

the

subject of
different
to be
a

infinitive

Thus,

in

I want

to be

scholar,^ scholar
from

objective because subject

is /, the the
^

him, the subject of the infinitive,

finite verb, is

being
want

the

objective ;
to agree

but

in

**

scholar,^ scholar

is in the nominative

case,

with

the

subject

of

to be, which

subject

of

the

finite verb.

(3)
In the

In

the Nominatiye
**

Absolute
him with **IZ""5 because

Case
Ae is

"

the sentence,
case same

I believe agree

scholar,^* scholar
of is. In the

is in

nominative the verb

to

he, the

subject
a

sentence

meaning
he has because
not

thing,
been its

being
to

scholar, I

believe

him,''

the

copulative

is has

changed
it has of the

the

participlebeing
nominative the

; and

although
in case, of

changed
be is
no

form,
in the for

become

absolute

it is the
must

subject

participle. Scholar,
or an case.

complement
absolute
to

being,
since should

either
reason

nominative,

nominative

; and

there be

supposing

this

exception

the

rule, it

parsed

in the

nominative

absolute

270.
been the is

Eacplanation
'*

of

Exception.
in the

**
"

That

he is

scholar clause But is to the and

has

never

questioned. complement

In

the this,

subject of the
the the

subordinate
case.

is he, and the clause

is scholar, both

nominative

abridged by dropping that, changing

the nominative Then the
we

finite verb

participle leaving
never

being, changing
scholar been

he

to

possessive his, being

f clause
was a

unchanged.

have,
of

^'His

scholar

has

questioned.'' His,
is scholar, the

subject

being, is evidenilj possessive, but

why

complement,
nominative has taken unless

nominative before the the

(1) (2)
any

Scholar No

was

abridged.
abridgment general
rule
to
cause

change
in

place

in

process follow

of the

change (3)

its case,

it should

and

come be-

possessive when
It is not does it denote

the

subject becomes
it does
not

possessive.
have the

possessive,for

possessivesign, neither
in all such is

possession. complement
cases,

(4)

the or Therefore '"''scholar,'*'*

nominative.

(a)

The

complement
some

of

the
so

copulative used,
to

verb

is

always

noun,

or

an

adjective,or
The

expression
should be the

and

is called the attributive between attributive as,

**

ment. comple-

pupil
and
same

careful

distinguish
The the

the

attributive

complement
refers "The
to the
man

objectivecomplement.
or

complement
is
a or a

person
mason

thing
"He

as

subject ;
me

He

soldier; " ;^^

as,

is

;^^

expects
to
a

to

become

musician

but

the

objective complement

refers

different person

thing;

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

101

"John

killed

snake

;^*

"She

bought

Aowae

"

"Jones

sold

his

farm.^^ (")
followed Be careful
to

distinguish by

intransitive

verbs

that from

are

used

as

pure im-

copulas (c)
as, "He The
was

followed

attributive

complements, by

transitive

verbs

by objectivecomplements. passive
voice is often followed attributive

complements

appointed jt^d^e.'*
out

271. and

Point

the

complements in
are

the

following sentences^
and

tell the (1) (3) (4) (5) (G) (7) (8)

The

cases

of
is but
was a

those that
a

nouns

pronJbuns

"

world friend walks is

a

stage, all the

men

and

women

merely players.

(2) My
She He He To The Now

appointed
queen.

chairman.

farmer.
a

will become

better

man.

study correctly is to general opinion

I
am

learn. Mrs. Clearwater

is that

planned

the murder.

myself again.
is

(9) Cheating

stealing.
to be
a

(10)
272.

He

appears

Canadian.

Fill the blanks selections

:
"

with

suitable pronouns^

giving reasons

for

your

(1)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

It

was

not

; it

was

either ? you send

act

or

Was Was If I If it It
was

it it
were were

you
or

meant

that I would
,

called for the

? doctor.

I would
,

differently. thought
? it to be

I it
was

sought.
but
,

I knew do do It
was

she

you
men

think
say

me

to be ?

that you

am

(10)
(11) (12) (13)

said
to be

it ?

was.

do He He No It

you
man man

take

us

is the is the
matter
was

I I the that
to be

thought thought
for

you

to be.

to be

you.

(14)
(16) (16) (17) (18)

vanquished
came

be.
us.

not

I know Its

you

being
is
no

should doubt of

make its

no

difference.
.

There

being

102

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

273. the
same

Rule
case as

VII. the
noun

noun or

or

pronoun it

pronoun

is in apposition explains. without

case a con-

in

274.

Apposition is the

use

of

substantive
same

necting element^ to
same

limit another

in the

and is

of
" "

the

meaning
see

as,
"

"Brown,
"

the

banker that

;^^ "It
she

pleasant
;

to

the stars

It is evident house."

is insane

In

her

brother
A

Absalom's
noun,

(a)
in
is

predicate
The

although meaning
is the

the

same

as

the

subject,is not
; as,
"

apposition.
a/arwicr."

copulative verb
is the

connecting explains
the
one

element

Harry

(b) (c)
come

The The

appositive term appositive

it ; as,
in
^^

one

that

the

other. but may

noun

usually
of the sun,
may ; as,

follows

explained,
comes."
"

before

Child
case

refulgent summer
a noun

Thomson. it,
us

(d) (1) (2)

it for?"

A In

noun

any

have
'*

in apposition with balm of soothes life,

a

the
"

nominative
*'

Hope,

the

under

misfortune In

The

mountain,

Vesuvius^ poured
; as,
*'

forth

torrent

of lava.''

the us,
we

nominative believed it ;

absolute
"
"

Brown,

the

ing minister, havdid you do

told

John,

you

little rascal, what

Qi)
Hamlet

In
"

the
"

objective;
I sat by

as,

"We

saw

Forrest, the

great

tragedian, victory
at

in

Jones,

the
"

harne8s-maJcer.^\ William the

(4)
battle

In of

the possesEdve

; as,

Conqueror^
is much

the

Hastings
than is

decided
or

the

fate of

England."
in It

(e) Apposition,
but where
now,
'*

identification

language, belongs,
not

more

hensive compre-

usually supposed.
Where is cool.^^

to substantives

alone,
here
start
now.

also to verbs, adjectives, adverbs,

we

phrases,
cool Where
to the

and with

clauses, here.

*'Come **Let
us

are.^^ it

we

are

is identical
it is

while

While

is

in

apposition

with

There

where with

the accident there, To

"

occurred.^^ He the has sunk

the accident lowest

occurred

is in
to

apposition
the convicfs lowest throw

depths of disgrace,
with
no

celV*

convicVs him has

no

cell is in who
is

apposition
has

to

the

depths of disgrace.
the first stone."

"Let Who

perfect, who
is in

faults,
who is

faults

apposition explanatory
"

with

perfect,

etc.

(/)

The

word
a

as

frequently

introduces

an

term;

as,

"Electricity, as
as as a as

motive

force, promises
no

great results ; "

In such
term
as

Shakespeare,
some

dramatic

artist, has
an

equal
parse

"

etc.

cases, in

regard

merely

expletive,and
it
seems noun

the

following
to

apposition with
cases as a

the

preceding

; but

preferable
that

consider

in such

preposition governing the

follows.

CLASSES

OP

PRONOUNS.

103

(^)
it

The

word
an

and

is

frequently
term

used
'*

without We

conjunctive
in

force and

when him the

precedes

explanatory
such it in
cases

; as,

believe
as an

Christ

crucified.'*
term

In

consider with

and the

merely
one

expletive, and
with the
as

following (h)
The

apposition
not

preceding.
in
case one

appositive term
it need the
"

must

always
with **The

agree

that be

it

explains, but
from

agree

it in any

other

property,
how

may

seen

following examples:
Milman's thirst ?
'*
"

Kenite
"

tribe,the
can

descendants you,
a

of Hobab." still hunger The (i*) the

History of the Jews,

Who seized

But

soul,
fled."
as
"

and word

the wife

to me, term
"
**

his host, and

of is frequently followed
"

by

meaning
The

the

same

preceding
"The
term

; as,

The

month

of

December;
"The
as

city of Boston;

meaning,
cases

month,

December;^''
must
or
"

but city, Boston;'''* its

in such

the A

following of
of the
"

be

parsed
what
case

object.
is often followed receivers

{))

pronoun as,
a

first
"

second But

person is that

by
f
"

the

appositive ; (Jc) When apposition preceding (Z)

A

I, John;
in the

to you,

noun

possessive

is limited
to ; as,

by another
noun

noun

in

with the

it, the
name

possessive sign
the

is put

the
"

immediately
me

of

object possessed

Bring

John

the

5ap"is"'" head."
noun me

may the leave

use so

be

in

apposition with
act

sentence

or

phrase;
I
not
am

as,

^^

He

promised
"

of

his library, a kindness which

we

for which

very

ful." thank-

To

abruptly, an
term

could

explain, would
used
man, to

certainly arouse ("i)

in
some

suspicion."
in the

distributive
a

singular is frequently
as,

explain,
unto
are

way,

comprehensive
love
of. in
one

plural ;
another,
with

"Go

ye,

every
as

his
not

city;"

"They

another." and

Such
or

sentences

the

last

easily disposed parsed

the
noun

One

the

nouns

they limit,are
cannot

times some-

as

apposition
is limited

they.
one

But

this

be ; for, evidently, case, the but the of is with

tence, sen-

noun

that

by

is in the nominative the loves

one

that
sentence
case

is limited

by
"

another
one

is in person

objective case,
the other
sentence

meaning
There

the
a

being

Each

person^
in

of

apposition here,
The person of the

but

it is
"

apposition by
the

another

sentence.

sentence,
loves

They

is explained love,'*'*

^'''Each

one

the other
or
"

person,'*'*
are

(n)

In

cases

enumeration,
whole
; as,

parts specification,
The whole army

often
one

put

in

apposition
some

with

fled, some
is

way,

another."

(o)
common

proper noun;

noun

frequently
"

either

explains,
the

or

explained by, poet;'*^ "The

of fire." with We the

as, "The

or poet, Milton,^'*

"Milton,
mountain

the

fiery mountain, (p) object ;

Harrison The as,
"

or Vesuvius,^'* or me a

Vesuvius,

resultant Make

factitiveobjective is in
child

apposition
"

direct

again, just for to-night","

appointed

chairman,'*'*

104

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

275.

Point

ovt
the

the
of

in appositives
never life, rear

the

followingsentences:"

(1) Hope, (3)

that He

star

sets.

(2) Delightful task,

rescued deserves

to

the

tender the

thought.
act

the child

from

burning building, an
in the
man.

of heroism

recognition.
stood
an

(4)

There A

unsold and

captive
old
not

mart,

gray-haired
is my

majestic
:

(6)
Rome

This

answer

that

I love

Csesar

less,but

that

I love

more.

(6)

It is he, my A doubt that

old any

friend
one

and should

benefactor.

(7)
his mind.

challenge

his

right had

never

crossed

(8)

I count That
a

this noble

thing
deed
a

to be

grandly true,
step toward
Grod.

is

(9)

True

wit

is like the

precious stone.
mine.
powers
"

Dug
Which To

from boasts
cut
as

Indian

two
as

various shine. and

in one,

well

Smjt,
; !

(10)

Caledonia
nurse

; stem

wild child

Meet

for

poetic

Laud
Land Land Can That

of brown of the of my

heath

and and What

shaggy
the mortal

wood
;

mountain sires I the

to

flood

hand

e*er untie knits

me

Ulial band

thy rugged

strand

"

W,

Scott.

276.
reasons

Justify or
:
"

condemn

the

following sentences^ giving

me.

(1)
(2)
but
to

We The

will make word

came

covenant,
not to

thee

and

Esau, the
he that

hunter, him
in tents. that

that

stayed by
debt the

at home

Jacob, the plain man,

Power
is

dwells of

(8)
God.

given
God

to

the

man

God, he

is led

spiritof
be

(4) paid.

He

deems

to be

the

creditor,he
is the who is

to whom

the

should

(6) Christ (6)

We Our

and

him in

crucified

alpha

and

omega. of the church.

believe

Christ, he
Him who

is the head of

(7)
277.
noun

Shepherd,

styled King

Saints,will surely come.

Rule

VIII.

"

noun

or

pronoun in the

limitinganother
case. possessive

signifyinga different thing is

CLASSES

OF

PRONOUNS.

105

278.

Express
manner.

the

relation Use

of

possession
the
to

in

the

most
or a

appropriate

either

possessive sign

phrase
best 279. neceBsary (1)
went

introduced

by of, according following^ making

awaken

euphony

and

the

usage. Rewrite
:
"

the

any

change you
no ones

think

His misfortunes for others

nobodys pity, though

and fathers

abilityever giftsfor

further

good.
a care are

(2) (3) (4) (6) (7) (8)

mothers

tenderness

natures

mans

advantages.
Five

yearns interest
wages Moseses

remained will then

unpaid.
be due.
as

Six month^s I admire

law

as

much

Socrates^s

philosophy. masterly reply.

(6) Marcy's
John's It is not The Beed wife "

the letter, brother's your

Secretary

of

War,

is
a

wife's

sister married
or

burglar.
died " this

business

any

body

else's.

(0)
(10)
Reed "

of the

captain

of the

Alabama Reed's "

morning.
Grammar.

Kellogg's
Grammars.

Grammar. Reed's

Kellogg's
Grammars.

Kellogg's

Kellogg's always

(Give

meanings.)
(11) Brown, 280. Rule
Smith and Jones's wife
are seen

together.

IX.

"

noun

or

pronoun

used

independently
and

is in the nominative (a)

This rule
covers

absolute

case.

Exclamation,

Address, Pleonasm,
also in the nominative

tion, Inscrip-

(6)
but

The

subject of

participleis
Rule III.

absolute

case,

it is

explained

under

(c )

For

lists of all nominative

absolute Pleonasm

constructions, see
are

Article of

164.

(d) Exclamation,
emotion,
weakens but the This

Address, and
be

all indicative
as

strong

they
rule
"

should

sparingly employed,
but

excessive

use

of them

style of composition. applies

O
! Rare to
we

(c)
"

pronouns, /"
on
"

rarely ;

as,

**

Miserable

they!^'*

Thomson.

Cowper.
or

(/)
books

All
; all

names

inscribed

coins, monuments,

signs ;

all titles of the nominative

headings, superscriptions,and
case

subscriptions,are
is put after tell whether

in

absolute

by inscription,
name

(g)
as, **I
as a

When

the

of Mr.
or

person

addressed
we

the

sentence,
to parse

appeal

to you,

Chairman,^^
in
a

cannot

it In

absolute declinable

by address, language,

apposition
noun as

with
one

the

preceding
above would

pronoun.
as

such

the

likelybe

106

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

in the
as

accusative vocative

in apposition (objective),

with

the

preceding

pronoun,

in the

(nominative absohite).
is used when what
some we

(h) thought Oh,

'

Pleonasm
or

object
wish
to

is of say

more

importance it;
as, "The

to

our

feeling than
was

about

hoy I

where

he

"

(i) The
that^s the In

infinitive

may

be

used

by pleonasm
under

; as, "To

he,

or

not

to

66,

question.*' parsing
to state
nouns

(j)

and

pronouns

the

rule

the

pupil
are

should used

be

required

their

constructions
or

definitely,whether

they

by

exclamation,

address, pleonasm,

inscription,

281.
noun

State

and
He He The

the case construction and definitely in the followingselections : pronoun

"

of

every

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6)

that that

hath,
is and
not

to

him

shall be be

given.
still. hast created

holy,

let him

holy
thou

North

the

South,
see

them.
beast.

I should Oh The.
I

like to

her

limping back,
of repose.
our woes.

poor

deep
Eden very

enchanted of law

prelude

bliss,the
that

twilight of
the
tear

"

Camphell.

(6)

That And That And

moulds from

bids law

it trickle

its source.
a

preserves the

the

earth

sphere.
course.
"

guides

planets

in their

Bogers,

(7)

To

be

resigned
when

when

ills betide.
are

Patient And Dear This

favors with

denied. given heart.

to heaven.
"

pleased Chloe,
is that

favors

this is wisdom's incense of the smells

part,

Whose

fragrance XIV.
"

Dr,

Cotton,

282.

Rule

pronoun

agrees

with its antecedent

in person^ (a)
use

number^
require
will be

and
the

gender.
utmost to this

It will

diligence
rule, but
or

on

the

part

of

the if he

pupil

to

his pronouns

according

this he what I
am

must

do,

expects

to

speak

what

listened to,

write son,

will be read. chill thee.

"

Cool
As
to

is

thy brow,
bosom

my /

and

my

have spare

tried that

to press

Willis.

Woodman,
Touch In
not

tree.
;

single bough
me.
now.

youth
And

it sheltered

ril

protect it

CLASSES

OF

PEOKOUNS.

10*7

'Twas That

my

forefather's it
near

hand his
cot

placed
woodman,
axe

Then,

let it harm

stand;
it not.
"

Thy J. In (a)
be
a

shall

Morris,

applying this rule^ remember

or more a

"

Two

singular
he

antecedents
;
as

connected
**

by
he

or,

or a

nor,

must

represented by woodcock, (6)

the When
or a a

singular pronoun gives

cannot

When

shoots

partridge,
in gender,

pheasant,
pronoun pronoun

it

away/*
its
"

fully represent preferred

to ;

antecedent No

masculine

is to be

as,

boy
the

or

girlcould
of

do

his work

better.'' pronoun
or

(c)
young as, when
"

The child

it is often
an

preferable
sex
"

represent

name

of
sat

animal

whose
;

is not

definitelydistinguished ; sweetly

The it

child

by

its mother

'*

The

nightingale sings most

sings in
Masculine

the
or

night.''
feminine pronouns

{d )

represent the

names

of inanimate

objects personified.
To him who in the with love of nature holds she

Communion
A various

h"r

visible

forms,

speaks

language. conveying
third person, the idea of

(")
by
as,
a
"

collective

noun

unity
A
a

must

be

represented gender
ing conveywhose
;

pronoun The mob of

in the

singular number,

and

neuter
noun

swept

everything
be
sex

in its way."

collective

the

idea

plurality must by
the

represented by
of the the

plural

pronoun,

gender
A

is determined
noun one

objects denoted.
of

collective

conveys whole

idea

unity when
the idea

it refers

to

the

objects as forming
it refers
to the

; and

it conveys

of plurality when

individuals

of the

group.

284.
reasons

Fill
:
"

the

blanks

with

suitable

pronouns^

giving
with choly melan-

(1) Many
regret.

man

looks

back

on

the

days

of

youth
to

(2)
hearers.

The

orator's

tongue

should

be

agreeable

the

ears

of

(3)
care

If

we

deprive
,

an

animal

of

instinct,
wishes

will

be

unable

to

take

of

(4)
this

If

any

member will

of

the

congregation
forward tasted

to

connect

with

church,
I like the

please come
for

while
as

the brethren
as

sing.

(5)

molasses,

good

honey.

108
The To

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE-

CO) (7)
flourish

earth

is my
a

mother,

and

I will recline

upon will

bosom.

persecute

truly religiousdenomination,
will have
to be to

only

make

better. The The The

(8) (9) (10)

government
cabinet cabinet
was

cause

change
wise their

orders.

seemed
was

divided

in

sentiments.
measures.

distinguished for
when

(11) Egypt
afraid of them.

glad

they

took

departure,
shows

for

was

(12) Every herb,

Him who made
.

every

flower,and

every

animal

the

wisdom

of

(13) Every
(14)
the class. If any

governor

and

magistrate

does

as

thinks
have
to

best.
to

boy

or

girlbe absent,
is able
to

will

go

the

foot

of

(15)

No

man

or

woman

get

rid

of

vices

without

struggle.

(16) Poverty

and

wealth

have

each

own

temptations.

285. (1)
classes.
a

Keview
Name the

of Pronouns.
three and What of Give What
uses

of

the

pronoun each.

and

the

three is the

corresponding
antecedent and of trate Illususe

(2)
?

Define

illustrate may the

(3)

What be ?

pronoun the

(4)
?

antecedent pronouns.

(6)
What

Name

sub-classes

personal
several is
a

(6)

is the

of
use

declensions of pronouns. indirect

a

(7) (8)
each

principles commonly
direct

violated pronoun ?

in the

interrogative
Illustrate. Define does
a a

(9)
kind

An of

interrogativepronoun
may be found?

(10)
(12)
How and

(11)
relative the

In what
or

sentence

conjunctive

relative from
an

pronoun. indirect

(13)

Illustrate.

(14)
Name
are

differ

? interrogative

(16)

illustrate and kind ?

sub-classes alike ? may

tive of rela-

pronouns. what the

are

(16)

In what

personals
For what used

relatives of

(17)
each

In of

they

different.

(18)
and

objects

relatives, who^ which,

two

that, be
clauses.

(19) Name,
What of
a

define, and
is

illustrate in each? Name

kinds

of

relative the

(20)
use

relative relative

required
pronoun.
tions, construc-

(21) Explain
three

connecting
constructions

(22)

nominative
with

and pronoun Personal

five

objective
of the third of

illustratingeach singular number,

person, who.

(a)

Personal

person, the first

feminine
common

gender.

(6)

pronoun

plural number, (d)

pronoun Direct who.

gender,
Indirect restrictive Relative

(c)

Direct

interrogative pronoun (c)

Indirect pronoun rogative interwhat, pronoun

interrogative pronoun (/)

in
a

what,

interrogative
clause, pronoun

(g)
who

Relative in

pronoun

that clause,

(h)
which

Relative in

explanatory

(i)

explanatory

clause.

CLASSES

OF

ADJECTIVES.

109

THE

ADJECTIVE.

286. much and may

to
now

We that

have

already found
to

that

some

objectsdiffer
in different
rose^ tree.

so

it is necessary them different also that

put them

classes We
same

give

names

; as, man^

observe

class have necessary wish

to

different for
us

objectsbelonging to which attributes^ or qimlities

name

the

it is often times
we

to
or

and
an a

also

that

many

point out

refer to

without object, proper

name

either
to

ing nam-

its arises
we

qualitiesor
refer An
to

applying objector
is
a

it.

Hence

another

part of speech, called the

an name

Adjective, by which

may 287.
so

its

qualities.
,

Adjective
to

word

used

to limit

noun

or name

noun proone

to or point out or refer to an object^ of its qualities; as, ^'this book," ^'four boys," "aw large book," ^^lazyboy," sweet apples."
as
^^ ^^

apple,"

CLASSES 288.

OF

ADJECTIVES. substantives in two classes

Since

limit adjectives

ways, of

as

illustrated
:
"

above, there

arise two

general
that

tives adjec-

289.
so

A
as

Descriptive Adjective is
to

one

limits

tive substan-

tains," qualityof an object; as, ''icymoun''heavyhearts," "laughing eyes," "strong arms."

denote

290.
so as

Definitive
to

Adjective is
or

one

that limits
an

substantive ing denot-

merely

point out
"aw

refer to

objectwithout

qiuzlity; as,

ox," "woman,"

"fiftygnns^'' "those

SUB-CIiASSES

OF

ADJECTIVBS.

291.

or Descriptive
:
"

qualifyingadjectiveshave

the

three

sub-classes

110

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

292.

(1) Common,
from
a

any

ordinary quality word

as,

not

rived de-

proper

name;

"^oorf fruit,"
men,"
"amiable

'''sweet

oranges,"
293.

''cold

water,"

"honorable

position, dis-

"virtt^ow*

women." derived from

a

"Arabian

(2) Proper, one Nights,"

"

proper
"

name

; as,

G-recian

armies,"
from

Turkish

potism." des-

294.

one (3) Participial,

"

derived
"

verb;

as,
"

bing "throbcrated conse-

hearts,"

amusing stories," twinkling stars,"

295. three 296.

"deadened spots,""defended rights," sensibility." have the or merely limiting adjectives' Definitive sub-classes:
"

(1) Articles,A
The is called

or

An

and

The.

(a)

the

article,and definite
and
"an

or

An

the

article. indefinite

(6)
as, "a

is used
"a

before

consonants,
"an

An ox."

before

vowels

man,"

cow,"

ape,"

297.
;
were

(2) Pronominals,
as,
"

those

that
;

may

be
were

used
not

tively substan;

Some

were

invited

others

but

all

welcome." (a)
(6)
It is better The in most and
cases some

to

supply
others

the limited
are

noun

in

parsing.
pronominal

following

usually

called

adjectives: 7%w,

that^ these, those; each, every, either, neither; much, some',all, such, own, any, none, one, both, other, another; certain, little; divers, else ; former,
last. latter,first,
are

(c)

Pronominals

divided

into

four

classes

"

(1) Demonstratives; (2) Distributives; (4) Interrogative; 298.

as, this, that, these, those.

as, each, every,

some,

either, neither. few.

(3) Indefinites; as, all, any,

as, which,

what.

(3) Nnmerals,
as,

those

that suggest number.

(a) Definite;

four, six, forty ; fourth, sixth, fortieth; fourfold^

several, few, many.
are

nxfold, forty fold. (b) Indefinite ; (c)

The
as,

definite numerals
those

further orders

divided in
a

into:'

"

(1) Ordinals,

denoting

series;

as, second, tenth.

REMARKS

ON

DEFINITE

ADJBCTIVBS.

Ill

(2) Cardinals,
two,
ten.

those

that

state

merely
tell how

the

number

of

objects;

as,

(3) Multiplicatives, those tenfold.

that

many

fold;

as,

twofold,

BEHABKS 299.

ON

DEFIITITIVE
I. ARTICLES. classed

ADJE0TI7E8.

(a)
they
as

Articles
so

are

sometimes

as

separate part of speech, bat

should be

differ

little from

definitive

adjectivesthat they plural

; A

parsed
in
a

such.

(6)
few

77^6 limits limits

noun

either

singular
without

or

nouns

or

An, except

cases,

only singular nouns.

is used
'^

(c)
whole
we

The

an

article when The

we

wish

to

refer

to

class ; as,
to refer
as an a

Man

is mortal/'
any
one

indefinite
a

article is used
^^

when
so

wish

to indefinitely

of

class ; as, is used

one

man we

is not

strong

ox.**
a

And

the

definite
or more

article than

when
^*

nitely speak defithe

of dishes.**

part of

one class,

; as,

77^6 child broke

300.

n.

PRONOMINALS.

(1)

DEMONSTRATIVES.

(a)
than hand
some

This

points
than better

out

an

object that
to ; as,

is
**

near

in time book
"

or
**

place, or
This This pen age

nearer

other

object

referred

This

;
" "

(in

my

is better
was

that than
out

(on
that
an

the

table

before

me)

speare's) (Shakeso near

(Homer's)."
in time
out
or

(6)
as

ITiat

points

object distant
to and

place, or
In many

not

another

object referred
and

pointed
and that

by
their

this.
nouns

languages
ber, num-

all the

adjectives are
case

inflected
; but

to agree

with
are

in person,

gender,
that
are

this

the

only English adjectives

These and those
are

and inflected,

these

only
to

to denote

number.

respectivelythe plurals of (c)

would
more

this and

that,
out
more

These be used
one

should

be

used
were

point
one

than should

one

object when
used
to

this
out

if there

but that

; those

be

point
one.

than

object when
them. and latter

would the
use

be used

if there and

were

but
so

Let may

the
never

pupil thoroughly
misuse Former of two Both

understand

of these

those

that

he

(d)
second

are

used

to

denote

respectively
**

the

first and boys

objects previously mentioned.

refers
or

(6)
lift the

to

two

objects,either collectively,as,
**

Both

can

log,"

individually, as,

Both

boys

came."

112

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(/) Same
(g)
"Ton Yon
or

denotes

the may

identical denote mountain."

object ;
any

as,

**

He

is the that

same

man."
; as,

yonder
"

distant

object

is in view

house,"

Fonder

(2)

DISTBIBUTITES.

(a)
of two other

Each

in connection as, ^^Each

with

other the

applies to
other." than
two

one

and

also to the without the soldier

other word stood

objects ;
is for the

helped

Each
; as,
*^

individuallyApplicable to right."
denotes all of
a

more

Each

boldly
believed

(h) Every
her." Either

class

taken

individually ;
other of two

as,

^^

Every

man

(c)
will

is

applicable to

one

or

the

; as,

*"

Either

book

satisfyme."
Neither
means

(d)
neither

not

either;

as,

*^

The

man

and

his wife rose, but

spoke."
(3)
INDEFINITES.

(a)
to be

All

includes either
can

the

whole

class,and
**

may

denote as,
^^

that All the that

the
men

objects are (working

taken

collectivelyor

individually ;
men are

together) they
must

lift the

log ;

"

All

mortal,"
of

is,individually portion
t?ie of

die. is

(5) Any quantity (c) these; (d)

"

applicable
**

to
or

one

or

more
**

class,or
this

to

; as,

Any
or

man

men,"
not
**

Any
same

coffee."
as or

Another

other

means

the

not

same

as

as, **-4no(Aer Certain denotes

man,"
one

OiAer
some

men."

or

of

class;

as,

**

certain

woman," colors,"
^^

Certain

women."
means
' '
* '

(e)
* *

Diocrs

different,various,
Divers
a

or

numerous;

as,

**

Divers

Divers

kinds,

places.

' '

(/) Enough
bread."

denotes

sufficiency; as, number;

**

^^

Enough

men,"
chosen."

Enough

(g) (h) money," (j) (k)

**iVb

Few

denotes denotes

small
a

as,

Few
*'

were

Little

small

portion;

as,

little

sleep,"

^^

Little

**Zi"^e

sense."
a

(i) Many
Much No

denotes denotes
means

large number;

as,

^^

Many
^^

crimes."

large in quantity;
any, either

as,

Much

improvement."
; as,
"

not

of number

or

quantity
of
or

No

man,"

silver."
None
means

(I)

not
no

one one

or

not

any.
more

When than
or no

one

a a

number

is referred
a
**

to, it is better
use

to say
**

; when
are

one,
one

part of

quantity,
None

none;

as,

None

(of men)

here,

is

here,"

(oi

bread)

is left."

REMARKS

ON

DEFINITE

ADJECTIVES.

113

(m)
help
The
one

One

is

generally
**

used

in

connection parse

with such
a

another;
sentence
as

as,

"They

another.''*

It is dltficult to
one

it stands.

meaning (n)
Own

is,

Every
to

person

helps

another
more

person." emphatically;
than
two

is used

express

possession

as,

"My

ow/iland."

(o) Several
times."

denotes

any

small

number

more

; as,

"

Several

(i?) Some
"

denotes

number

or

quantity indefinitely ; as,

as, "At

"

Some

books,"

Some

wheat."
means

(q) Sundry

various;

sundry

times."

301. (a) (b)

and
etc.

ni.

NUMERALS.
the

cardinal

adjective

answers

question,

How

many

f as, one^

two, three, four, etc.

An ordinal

adjective answers
be known

the

question,
; as,

Which

one

in the series?

may But

usually
an

by
in

its form

first,second, third, fourth,

its form, whenever page it marks
or

adjective is ordinal,regardless of
of
an

the the

position
tenth

object

series;

as,

"Read

ten,"

"Read

page."
the indefinite

(c)

See

numerals, they
are

several, few, and

many,

under

the

indefinite

pronominals, Classes of

where

commonly

classed.

302.

Adjectives with
of

Keference

to

the

Manner

of Modification. and into descriptive adjectives definitive the adjective is based itself, the idea it upon The same adjectivedoes not belong to both expresses. and yonder^ a defini' classes. Thus, strong is a descriptive, tive^ adjective. But the basis 304. on according to another classification, 303.
"

The

classification

of the
to

manner
one

of modification, the of three classes.

a

same

adjective may directly.

complete
a

belong

any 305.

It may
a

modify
same

substantive

It is then

caUed verb
a

direct
at

adjective. It may
time

copulative

and

the

predicate adjective. It
a

such

way

as

to express

modify its subject. It is then modify the direct object in may is the result of the a qualitythat
a

verb's action.

Then

it is

resultant

adjective.

114

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

306.

Direct
as,

Adjective i%

one

that "A

a modifiei

substantive

directly ;
(a) 307. and
"

"A
in any

beautifulchild,"
construction
may be

strong arm."
by
a

noun

modified

direct

adjective.

Predicate

Adjective is
^^

one

that
"The

the predicompletes cate child is

modifiesthe subject; as,

is strong,
in mind
a

beautiful^'^

His (a)
and

arm

Bear

that

predicate adjective always modifies

In "He is
a

the may

ject subsay

completes

predicate.

strong man,"
a

we

strong

is a^

adjectivein the Besultant

a manner

predicate^ but it is not

one

predicate adjective.

308.

Adjective is
as

that
a

modifiesthe
result

direct

object in such
action
;

to

express the
^^

of

the verVs
"

as,

"

Fresh

air made
arm

child

cise beautiful^'' Exer-

made

the

man's
are an

strong.

(a) Resultant (6)

are never

often active

called verb

factitiveadjectives.
can

Since

only

take

direct

object,possive reference to

verbs

followed by
Since
a

resultant

adjectives,
a noun

(c) (d)
'*

resultant called
a an

adjective modifies
adverbial

with

verb,

it is sometimes
When

adjective.
a

verb

followed

by
"

resultant

adjective is changed
a

to

the

passive voice,
He

the

resultant

adjective becomes

predicate adjective ; as,

painted Use

the

ceilingfc^tie,'* The of the

ceilingwas

painted

blue,^^

old, cold, long, followingadjectives: infirm,reckless, rich, rare, right, strong, mighty,faithless^
309. each

innocent, beautiful, famous, furious, frantic, wild, worthy,

^

wise, mindful, mad, mighty, sick, well, angry,

weak, strong,
"

: intelligent, acceptMe, agreeable, intelligible patient,

(1)

-48 direct, (2) As

Predicate, (3) As

Besultant,

COMPARISON

OF

ADJECTIVBS.

310. Some Some

men

Most
are

of objectsexist qualities wise

;
are

in different still
more

degrees.
beautiful;

others, wiser

and

others, wisest.
the of

landscapes

beautiful; others,
This difference

others, most

beautiful.

in

degree

REMARKS

ON

DEFINITE

ADJECTIVES.

115

quality is expressed by a variation called comparison. adjective,

311.

in

the

form

of

the

Comparison

is

variation

in the

form of

the

adjective

to express

degrees of quality different est; ; as, Ibng^longer^longmost more good^ better^ best; profitable^ profitable^ profitable.
DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

312. of the
313.

There

are

three

degrees formed

by

the

comparison

adjective.
The Positive is the

used simpleform of the adjective^ when an object is not compared with any other; as, Cold days, good deeds, practicallessons. 314. expresses when
two
more

The
a

Comparative

is the

form

of

the the

adjective that

higher or
objects are

lower

degree

than
as,

compared;
;

deeds,

practicallessons

or,

less

used positive^ Colder days, better cold days, less good

lessons. deeds, less practical 315. expresses The the

Superlative is the form

or highest

of

the

adjective that
any number

lowest
two
are

degree^used

when
as.

of objects more
best

than

compared;
or,

Coldest

lessons ; practical lessons. good deeds, least practical

rnost

deeds,

least cold

days, days, least

KINDS

OF

COMPARISON.

316.

There

are

two

kinds
most

of

comparison. Ascending
;

; ;

as, as,

valuable^ more

valuable^

valuable

and

Descending

valuable, less valuable, least valuable.

METHODS

OF

COMPARISON.

317.

There

are

three

methods

of

comparison

"

(1) By different terminations ; as, loud, louder, loudest. (2) By different words ; as, bad, worse, worst. less, least; as, beautiful^ (3) By prefixes;more, most;

116

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

more

beautifulor

less

most beautiful^

beautifulor

tiful. least beau-

(a) Monosyllables (h) Many est.)

Words of
more

are

compared

by changing
like is

the

termination

of the

positive; as, loud^ louder^ loudest dissyllables are (Y

after
a

; sweety

sweeter^ sweetest.

compared
consonant

monosyllables
to

as,

happy^

Jiappier, happiest,
er or

changed
words added

i, before

suffixing

(c)
could

than

two

and syllables, with

er or

of two
to the

syllablesthat positive,are comparative,

practicable,
In the

not

easily be pronounced
by prefixing to the
or

est
or

compared
and
most more, most

positive more
as, less

less for

the

least
;

for

the

superlative ;
should
not

practicable, more
least

practicable
most,

doubtful,
least

doubtful,
be

doubtful.
from

parsing,

less and

separated
method

following
less

word.

(d) Descending
and least.

comparison

has

but

one

"

by prizing

(e)
form

In

poetry

monosyllables
a

are
^^

often

compared by

by prefixes;
words

as, "A

more

fair,

face

more

sweet.

(/)

The

following adjectives are

compared

different

"

Positive.

Comparative. Better, Worse, More, Less,

or

Superlative.
Best. Worst. Most.

Good, Bad, evil, or ill,

Much
or

many.

Little,

lesser.

Least.

BEMABKS

OK

DEFINITE

ADJECTIVES.

117

Bear, Front, Mid, Middle, North, Northern, South, Southern,

East, Eastern,

Bearmost. Frontmost. Midmost. Middlemost.

Northmost, Southmost, Eastmost, Westmost,

cannot

Northernmost. Southernmost. Easternmost. Westernmost. in different

:
"

West, Western, (") Adjectives representing qualities that degrees

do
not

exist

ordinarily admit Extreme, Fall, False, Filial, Fluid, Free, Godly, Golden,

of

comparison. Infinite, Lawful, Leaden, Living, Natural, Paternal, Perfect, Perpetual,

Beverend,

These

include

Almighty, Certain, Chief, Circular, Conscious, Continual, Dead, Earthly, Empty, Everlasting, External, (1)
uncommon

Serene, Solid,
Sound,

Square, Subject, Supreme, Triangular,

True,

Gratuitous, Heavenly, Human,

above words
cannot

Bight, Boyal,

Universal,
Void. it is not very
most most

While

the
to

logicallybe compared, expressions

nearer as

find

such

rhetorical

fuller^ rounder^
nearer

certain,

most

extreme,
etc.

etc., meaning,

full,
them

round,

nearly certain,

(2)
or

In

parsing
be

such

words,
are

do

not

compare

unless

the

tive compara-

superlative forms
It will observed

used. that the

two

(j)
and of

kinds

of

comparison, ascending adjective admitting

more

descending, give us comparison

cautious. and the
j as,

in

five degrees reality

for every

least cautious, less cautious, cautious, five

"

cautious,
be

most
as

These
two

or

three, if the
as one
"

two

comparatives only degrees

be but may

regarded
can

one,

superlatives
number of

are

the

that

be

the adjective ; expressed by regularly inflecting other

by combining

it with

words,

the

degrees expressed
little
we

creased indefinitelyin-

; as, somewhat

cautious, very cautious, unusually

too

ably cautious, remarklittle too

our

cautious, exceedingly cautious, uncautious, quite

of words need
not

cautious, a
exhaust of
a

cautious,
and

wncautious. left
a

And

after

all

combinations
cannot

there be

are

great many
as

degrees
have

quality that
great many

expressed, just
termination the

objects

not qualities

expressed (k)
what The

at all

by adjectives.
ish is sometimes

given
lower

to

some

forming adjectives,
the

is called

diminutive

degree,

than

positive and

yet

118

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

different

from

the

lower

comparative

or

the lower

superlative ; as, reddish,

bluish^greenish, 318. 1. 2. 3. 1.

Parsing of Adjectives. Species.

Class. 4. 6.

Comparison. Degree.

6. 7.

Construction.
Rule.

Sub-class.
That old
man

was

sick. demon.,
and limits
"

Thati adJ-"^e^M pronom., Oldj

man^

man, pos.

R.

X. and limits

adj., des.,
X.

com.,

"

old, older, oldest,

degree,

R.

Sicky adj.,pred., des.,

limits man, The R. X. teacher
to

com.,

"

sick,sicker,sickest,
"

pos.

degree,

and

(a)

may

have

the

oral

parsing

of

nouns

and

pronouns

given according

abridged

model.

319.
A.

SELECTIONS.

(1) (2)

The Hie The How The The

silent weary

moon

ascends seeks

the starry sky.

a

traveller

quiet
the and

7*est.

(3)
(4) (6) (6)
the

echoing hills gave

many
summer

back

rumbling thunder.
broken cool. fires have almost
vows

unkept promises
breezes blow

there

are

soft and desolating

mules.

annual,

autumnal,

destroyed

well-timbered

country.
are was as a

(7)
(8) (9)

Horses Homer The On

valuable

as

greater poet than

flowers bank pear

Virgil.
little stream. sound
to the

sweetest

fringed
stood
trees
a

the

(10)
(11) (12)
B.

the grassy
are

tall

waving ash,
row.

very top.

There Who A

two

in the second

else came? little learning is

a

(1)

dangerous
not

thing ! spring.
breast. and and

Drink

deep,

or

taste

the

Pierian human

(2) Hope springs (3)

But And he

eternal

in the

thought

of his sister, proud vain of her rank

was

cold, gold.

his mother, way

was

(4)

The The

long, the wind

was

cold.

minstrel brilliant
a

infirm and

old. the

(5)

How Like

and

mirthful
out

light of

her

eye,

star

glancing

from

the blue

of the

sky

REMARKS

ON

DEFINITE

ADJECTIVES.

119

(6)
(7) (8) (10)
est fables

There And Silver She

brighter suns
milder and
moons

dispense

serener

light, night.

imparadise
have steak I
none,

the

gold
the

cooked

rare.

(9) They painted

Ancient and The

the

fence

green. the greater

history is, for

most

part,

story filled with

wUd'

legends hopeful
win

incredible. And

(11)

mind

faithful heart
the better part.

Shall

and

keep

(12)

The Roae

sun

that

Brief
over

December

day
at

cheerless

hills of gray^
noon moon.
"

And,
A

darkly circled,gave light than

waning

sadder

Whittier,

320.
la. Kinds.

Outline of Adjectives.

1".

Descriptive

or

Qualifying
Good,

Sweet, golden, beautiful,awful, Asiatic^

rushing.
IC. Common 2c. Proper: 3c. 26.
:

sour,

black. Svriss.

Australian,
Verbal

Participialor
or

JRunning, broken,

educated. An
ox.

Definitive

merely

Limiting adjectives:

Each

apple.

Six dollars.
Ic. Article. Id. 2d. Definite: Indefinite, The.

JTiat bam.

le. 2e. 2c.

A, before An,
before

consonant.
a

vowel.

Numeral. Indefinite Definite. Cardinal Ordinal

: :

Id. 2d.

*, as.

Several, few,

many.

le. 2e. Se. 3c.

One, twenty,

one

hundred.
one

First, twentieth,

hundredth.

Multiplicative: Twofold, threefold,tenfold.

Each,
:

Pronominal. Distributive Demonstrative

:

Id. 2d. 3d.

every,

either, neither.

This, that, these, those.

Which book will you have ? What

Interrogative :
make?

reply

did

he

2ai

Property
Kinds.

or

Comparison
of

variation

in

form

to

express

different

degrees
lb.

quality.

120

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE,

Ic. 2c. 25.

Ascending. Descending.
That

Degrees.
:

Ic. Positive

expressed by
A

the

simple

form

of the

adjective; positive;

as,

good, small, beautiful:

2c.

Comparative

higher

or

lower

degree

than
more

the

as,

better, less good; beautiful.

3c.

smaller,

less small;

beautiful, less quality ;

best,

Superlative :
least

The

highest

or

lowest

degree
; most

of

as,

good;

smallest, least small

tiful. beautiful,least beau-

8".

Methods.

Ic. 2c. 3c.

By By

different different

terminations words
more, ; as, most

; as,

loud, louder, loudest,

good, better, best.

;

By prefixes:
less honest

less,least
or

as, honest,

more

honest

or

; most

honest

least honest.

SYNTAX 321. 322. named

OP

ADJE0TIVE8.

Adjectiveslimit substantives.
All under liabilities to the
error

in the
:

use

of adjectives may

he

followingheads
Care

Choice, Number,

son, Compari-

Position. 323. 1. Choice. that

most
"

should

he

taken

to

select

the

adjective
intended, (a) (b) alike; (c)
See

appropriatelyexpresses
book
for the

the

meaning

Dictionary
not

and

on

synonyms

adjectives,awfuly
both with

lovely, nice, splendid, elegant, terrible,grand, bad.

Do
use
:

Good

for both

well;
alike.
an
"

less for

fewer;

or

same

or

as, both Never

''

the same,
an

use

adjective for
bad weather
;

adverb,
**

or

an so

adverb

for

an

tive adjec-

; as,

Extreme

She

looks

sweetly.'^'*

324. (a) (6)

as

2. Number.
Never Do
not
use use

them these

for
or

those. those instead of this

or

tha^ before

such

nouns

kind, sort, molasses,

etc.

(c)

After
not j six

numerals,
take the

the

words

pair, couple, dozen, hundred,

; as,

thousand,

etc., need

plural form
dancers
;

four pair
head

of of

boots; five dozen sheep.

peaches

couple of

four

hundred

REMARKS

ON

DEFINITE

ADJECTIVES.

121
used

326.
when
.

3.

Comparison.
two
are
"

"

The
are

degree is comparative
;

only
there
two
"

objects
more

compared
two;
as,

the

superlative^
taller of sister
"
"

when the
"

than is
more

"He than

is the her
"

;
was

She the

beautiful
of the

Socrates

wisest

Athenians

She

is

the

loveliest of Rules.
"

women." I. The

326.
the

degree superlOitive
is
one

is used

when it is

objectto

which "Eve

it relates
was

of those with which

women." when the

compared;
327.
to which

as,

the

fairest of

II.

The

comparativedegree
included Eve
be

is used

object
it is

it relates is not
; as,
"

among than any

those with which of her

was

compared
(a)
woman; or,

was/airer
correct to

daughters."
fairer
the she
was

It would Eve

not
was

say, her
not

either, Eve

than first

any
pression ex-

the fairest she

of
was

daughters;
a

because
or

implies,either,that
than herself In
a

woman, she
was

that

fairer

; and

the of

second

implies that place

the

one

of her

daughters.
it is is **She

(")

series

coordinate
to
more

adjectives differently compared,

shorter
ones

generally
younger,

more

elegant

first;as,
sister.'^

less hateful, and Avoid:

most

beautiful,than comparatives
and

her

(c)
wiser,

(1)

Double
etc.

superlatives;

as,

more

unkindest,
and

(2) Comparative
extremest,

superlative forms
more

of

incomparable adjectives;
etc.
comes

as,

chief est, truest,

perfect, less universal, An

328.

4.

Position.

"

adjectivecommonly adjectives may follow

predicate ; by
and as,
"

just
nouns.

beforethe
(1)
wind When
was

word
used

it limits^but
to

their
was

complete

the

The

way

long, the
infinitive
to be

cold.''^ the
*'

(2) phrase
eaten.''
^

When
; as,

adjective mother,
vain

is modified

prepositional or gold
"

His

of her

rank

"

Apples good
else

(3) (4)
stick

When When

the the

adjective modifies

pronoun
or

; as,

*'

Who
'*

came

"

adjective is resultant,
**

factitive ;

as,

They

made

the

straight,"
In poetry ; as, There but When is
are

(6) (a)
nouns,

He

thought
other

of his in

proud sister,
which

and

cold," follow their

several
are noun

cases

adjectives
and

these the
a

the

principal ones. by
both
an

(p)

is limited
as

ordinal
come

cardinal

tive, adjec-

there

question

to which

should

first. Here

authorities

122

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

have
insist

not

agreed.
a

Shall

we

say,

the

first three, or the three first? If

the

we

upon
to

literal interpretation of strictly between

two

language,
be

we

are

pelled com-

choose

absurdities.
were we

It would second

absurd

to

speak
to

of the firstthree, unless

there

also have

three, and
to
to

it is absurd different

speak
but
at

of the

three

unless first, careful usage the

reference have

three

series.

Ordinarily, I think, a
present
either is the

critic would
seems

allow

either first.

expression,
But
times some-

best

to

put

the

ordinal
to the
we

preferable to
two

other

according
of

meaning
wish
to

intended refer
one

thus, if there

are

single columns
say
we

boys,
;

and but first

to the

leaders, we
column of the first two

should

the wish

two to

first boys
refer
to

if there

is
we

double say

boys,

and

the

couple,

should

boys.
nouns are

(c) Adjectives frequently modify

are

understood

; as,

**

Many
modified

sons] [perby
will

called,but

few
or

[persons]
infinitive
as.

chos,en."
or a

(d)
a

participial
certain.
as,

phrase,
the the

clause, may
is

be

predicate adjective;
is not

To

see

stars

delightful.
an

That

he

come

Sometimes
to

adjective modifies commonly

to

entire has

sentence not
come

attributively ;
hack any An
more,

Contrary

what

occurs,

he

(e)
must
one

adjective
be

sometimes
as an

seems or

modify
two must
wore as a

another be

adjective.
dress.
some as

It
as

then

parsed

adverb,
is red

the

parsed together by

adjective ; as. The (/)

An
; as. We

iron

hot.

She
a

deep blue

adjective frequently keep

no

modifies

noun no

modified

other

word

cheap goods.

Here,

modifies

goods

modified

by cheap. (g)
The

adjectives,like, nigh,
It is better, in such the
us.

near,
cases,

and
to

next

are

frequently
words is not words like

followed

by objectives. governing
lives
near

call

these

prepositions
me.

following
Some

nouns

or

pronouns

; as. She to

He

grammarians
the

prefer

call these the

adjectivesor

adverbs, 329. (1)

the
two

and

supply

preposition

to to govern

following objective.

Review
Show

of
we

Adjectives.
have of

why

general

classes

adjectives. (2) the adjective and

class.
manner

Define

adjective. (3) (4)

three ?
are

Name and of

definie each. What

are

Name

illustrate the

sub-classes reference

of each
to

(5)
?

the

classes Define

adjectiveswith
illustrate ? may the each.

the is

of modification

(6)
how

and

(7)

What

comparison
be How do Name
we

(8) Why
? of the these

pared adjectivescom-

(9)
a

What

adjectives can
exist ?

compared
many
use

(10)

In
are

many

grees de-

quality

(11)
When

expressed by
the of
parative, comparison. com-

adjective itself ?
the

(12)

positivedegree,
two

superlative?
Three of
error

(13)
of
use

and

illustrate

kinds and

(14)
the chief forms

methods in the

comparison.
of the

(15)

Name

illustrate

adjective.

THE

VERB.

123

THE

VERB.

330*

1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 6.

The The All Have We The

snow

falls.
heat their have

boys
our

drums.
been

tasks all the

giftof
child

finished. prophecy ?
a

wish

the

to become

scholar.

lady speaking to
sentences

you

is Lolita.

331. relations have

In

these between

the and
are

italicized

words

express

substances have

attributes. words that

can

Falls^ heat^
assert
or

been

and finished^ relation

;

affirmthe
it. All

to become
are

and

speakingcan

only assume

such

words

verbs.

332.
or assume

The

Verb

is the
as:
"

part of speechthat is used

to

assert

relation;
plows;
wanted is Henry
ours.

Henry

Troy
; The

was;
to

The

house We
want

stands; They
the be house
to

want

Henry
The

to

plow;
plowing
on

They

Troy

be;

stand;
house

boy

time

being

will

soon

past ; The

standing

the hill is

(a) they (b)

include

In

the

first three

sentences state.

the

verbs

assert, but

in

the

last six

assume,

action, being, and

the word
assert
must

Here

be

taken

in

very

wide

sense,

so

as

to

interrogation and
The word

command. the Latin

(c)
to this

verb, from

verbum,
it is the other

meaning
most

word, is applied
We
can

part of speech perhaps because

what
can

important.
"

say it
a

of the verb
sentence

be said of

no

part of speech

that without

cannot

exist, of

(d)
assert

Other

parts

speech
"

"

prepositions,
can

conjunctions,
;

conjunctive
the verb
can

adverbs, and
or assume

relative pronouns it. is not

express

relation

only

(e) phrase;

The
as:

verb
"

always

single word,

but

is sometimes

verb

124

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

The The

fact

might

have

been

discovered; possession of,

be
a

property has
of every

been

taken

(/)

The

predicate

sentence
can

must

verb

or

contain

one^

for it is the only part of speech that

predicate.

OLASSinOATION

OF

VEBBS.

333. 334.

Verbs

are

classified upon their

five different Belation

to

bases.
"

(1) According to observing the sentences,

I

Subjects.

By

study,

He

studies, They

study,

we

see

that

the

form
of

of

the

verbs

is modified

by

the

person

and

number

their The

called person and

finite verbs.

fore subjects. They are thereverbs have statement, finite that their form of is often jects. sub-

number^

means

only
and

determined

by

the

person

number

their

335.
She
to

But
wants

in the
me

following sentences.
She
wants

to

plow,

him

to

plow,
She

She

wants

them

plow;
She
saw me

plowing, that

She

saw

him

plowing.

saw

them

plowing remains of their The

it will be the
same,

seen

the

form of the

of the italicized person called

not

verbs

regardless

and

number

subjects. They are therefore verbs do statement, in-finite

merely
person 336.
means

in-finite verbs. person and

have is
never

number^

that number

their

form

modified

by

the

and A

of their Verb is

subjects.
whose

Finite and

one

form

may

be

modifiedby

the person 337. An

number

of its svijecU
is
one

In-finite Verb and number

whose

form

is

never

modified

by

the person

of its subject.

THE

VERB.

125
in

(a) Owing
even our

to the

slightinflection
for person and

found number

English, the
is,except
tense,

modification
case
:
"

of

finite verbs

in the llius

of the

verb

to

"e, confined

exclusively to
I torite, He I wrote. I am. I was. He He He

the

present

writes, They
wrote.

write
wrote,

They They They

is,
was.

are;
were.

(")

The

two

forms

of the

the

in-finite verb

illustrated above

are

tively respec-

the

and infinitive transitive

participle,
has four infinitives and four
as participles;
:
"

(c) Every
to

verb

write,

to have

written,

to he

written^

to have

been been

written written.

writing,
Intransitive

having written,
have

being written,
infinitives class and

having
two

verbs

only

two

participles.
and

(d)
nouns

Some and

grammarians
adjectives,but
them
more as

of
a

note

infinitives

participleswith
of ship scholaruse

very

pronounced
the

preponderance
and any 626 that other in

regards
resemble verbs

forms closely
the

of
than

verb;
do

their of

they
is

they

part

speech

abundantly (e)
deferred
The

shown

in

discussion, Articles
of has

to 672.

thorough
the

discussion

infinitives and
his

participlesshould
of all the

be

till after

pupil

completed

study

parts of

speech. 338.
"

(2) According
sentences
the

to their
as
" ^

Action's

Relation

to

Objects.

In all such
The The

boy plows
field
was

field,
the

The

man ox was

bought

an

ox

plowed by that

boy, action

The

bought by

the

man

it will

be

seen

the

expressed by
an

each

verb

is

as going across represented

from

agent

to

an

object.
means

Such
to go

verbs
across.

are

said to be

because transitive,

transitive

339.

But

in such
The dew

sentences

as,
She walks

sparkles. expresses the

across

gracefully, of
an

while
not

each

verb
as

action
to
an

agent, it does
verbs

represent it

going

object. Such

126

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

are

said
across.

to be

because intransitive,

intransitive

means

not

to

go

340.
an

A
as

Transitive

Verb

is

one an

that

represents the action of

that does
an

agent
341.

terminating upon
Intransitive Verb
as an

object.
one

An

is

not

represent

the action (a)

takes
an

of
1b

agent

terminating upon
to

object.
verb does
as one

It

inexcusably
an

loose

define verb

a as

transitive
one

that
an

object, and

intransitive
cent

that verbs

not

take

object. Precisely fiftyper

that

of the

transitive voice

never

take

objects ;
verb

is, every
verb do
an

transitive

verb
no

in the verb

active

has

its

corresponding
an

in the every that take

and passive voice,,

in the passive We

voice
see

takes then verb

object, and
verbs

in the passive voice take

is transitive.

that many does

not

not

objects are
its action action intransitive Not

transitive. does.

transitive

always
be

object, but
Bven
an an

(")

that verb
a

terminates
; as,
*'

upon leaned verb aid

as
:

an

object
the action that

may

expressed by
sat
on a on

He

against

post," '*I
nates termi-

box.''
an

only

must

transitive the

express of
"

object ; of
He The

it must,
on

without
an

preposition, represent

the termination

the action

object;

splitthe post,
post
was

I broke The box

the
was

box. broken,

split,
transitive
are

(c)
used But he and
so

Verbs
as

commonly refer to
all
no

often as,
**

intransitive.

(1)

When

to not

definite object;
are

Henry
say she

studies, Mary
that if
must

7'eads.''^

here
must

grammarians

agreed.
if

Some reads

Henry studies, something,

is
no

study something,
the verbs But the the
are

and

Mary

read there

that

therefore of

transitive,although
any in

object
mined deterit is to

expressed. by found,
agents They
and

parsing

part of
the

speech
used any

must

always
to

be

office it above

performs
sentences

particular sentence
are so as

in which refer of

in the

the verbs
to
our

the

only,
are

without

suggesting
intransitive.
to be

minds the Thus

thought
need
not

objects.
be I saw," is

therefore for the verb

But

object
in
**

always
man

expressed
saw

transitive. but it is

He

is the its

has

no

object expressed,
In the

because transitive,

object, that,
does
; but
are

clearly implied.
both verbs
"

sentence,

''Dora

studies, but
to

Laura

not,"
in

are

intransitive, having reference

studies each

agents

only

the both
over

sentence,

Dora

algebra, but
represents
the

Laura action When

does

not," the verbs agent

as

transitive, because
to

of the the
tunes
"^"^

passing
is

the

definite

object, algebra.
as,
"

(2)
is

active

form
"

used

in

passive signification ;
is

The

instrument

easily ;

this sentence

equivalent

to

*'

The

instrument

easily tuned,

THE

VERB.

127

(d)

Verba

usually,
**

intxanaitive in
a

are

often

transitive. as, "He

(1) When
dreamed It of

they have
a

objects similar
She sang the
as

to signification
**

themselves;
lived
a

dream."
to
as

song.'*
*'

That

man

righteous life."
to

seems

be the

almost above

universal

custom

among verbs

grammarians
that govern

speak

such such be

being

intransitive
a

objects," but
should action the

expressions very plainly involve

verb
an

contradiction

of terms, and

rejected. By definition, any

as

is transitive

if it represents about
to

of the agent

terminating
It will

upon
never

object, no
found will be

matter

the

tion significafrom this but his

of
confusion.

the

object.
any When

be do
a so

necessary

depart
of "Paul used
in

and definition,

attempt
used marched love

to

productive
sense;
as

nothing
trots
a

(2)
"

in

causative

pony."
sense;

The
**

general
looked

his armies."
to

(3)
She
can

When look
;
an

poetic

as,
A

Eyes

eyes."

"

daggers."
intransitive verb

(e)
expresses

transitive

verb

expresses
state.

action

only

action, being, or
Sometimes
an

(J)

intransitive with

verb
a

in the

passive
"

form The

is made house
was

transitive

by being compounded
"

preposition, as,
"

disposed of.^^ possession ofy

We

were

laughed ai."
in in the (0."
never

The

property

had

been

taken

{g)
adverb

It may
as

be

allowable

few

cases

to
:

regard
*'

preposition or
never

an

part of the verb

"The But
a man came

active "He be

form tried

We

should

put off
is

duty."
stove."

this

should

done
not

eo^re^ tfp." "Heae^wpthe the compound except when

equivalent to
of

singleword, marring
sentences

and the

could

be

separated

into different

parts

speech (h)
In

without such

meaning.
"

as, drank of the

She

laughed herself hoarse,'* " drunk,"

words any such
no

He

slept

himself

weary,"
be
seems

"They given

themselves italicized
to

very the

satisfactory
intransitive

dispositioncan
verb the
; but

following
words
as

it

preferable

parse

the

subject of

infinitive to be understood.

342. The
two

(3) According to
sentences,
He

their

Completeness of Predication.

"

steals, and
same

He

is

thief,

may

convey

the precisely in the

meaning.
and

But

it will be

observed the verb

:

that

is completed by the predication first, both

asserts

steals,which
in the

expresses is does
not

the

bute attri-

while

second, the verb

complete
that is of
pressed ex-

the

predicate,but by another

only

asserts

the

attribute
is
a

word, thief. Steals

verb

com'

128

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

EKQLISH

SBNTBNGE.

and pletepredication^

because

it contains verb it
;

the
a

attribute verb of

it

asserts, it is called

an

attributive because

is is

complete in-

and predication^
an

only couples to
another

ject its sub-

attribute
a

that

is

expressed by
is

word, it is
the attribute

called
343.

verb. copulative An
or

Attributive
assumes.

Verb

one

that expresses

it asserts 344. attribute (a) ^he together. (b)

that

Copulative Verb

is

one

that asserts word

or

or

assumes

an

expressed by
Uteral

some

other
of the

words.
is to

meaning
few

word

copula

couple

or

fasten
than

There

are

grammatical
and verbs

distinctions verbs.
.

more

perplexing
be mastered. of what what with

between AU

attributive active

copulative
are

It must
sense

(c)

transitive differ from verb

an

in

one

verbs this: but

incomplete completes completes

care
:
"

predication.
an a

They

copulative

verbs

in

active

transitive
is

is

an

objective complement^ complement.

and and

copulative verb

attributive

Distinguish
saw a a,

George
Bob The
is
a

was

a,

farmer,

George
Bob has verb

farmer;
horse. substantive pronoun,

good horse,
of
a

good
is

(d)
an

complement
some

copulative
so

always
be Let
a

oi

adjective, or

expression always

used,
or a

It may

noun,

adjective, infinitive, participle, phrase,

clause.

the class illustrate. attribute whether

(e)
the
two

The
are

predicate

includes
or

copula
;
a as

and
:
"

an

expressed together
Paul

separately
and do

preaches, grammarians
that

Paul
not

is

preacher.
the
or

Some
the

logicians and predicate ;

but

regard
a

copula
contains

as

part of
since it

the predicate is always

can

verb

one,

is the only part

of speech
verbs

predicate.
voice
was

(/)
"

Many
was

in the honest." the verb

passive
*'

may

be used chairman." pure

or

as

copulas

; as,

She

considered

elected

(g) Although purely

is attributive. and

to

be

is the

only
to

copula,
assumes

it is often
an

It is copulative when when it denotes

it asserts

bute, attri-

attributive

merely
the

exist.

In

Whatever In
was,

is,
two

right,the

first is is attributive, and all the

was, is

second

copulative.
:

the

following
no more.

sentences

verbs
no a

are

attributive and what

(1) Troy
not

but

is

(2)
How

What
to

more,

is, will
"

be.

{h)
and

distinguish

Copulative

Verb.
to

It is often

difficult,

sometimes

impossible, in

isolated

sentences,

distinguish the passive

THE

VERB.

129
predicate pitcher
^^That

voice

from

the

copulative verb
in such
^^

to

be

v^ith
as
* *

adjectiveor participle,
was

Fq^ example,
house
was we are

sentences,

The

hroken,^^
was

The

covered,^^
unable

The

field was
the

plowed,^^ meaning,
Each may

room

papered^^*
be

etc.,

to determine

and
mean

therefore
one or

cannot

tive posi-

concerning things,which
Thus,
was

their

disposition.
be made

the

other

of two

would

evident may
or

by

the connection
to
a

in which in

it is used. which
case

The

field was
is
a

plowed
is

refer it may

particular act,
assert
a

plowed
Every

passive verb,
was

simply

the

condition

of the

in field,

which

case

copulative, and
may of be the above may f

plowed
as

predicate adjective.
answer we

declarative
we can answer. was

sentence

regarded
be

the

to a must

question,
know the
to the

and

before

dispose
done the

sentences

questions they questions :

What
was was

Thus, they
by the
f

the

respective answers
voas

What done
was some

cat

What
was

done

with

the f

boards? If so,

with

plow
was

What

done
was

with

the paper
are some answer

broken,

covered,
act

plowed, place
sentences

and in

papered time, in

passive verbs,
manner, the
to

referring to by
the tfiot the
some
:

that

took

some

and tions ques-

actor.

But you did

if the
not

are

intended

to

Why
f

did

buy the pitcher f

not

Why
the

did he

prefer
Why

sleep in
she like

house
room

Why

he in

walk
was

through
is
a

field f

did

best f

then,

each,

copula, asserting of the

that know
**

subject
verb that broken is is

condition

expressed by
a

the

adjective
we

follows. that

If the
act
was

modified referred

by

phrase denoting
not

manner,

it is the

to, and
s

the condition.
was

Thus,
is

in

77^
a

child^s heart

by
A

its mother^

death,^^
without

broken

evidently

passive verb expressing

would that broken be indeterminate. is followed

the action, but

the time "2%e

phrase
may

its construction

phrase expressing
been is of many

modify
and

copula
been

by

a s

predicateadjective. In
death,^* has

child's heart

has

since its mother^

clearly a copula,
Copulas.
other
"

broken pure
as

b,

predicate adjective,
is
some

(i)
verb
to

ClaaaeB

The
are

only
used
no seems

copula
impure
use

form In the

of the

be, but
is is

verbs

copulas.
to assert

She

is

happy,

purely copulative,having
In the
are

other

than

bute attri-

happy.
etc., the verbs

sentences,

"Ife

honest,"*^ ^^They purely

adverbial

appear "J?e
use.

well,^'*
came

almost
seems

purely copulative,but
to be
we

in the sentence, in its of

hurrying,
between

^^

hurrying
two

almost

And

these

extremes

have

all the different varieties sits erect,

a
'^

predication
apple
tastes

by copulas;
sweet,"
**

as,

^^They

look

tired,'' ^^He
"

^^The

-Hie came the

attended,"
is

She

walks

queen,"
and

etc.

In each

of these in
struction. con-

examples
she has

complement
the last

partly attributive partly that copula

etc.

partly adverbial
is shows her of
to be a
a

In
a

sentence, for example, the meaning

her is
a

partly
and

that

queenly walk, and complez

; as to
or

walk

queen,
an

(j)
impure
**

double such

combination
**

pure be

copula
appear

in be

expressions

as,

She

seems

to

happy,"

They

good,"

130
(k)
that
man

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Uses

oi

the

Verb three the

To

Be.

"

It may
uses
"

be
as as

well
an a

to

note

in

passing
*^

the verb
was

to be has

distinct
;

one

auxiliary ;

as,

The

playing
or

with

children
are a

and

two

principal verb,
be determined may take its

either

attributive

copulative, which
of of home''^
are

explained
may word

above. often that "^e

(I) Thus,
many

The

construction the construction

a

phrase
the is the adverbial as, house verb
to

by

termining de-

single
same

place.
But

^'"He times
as

is without

as

is homeless.''^
are

phrases

that

in

construction

incorrectly
In this
tence sen-

regarded
such the be
means

predicate adjectives ;
attributive,and
in the the
as

*^IIe is be

is in the house.''''
an

is is

adverbial

element. that
cannot

ever Whenexist
in

phrases foUowmg
are

expi'essattributes
this

agents, they
determined
**

used
the

predicate adjectives,but
of the sentences. Is is copulative, and the
same

always
'*

from

form

Thus,

''''He is in health

Health
sentence

is in him.^"* of
is in

in health is in in Texas into

is
"*

is the attribute.
^*

But
mean

the
''^

exactly
him.^^ verb
;
"

form,
be
"
=

^^

He

Texas,

does

not

Texas An

Is is attributive, and may She

owner

adverbial.
a

(m)
the

attributive

often

expanded
*'

copula
;
"

and
**

an

attributive
owns
**

complement
farm
"
=

giggles

She
;
"

giggler
your

He
=

"

He of

("the thy

of the farm

Pay

debts

"

Be

thou

the payer

debts."

345.

(4) According
verb that
are are

to

their

Form.

"

Certain

forms

or

parts of the
from these

called

Principal Parts,
parts
are

because

it is

all the called

other
:
"

obtained.

The

principal parts
346.
or

Present

Indicative found

the in

the

form

always

simple form of the verb, the English dictionary ; as,

of the
9aWy

see^

plow^ am.
Past

347.

Indicative

the

form
as,

word

used

to represent

past time
348. Perfect time

indefinitely ;
Participle: the
other the

plowed^ was.
the Past verb that
presses ex-

form

of the

more

than definitely

Indicative, by
or

relating it
349. The

to

some

time, either
; as seen^

past, present,

ture, fu-

implied by

sentence

plowed^ been.

that some verbs forn;i examples show and perfect their past indicative participle by changing the ending of the present indicative to ed; as, plow^ plowed^ moved, moved; plowed; move, plant, planted, planted; above these
are

called

regular

verbs.

THE

VERB.

131
their called

360. and

The

verbs

that

do

not

form
are

past indicative
verbs. irregvlar Indicative Present

in perfectparticiple A

this way
one

351. and

Kegfular Verb
to ed.

is

that

forms

its Past

Perfect Participle by changing the ending of the

An

Indicative 352.

Irregular Verb
and Indicative

is

one

that does

not

form

its Past

Indicative

Perfect Participleby changing the ending

to ed.
"

of the
353. 354.
as,

Present

Irregularverbs are of three kinds : Complete: those having a full set of principal parts ; lacking as, beware^ ought^quoth. Redundant those having :
;

write^ wrote., written,

356.

Defective:

those

some

of

the

principal sufficiency

parts
366. of

more

than

principalparts
(a)
Some active

as,

cleave. eat, strike, also, the present principal parts

; as,

grammarians

name,

active
to

and infinitive
to

the

present

participle as being.
of the before ed

see,

plow,

to

be; seeing, plowing, (b) Often,

must
as

in

case

verb

love, the final

to form

of the present indicative

be

dropped

is added

the

past indicative

and

perfect participle. (c)

The is perfect participle often

called the

past participle ; and

the

past indicative, the imperfect.

(d) Strong
stole, stolen ;
of participle
a

and

Weak

Verbs.

"

strong verb is

one

that

forms
; as,

its

past indicative and

perfect participleby varying the root vowel but not Commonly, always, sing, sang, sung.
strong
and verb ends in
en.

steal,

the

perfect
\t"

weak

verb

is

one or

that
t to the

forms

past indicative
indicative
;
as

perfect participleby adding ed, d,

; hear, heard the ; that classification with
not not

present

abash, abashed
be observed

felt. feel,
of verbs that all into strong and into

(e)
weak

It will

corresponds closelybut
All

not

completely
weak,
but

irregularand
are

regular.
strong.

strong

verbs

are

irregular,but
are were

irregular verbs
verbs
are

Also, all regular verbs

all weak their

ular. reg; but

Originally all
there has been
a

our

verbs

irregular in
to

conjugation
and Those called
most
t.
are

tendency
the

for them

form

the jr past indicative

fect perthat weak

by adding participle
have

to the

present ihdicative, ed, d, or

the

yielded
those

to

tendency, including all regular verbs,

have withstood

verbs;

that

tendency, including

of

our

Irregular verbs, are

called strong verbs.

132

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

IBBEGUUkB

YEBBS.

357.
most

following list irregularverbs, and

redundant.

The

shows
also

the what

principal parts
verbs
are

of

defective

and

what

Every student of English grammar, that speaks the English language, should one master verbs, for it is in the iise our irregular
358. arise
a

indeed

every

thoroughly
of these that

multitude
List of

of the

grossest

errors.

359.
In in the alike.

Irregnlar Verbs.
we are

using irregularverbs,
use

liable to

error

for the

most

part only
not

of

those verbs may

whose have be

past indicative
therefore learned been

and

perfect participleare
separate
that that the the from denotes
"

These

and given first,

r

the

rest, that
form may

they

perfectly,
of the other.

regular
form
der un-

also be

used

instead

denotes of

it is seldom form second as,

^^

used, being ancient, poetic, or

to
some

late introduction. is

The The
;

supposed
form of

be

of verbs

the is

best

present

usage

placed
in
a

first.

preferable, when silks," fraught

^^
"

applied
with the

certain way

freighted

with

spices and

mischief

;"

**thunforms.

der-strwcA;,"**sorrow-s"ricA;ew."

Memorize

only

unmarked

1.
Present, Past

The
Ind.

Two

Past

Forms
PreeefU.

Different.
Past Ind.

Perfect Part. been. arisen.

r

Perfect Part

Am, Arise, Awake,

Bear

was, arose.

awoke,

r.

awaked,
,

Bid. Bite, Blow,

Break
"

I awoke.*

bore, bare, bom. bore,

r

(bring forth) ^
Bear borne.

bid,bade.{j;j bit. {Jf'^.

blew, r.,* blown, broken,
broke.* r.*

{carry), Beat, Become, Befall,

r

/^^^""
I

beat. became, befell, begot,

beaten,
f^.j,

brake,* chid. chose,

,.,

I beat. become. befallen.

Caiide. Choose, Cleave, {adhere)

,

I^^j^
chosen.
.

chidden,

begotten, begot.

Beget,

cleaved, 'i
*

t begat,*
*My
tongue

^ I clave,

clave

to

the

roof

of

my

moxiih.**

"

Dickens.

IBBEGXTLAB

VEBBS.

133
Past Ind,

Present.

Past
f

Ind.

Perfect Part,

Present,

Perfect Part,

Cleave

clove,cleft, cleft,
cloven.
come.

Know,
Lade

knew, laded,

known.

\ clave, (^split),
Come,
Crov^r, '
Dare
"

laden,

r.

came,

Qoad), Lean, Leap,

Lie

'\
/

crov^red.

leaned, {leaned, leant,

ISant.
r

I crew,

leaped, lay, mowed, proved,

rent,

leaped, 16apt.*
lain.

/dared.M
I durst,
J

^^^

\l6apt,*

{venture), (Dare
"

(repose), dared, dared.) Mow, Prove, Rend, Ride, Ring,

mown,
r.

challenge, """"
Do, Draw,
Drinko ,

i^

'

{tt}
did,

"-^
done. drawn.

I proven.*

drew,
drank, i"".
""
,

rode,
rang, rose,

'

{ZTied.** {'^^^
rung, rung. risen.

drank.* driven.

Drive, Eat, Fall, Fly, Forbear, .orge, Forsake, Freeze, Freight, Get,
Give, Go,

drove,
ate,

Rise,
eaten.* fallen.

Rive, Run,
Saw,

rived,
ran,

riven, r.*
run.

fell, flew, forbore, forgo, forsook,

froze,
f

run,*

flown. forborne.

sawed,
saw,
r "

sawn,
seen.

r.

See,

{J^^^*-' Seethe,
o
.1.

seethed,
' ^

seethed.
jj sodden.

I sod,

forsaken.

Shake,
frozen.

shook, shaped, shaved,

shaken.

freighted,

Shape, Shave, ^^"^'^

Show,

{^^^^

freighted. goti,
gave,

I fraught,

fgot,
I gotten.*

given.
gone. graven, grown.
r.

{**;^' ''^''"'"'"{sh^^'l
showed, r shrank,
'

went,

shown,

r.

Grave, Grow,
f

graved,
grew,

shrunk,
shrunken.*

",

"^

t shrunk,

Heave,
Hew,

heaved,' hewed, Md,

heaved,
,

'

".

I hove,

hoven.*

hewn,

r.

Hide.

{Jif".
^

1
*
**

**

This
as

line he the

dared
came

not

cross." when

"

Macaulay.
are

Beholden
"

withholden.'

Come

winds

forests

rended,^*

W,

Scott,

134

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SEKTEKGE.

Past

Jnd.
(

Ptrftd

Part.

Present.

Smite,
Sow

smitten, Swear,
r.

smote.

I smit.
sown,

sowed,

Swell, Swim,

Speak,

spoken. {spoke, spake,*

"I

Take, Tare, Thrive, Throw, Tread, Wax, Wear, Weave,

f

Spit,

rspit,

spit, spitten.*

\ spat,*
f

Spring, Steal,

sprang,

^
f

I sprung,

sprung. stolen,

threw, r.,* thrown, trodden, {trod, trode,

trod.*

r.*

stole,
f

Stride,
I

strode, strid,
r

stridden,
strid.

waxed,
wore, wove,

f ""

waxed,

'

I waxen.
worn.

Strike, Strive, Strow,

2.
Present,

struck,

struck.

I stricken,

r.,*
'

woven, written.

r.*

strove, r.,* striven, r.*

strowed,
The
Pasi

Write, strown,
Past Perfect
abode,
r.

wrote, wrote,

-I

I writ,* y

Two
Jnd.

or Part.

the

Three
Present.

Forms
Pa^ Ind.

Alike.
Perfect Part.

Ahide, Behold, Belay, Bend,

Bereave,

abode, r.,* beheld, belaid, r.,

bent,
r.,

r.*

Burst, Buy, Cast, Catch, Cling,

f

burst, bought,
cast,

burst, r.*

beheld.

bought.
cast.

belaid, r. bent,
r. r.

caught, r.,* caught, r.*

bereft, r., besought, bestead,* bet, r.,

f

bereft,

clung, clothed,
cost, crept,
cut,

clung. clotlied,
clad.
cost.

Beseech, Bestead,*
Bet,

besought.
bestead.*

Clothe,
Cost,

t clad,

bet,

r.

Betide, Bind, Bleed,

betided, bound,
bled,

betided,
betid.* bound. bled.

Creep, Cut, Deal, Dig,

r

crept.
cut.

I betid,*

dealt,r.,* dealt,r.* dug,

r.,

dug,

r.

blended,
blessed,

blended,
Dream,
blent.*

dreamed,

dreamed,
dreamt.

Blend, Bless, Breed, Bring, Build,

Bum,

1 blent,*
f

I drgamt,

blessed,
Dress,
blest. bred.

I blest,

dressed, {dressed, drest,*

drest.*

bred, brought,
built, r.,

Dwell, Feed, Feel, Fight,

Find,

dwelt,
fed, felt,

r.,

dwelt,
fed. felt.

r.

brought. built,r.
burnt.

burned, {burned, burnt.

fought, found.

fought
found.

IRREGULAK

VERBS.

135

Hang,
"

hanged, hanged
is not

to

suspend
seize

by the neck
*

with
as

intent
an

to

kill ; but
or as

the
a

distinction
noun.

always

observed.
to

Past

is used
^

adjective

Rap, stop.

rapt, rapt:

with

rapture.

Stay, stayed, stayed:

to

caiue

to

136
PreMnt.

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTEKGE.

Fastlnd.

Perfect Part,

Preeent.

Poet

Ind,

Perfect

Part

Sting,
r

Stung,

stung.
'i

Wring,
Beware, Can,
Do Have

wrung,

r.,* wrung,

r.*

stunk,

Stink,

\ stank,* J
rsw^t,
r.,

stunk.

String,
Sweat,

strung, r.,* strung, r.*

sw6at.
swet.

could.
/

(aux'y) did.
,,"^

Iswet,

Sweep, Swing, Teach, Tell, Think, Thrust, Wake,

f

swept,
swung,

swept.
swung.

May,
Must,

might,
must.

taught, told, thought,

thrust, woke,
r.,

taught.
told.

Ought,
Shall,
r.
.

ought, quoth. should,

V
,
.

thought.
thrust.

woke,
wed.*

Wed, Weep,
Wet, Win, Wind,

wedded,
wept, wet, r.,
won,

wedded,
wept.
wet,
won. r.

(aux'y),/
(Will^

would,

I wed,*

vsish,he- V willed,

willed.)

queatht) J
Wit,
r.

wound,
f

r.,

wound, worked,

Wot,*

wot,* wist,* wote,*

worked, wrought,

Work,
I

Wis,* Weet,*^

}
"

wrought.

the From tences, sen(5) According to their Bank. I plow," I can plow," I will plow," I must that the action is expressed by the verb see plow," we used to are mu%t^ plow^ and that the verbs can, mH, cause the manner of the expression. Bemodify, in some way, they are used thus to aid other verbs, they are called either be used verbs that auodliary verbs; whUe may with or without called principalverbs. auxiliaries are 360.
"

"

"

"

361.

Auxiliary Principal
without

verbs

are

those

used

in

the

conjugation
used

of other verbs.
362. with (a) might; (6)
used all
men as

verbs

are

those

that

may

be

either

or

auxiliaries.
are

The can, Be

auxiliaries

be and

have

in all their

forms

do, did; may,

often that

could; must;
have

will, would;

shall, should.
and will
**

and

in all their
; as,
"
*'

forms, do, did, would,

**

are

principal verbs
were

I do the work,"
me

He

did

it,"

I would

honest,"

He

willed

his

property."

THE

VERB.

137

(c) An auxiliary verb (1) Progression; as,

(2) Passivity; (3) Time;
"*

may
**

express
men was

"

The

are

building
broken.^^

the bam."

as,

**

The

bowl
were
"

as,

**They
**

talking'^ (past).

"They
do have "*I

are

tdlking*^ money."
not
see

(present). (6)
him."

They

toill talk

(future).
did "I tell me."
can
**

(4) Emphasis
Power
or

; as,

You as,

You

the could

ability;
**

assist

you."

(6) Completion;
him."

as,

I have

finished the work."

in." "It may rain

**

I had

not

heard

(7) Permission; (8) Probability

"You may die

as,
or

**

You

may

come

possibility;
; as, "The

as,

before

night."
he

to-day." question might

be pay reasonable me."
"

(0)
to

Beasonableness be there."

be

asked,
shall

how

pened hap-

That ; as, as,

"
" "

is,it would
You
must

to ask.

(10)

Compulsion

shall

He

obey^

(11) Necessity ;

We

sufferthe

consequences."
the

(12) Duty;

as,

We as,

should
"

be

respectful to
pay do." of you the
or

aged."

(13) Willingness;
(14) -4dap"a"ton; (15)
?
"

I would wJM

you

if I could."

as, "This

Tendency;
This idea

as, "The as,

bloom
"Do

youth
believe

will

fade away."
^^

(16) Interrogation;
you is

her?"

Shall

assist

expressed by
Promise,

position of the

auxiliary.
"I will have it"

(17) Determination,
"

Command;
sJialt not

as,

You

sJmU

have

your

money."

"

Thou

steaV^

USES

OF

THE

AUXHilABIES.

363.

(1)

Do

in the

present and
"

did in the do

past
the

are

used

for emphasis ; as, principally "I did give it to you." 364. (2) Can in the present the power or abilityof
act ; as, "I
can

You

have

money."
past
press ex-

and the She

could

in
to

the

agent
could

perform
past
"

the

do the work." in the

"

fill my

position."
press ex-

365.

(3) Hay

present and
; as,
"

might
mat/

in the

or permission liberty

You

stay."

It

might
been,"

be done." (a) Might

May
wish often sometimes expresses

possihility ;
as,
"

as, "It be
a

might

have

expresses is

probability ;
before
"

She

may
to

sick."

(6) May
; aB,

placed
I go ?

the

subject
you

ask be

question

or

express

^^May

'^May

always

happy."

138

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(c) Can
book?"

is often "*Ca" the

incorrectly
children

used with

for

may;

as,

^''Can

use

your

play

me?"

866.
or

(4)

Hnst

expresses "That as,' you "We admit

mu"t ;

necessity
"

tual, physical,intellecthe horizon

moral;
"If

star

must

be above

to-night."
867.
no

his

premises, yoMmust
truth."
"

accept

his conclusion."

tell the

(6) Shall,should
words in the

will,would.
more

four

language guilty
a

perhaps, frequentlymisused
are,

There

than

and %halU shovld^ toill^

are

would. of

Even

our

very

best

writers would
can

sometimes

using
is the

will

for sTtall^ or
that

for

should; but
for such these
to

carelessness

only excuse
either that

be

offered

blunder, and
the distinction it.

whoever

persistsin
he is
to

misusing
too

words
master
to

must

acknowledge

ignorant
or

that

ought

be

made,
368.

too

careless
"

observe the

Eules.

(1) Shall,in
and of

first person,
a

simply /oremand^ promise^com-

tells ; in the
or

second

third, it expresses
the

determination "You "The

speaker.
the reward."

"I

shcillknow
"Thou shalt

presently."
not

shall have
nation

steal."

shall be free." first person, determination

not

(2) Will, in the a promise or expresses

369. the "I

but only foretells^ the

speaker; in and third, it only foretells. "I will pay you." second the will have will be pleased with pay." "You my
"

of

book." 370. mode "We

or

He

will When
use

come

to-morrow."
sense

(3)
would

the

demands for
we

such

change
for

in the will.

tense,

should
if

shall^and
could."

would "You

assist you

should

try

again."
(a)
the In

interrogative
or

sentences,

shall external

denotes
to the

that

the

act

is under

volition

control

of the

something
control

agent, and

loill

implies

thfttthe

act is under

of the

agent.

STtalllgo?
Will jou

Shall
Will

jon he

go?

Shall

he

go?

go?

go?

THE

VERB.

139

Will

can

never

be used the very fine

in literally

the

first person, than he

for knows

no

one

can

be

supposed
very may which
common

to know

speaker^s will
forcible effect. the form The of

better

it.

But

by

and with

rhetorical

figure,will
is in

in the

first person
to

be
a

used

figure is Interrogation, according

a

sentence

having
If the
to

question
a

realitya
without

very

tive posi-

declaration. intended

question
an

contains

negative particle it
but Will money
^'

is generally such
my
a

imply
a
^^

affirmative
answer.

answer;

particle it suggests money?"

tolerate means, his slander "Will

negative
"

Thus,
demand my

I not
^^

demand
''^

I certainly will means, used

**

; and

Will

I
^

/ certainly will not third person be

tolerate

his slander.^
a

(6)
truth of the

is often

in the than

simply
"

to express

general
tense

more

emphatically
; as,
*"

it could vHll

expressed by
Flowers shall

the

present

verb When

Accidents verb "If

happen."
leave the will
an or

will die." denotes but the

(c)
\mt leave

the as,

is in the he

subjunctive mode,
before determination
or

nothing
shall

futurity;
before

shall

Monday;"
of is

**He

Monday"
sentences

expresses in which
we

speaker.

(d) Many
shall the
or

would

correctly used, require

an

should

when idea

introduce will

adjective or
would. of idea

adverb the and

to express
'*

additional

expressed by
expresses

Thus, futurity
we
y

sentence,
also the
an

will grant your idea

or an

request,"

the

tional addi-

of the

speaker^s pleasure ; but

the be

when

introduce should
or

adjective changed
to

adverb

to express

speaker^s pleasure,
to

will

be "I

shall;
that

as, ''I shall

happy

grant your
be

request,"
grant your
to be

shall

gladly

grant your
it would

request."

*'I will

happy

to

request," implies

require an

effort for the

speaker has

happy. said

371. these

General four

Snles.

"

All may

that be

been up

concerning
tvfo

auxiliaries
:
"

summed

in the

eral gen-

rules 372.

(1) Shall or should represents independent of the volition or control of hy the subjectof the verb.
373.

the what

act

or

state

as

is

represented
as

(2) of

Will

or

would
or

represents the
control

act

or

state

pendent indehe is

the volition the

of

the

unless speaker^

also

hy represented
The
own

subjectof
accustom

the verb,
to

(a)
both his whether of the of

student

should and

himself

observing thoughtfully
purpose
as

language
act to be

that

of others, for the is to be

of

determining
the the control

the

expressed
which from is

represented
the

tinder

speaker,

of that

represented by

subject of

verb,

or

something

different

either.-

140 (6)
The

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

following quotation
will of sfMill

is from

Richard

Grant

White

'*

The

cal radi-

of signification
; that

(Anglo-Saxon willan)
(Anglo-Saxon
"

is purpose,

mination intention,deter-

sceal, ought) is obligation. I will

to

do

means,

I purpose

doing
do

I
as

am a

determined
man

do.

I sJiall do what
to

means sees

radically,/ ought ought

mere

to do ; and
came

is I
am

supposed
about
or

to do
"

he

he

to

do,

/ shall

to mean,

doing

be, in fact,a
But
we so

announcement do means,
an

of future

action, more ought

announce some

less

remote.

you
mean

shall
to

radically,you obligation,
or

to do ; and
an

therefore,unless
on

impose
over

to

action

the

part of another
of the
we mere

person, future

whom

we

claim

control, shall^
person, is it is the volition future

in

speaking
other

voluntary
you
so.

action

of another

inappropriate
of the

; and

fore thereto do
or we or

say thus
or

will, assuming that Hence,

in

person say,
own we

merely announcing
will ;

action, we
on our

shall, you,
on

he,

or

they
I.or

and,

in

declaring he,

purpose

part,
mean

the part of

another, obligation, or
say,
we

unavoidable
or

action, which
shalV^

to

control, we 374. (1) (2) (3)

He You

will, you,

they

Examples.
shall do it. it. shall do it. it. it.

(Speaker*s determination, or promise.) (Speaker's determination, or promise.)

(Mere futurity.)

I shall do He You

(Mere futurity. )

(4)
(5) (6) 375. (1)

will do
will do

I will do

it.

(Futurity,or entreaty.) (Determination.)

force of the auxiliaries in the
sweet

Explain the
Will Will What you it be shall dark

following:
"

give thanks,
before I do ? Then To A leave Paradise child this

Kate,
reach

or

else shall I ?
tower

(2)
(3)

you

the

(4)

wilt

thou

not

be shalt

loath possess

paradise,
thee.

but
"

within I to

Milton,

(5)

This She

myself
of my

will take

;"

shall be mine, and

A

I will make

lady
of

own.

The To

stars

midnight
she
a

shall be her

dear
ear

her ; and
In many

shall lean
secret

place, wayward
sound
"

Where And

rivulets

dance of into

their

round.

beauty
ShaU

bom pass

murmuring
her face.

Wordsworth.

THE

VEBB.

141

(6)

Shall I, wasting in despair.

Die because love woman^s me,
ere

fair ? believe

If she

then

I will die

she

shall

grieve.
"

Wither*

(7)

If she She

hate

me,

then

believe

shall

die ere

I will
"

grieve.
Jonson^s

Ben

Parody

on

the Aboioe,

Try each of the auxiliaries,do^ 6", Aave, way, can^ rrvuBt^mighty could, would, should, shall,will,in each of the
876.

following blanks,
the

and

observe
:
"

the

difference

thus

made

in

meaning
(1) (2) (3) (4)
You I believe He Do you

of the

sentence
room.

leave the
that she

pay

me.

study
say let

grammar. I alone.

that
us

accept it

(5) They 377.

reasons

Fill the

following
selection

blanks
:
"

with

shall

or

will,and

give

for
I I If you If you
It

your
be the be be

(1)1
(2)

loser in that
;

trade.

drowned

nobody
wrong.

help

me.

(3)
(4)
Ch\

punished
a me

if I do

mistreat mistreat

friend you rain ?

me,
we

you

regret it. regret it

Qa;

probably
1 assist you

to-day.
I be
not

(7)
(8) (9) (10)
If you He

favor
not

obliged.
allow it. it ? I drink

do

it ; this

you If he he

have be

coffee,or
he ?

(11)
(12) 378.

in

time,
you

accept

the

position.

accompany

Fill

the

blanks following/
your selection.
to

with

should

or

would, and

give reoMonsfor
(1) (2)
I I I We
not

be able him think be

repeat it correctly.
if he do you if he
" r"

pay
not

to-day
she

demand such
a

it

(3)
(4)

thing.
us.

pleased, if
his

favor

(5) He

pay

debts,

get his pension.

142

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(6)
(7)

We He He
was was

do

unto

others he

as

we

have hurt
"

others

do

unto

us.

afraid afraid

that that

be

(8)

his father

commit

suicide.

PEOPEETIES 379.

OF

VERBS.

(A)
the

(1) (2)
the

Frost The

bites the flowers. flowers

are

bitten
so

by

frost.

In stands
the the

(1)
verb

verb

bites is

for
are

doer

bitten
or

frosty subject, in (2), of the act or affent. But makes its subject,flowers^ represent
the act This distinction
or

used,

that

its

receiver of verbs

objectof
is called have

erty prop-

voice.
seen

380.

(-B) We
and that
to
now

that

every

sentence
a

expresses

thought
have relates

every the

thought
manner

refers to
in which This

reality.
the

We

note

sentence

the

thought

to the

reality.
its sentence

property of the
the tion rela-

verb, by which
of
381.

it enables

to express

is mode. thought to reality, declare (1) A sentence may

the

fact

of

agreement

between
TJie mail

thought
arrives

and
on

reality; as,
train,
"

the morning

Indicative

mode.

(2) A sentence determining the relation

The mail may train,

382.

may

express

the

idea and

of power

as

between

thought
or

reality;as.
arrive
on

(can, must,
"

might, could, would,

mode.

should)

the morning

Potential

383.

(3)

sentence

may

express

the

idea and

of mil

as

determining
Bring 384.

the
on

relatipn between
the

thought
"

reality; as.

the mail

morning may

train,

Imperative

mode.

(4)
or

sentence

express,
to

(a)

doubt

as

to

the

agreement^

thought
V
the

and

as (6) certainty reality;as,

the disagreement^between

maU

arrives

on

the morning

train^

we

shall

go.

If

the mail

THE

VERB.

143

had mode.

arrived

on

the

morning

train^

we

should

have

gone.

"

Snbjtmotlve

885.

((7) Verbs
as,
I have

are

inflected

to

mark

differences

in

time;
I go,

gone;

I went,

I ?iad

gone;

I sMll

go, I sImU

have

gone.

This
386. person

property

is called vary of

tense.

(jD)
and

Verbs

their

form, too, according

to

the

number

their

subjects; as,
goes,

I go, he

they

go.

These

properties are

called
VOICE.

person

and

number.

887. the

Voice

is the

property of the verb

the doer
or

that

shows

whether
the
act.

svhject represents
are,

the

receiver

of

There 388.

therefore, two
Voice the doer

voices, active and passive.

in which
as,
cover
"

Active

is the voice

the verb Homer her

makes
wrote

its the with

subjectrepresent
Iliad." flowers."
389. "She "The

of

the act; "I will

blames

me." rw"a."

grave

boy
Voice

Passive

is the voice in which

the verb makes

as,
"

its
was

subjectrepresent
written

the receiver
"

of by

the act;

The
"

Iliad Her

by

Homer." with
that

am

blamed me."

by

her."

grave

shall be covered (a) Only

Yoice. verbs

flowers
express

action

can

proi"erlyhe
verbs voice
an

said

to

have

(")
hut this

It is claimed

by

many

that
A

only

transitive active upon

have if its

voice

position is
the verh
case

untenahle.

verh
act

is in the terminates

subject
or

represents

actor, vvhether

the
;

object
make

not. ;
a

If it does, the hut in either

is transitive it is in the the

if it does
voice. of

not, the
It is

verb

is intransitive voice

active

to illogical

distinction is

concerning
active become
^^

termination

the

act

upon

an

object, for
and the

that

provided (c)
The active
=

for in the classification voice the is is

of verbs

into transitive

intransitive,

changed
in

to the

passive by making
Thus,
*'

object
studies many

in the

subject
studied
were won

the

passive.
Anna."

**Anna
won

algebra^''
battles
^^
=

Algebra

by

Napoleon

"Many

battles

by Napoleon."

144

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(d)
the the doer word

'When of that

the the

verb
act

is in the its the

active

voice, the word

is in the

that

represents
case, and

is

subject, and
receiver the

nominative

represents
; as,
^^

of the act

is its

object, and
the verb
act

is in the is in the

objective case passive voice,

and of the as,
*'

John that

struck

boy,^^
the the

But

when

the

word

represents
case, and

receiver word

of the

is its subject,

is in the is in the

nominative

that

represents the doer

the

act

objective case, usually governed by

struck verbs An it has

preposition by

The

boy
the

was

by

John.^^ the
two

(e)
have

Transitive

have

voices,
verb the
can

while

.intransitive verbs
be

only

active.

intransitive
no

never

changed
made the

to

the

passive voice, because

in the

object in passive
form the of

active

to be

subject

passive.
The elements of the voice the verb
are
:
"

(/)

(1) (2) (3) {g)

we
'*

some

to

be,

hetoTQ of
a

perfect participle,
verb, the
we

transitive
to
use

It
not

is very know
was

convei^ent
the

passive
to

voice,

either

when

do The

actor,

or

when

wish

conceal

the

actor, as,
used
*'

crime The

committed.'*^ form
; as,

(h)

passive
active

of
"

intransitive The

verbs

is sometimes
are

by
The

enallage (i)
This ablest

for the

melancholy
used
**

days

come,^^ for

melancholy
The
"

days
active The of

have

corned is sometimes is

voice

by enallage
work
our

for

the

sive pas-

; as,

state-house

building.^'*
warranted
on

The

is

doing ^
best
vmters

form

expression
no

is now

by
the

very

and
seems

and critics,
to drive

amount

of protest

part of grammarians

sufficient

it out

of the

language.
EXEBC;[SES.

390.

(1) Tell the voice of (2) Change the voice and

(1)
(2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (0)
Sarah William That He How poem
was

each

verb.

preserve
at the

the

meaning of

th$

sentence.
astonished
nevTS.

bought
was

book.

written

by

Saze.

will find his money. do you the

spend
river

your before

time I
saw

? you.
one.

I crossed We The She He desire

man

to be
was as

loved

by
a

every lion.
to

killed if she

by

looks
seems

wanted

speak.

(10)

sad.

THE

VERB.

146

MODE.

891.
manner

Mode

is the

property

of the
to

verb

that denotes

the

in which

thoughtis
differ
as

related
the number

reality,
of their the
to

{a) Languages
that the Arabic but
to
a

to

modes.

It is said

has

thirteen, the Hussian

Grammarians

seven, differ
as

Sanscrit number of

six, and
of

the
"

Anglo-Saxon
that

four.

the

modes the is
as

belong

particularlanguage
of

; but
a

the

number

modes,

like Mode modes

number the
manner are

of classes of forms
a

words,

is

merely
; but

matter

of convenience.
as

expression.
of

There

might, therefore, be
as

many be

there

expression
would

this number

would

almost

nite, infi-

such

classification is
or a

be

worthless.
term.

(6)
of
an

Mode

grammatical
manner

It does
; it is the

not

mean

the

manner

action^
expresses

the

of

thought

manner

in which

the

verb

the relation

between

thought
MODES.

and

reality,

FINITE
.

392. may

All

the the

different relation

manners

in

which

finite verb

thought and realitymay modes be included under the four explained above, and Subjunctive. Indicative^Potential^ Imperative^
express between
"

393.

The

Indicative

is

the

mode

in

which
:
"

the

verb

presses ex-

agreement
He
came.

as of thoughtwith reality^

He mode

did not may be

come.

Did in

he

come

f in

(a)

The

indicative

used

assertions, in denials,or

questions. 394. The

as :

Potential

is the the

mode

that

expresses

the

idea and

of power
as reality^

determining
"

relation

between
it.

thought

can

do

it.

He

could

do

395. expresses

A
:
"

verb

in

the

potentialmode
go,''''
It may
*'

most

commonly

(1) Power; (3) Liberty (5) Duty;

as,

'*

can
**

I could
"

go.^^
It

(2) Possibility; as,

or

rain,^^
**

might
have

be done.^^ lY."

permission
as,

; as,

You

may
see

(4) Inclination;
as,

I would

like to
pay

him."

"You as,
^^

should
^^Yo\x

him." leave,'*^

(6) Necessity;

must

(7)

Wish

; "s,

May

jou

succeed,^''

146

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(a) Occasionally
consequence,

verb

in

this

mode

expresses

tendency,
used

tion, adapta-

contingence.
the

(") (c) by
the the

The

potential, like
it be done f'

indicative, may
the

be

interrogatively; always
is be known before

as, ''Could The form

potential mode,
of the

unlike rather

subjunctive, may
an

verb,

or

by

auxiliary that

placed

verb.

(d)
can,
''

The

auxiliaries

that

are

the and

signs

of the

potential mode

are

may,

must,

might, could, would,

in
to

should, and than toill when

to

Shall,
rather

the the

sense

of

must,

it expresses
; but

volition,
to

belong

potential mode
are

the

indicative
as

avoid
to

troublesome indicative

distinctions, they
mode."
"

always

considered

belonging

the

Kerl, of the

(e)
the he

Since

all the tenses it

potential
that

mode
a

may will the

be

used

in the

tional condi-

sentences,

frequently happens
also the he

verb

have

sign
as,

of

subjunctive,
would

and

auxiliary denoting
improve/*
The Here

potential;
study
the is

^^If the the

study,

might
tense.

would governs

in

subjunctive mode,
second,
the
tense.

past

first sign

mode;

396.

The
as
:
"

Imperative is the mode

that

expresses

the

idea and

of

will

determining
Leave

the

relation

between

thought

as reality,

us.

Do

stay with

us.

(a)
addresses
not

When
as,
an

the

speaker
the verb the prayer
an

addresses and

an

inferior, the sight!"

or a

verb

expresses the

command;
lea^e

''Avaunt

quit my

When exhortation

speaker
^'

equal,

expresses

entreaty
addresses Give verb
us

; as, verb

Do
presses ex-

me."

When
ox

speaker
; as,
**

superior, the day

a our

supplication

this

daily
the

bread." noun pro-

(6)

The

subject
of

of

imperative
be
"

is
or

usually
pronoun thee." i7."
"

second

person third

understood
or a

; but

it may first ; as,

noun

of
"

person, call my
to our

pronoun
"*

the be
we

Buin
*^

seize So be

Somebody
toe

wife." theme.
"

Hallowed
' *

thy

name.^^
''

Proceed

then

Pass

then.

(c)
be

The

imperative
sentences

is used

chiefly in principal sentences quotations

; as,
''

; it is used

in

subordinate

only

in direct

God

said. Let

there

light." 397. The

Subjunctive is the mode

or

that expresses
as

X^)

doubt

as

to the

agreement,

(6) certainty
as :
"

to

the

disagreement,

between

thoughtand

reality ;

THE

VERB.

147

If he
If he

t8

honest,

he

will

please
he would

me.

Jiad been

honest,
mode

have

pleased

me.

(a) (")
be, the
Earlier of the away. the

The

subjunctive

is used

only

in

subjoined (subordinate)
will doubt continue
to

sentences.

The
source

subjunctive mode
of much
as

has

long been,
the

and

no

perplexity to
many But best other

pupil, the teacher, and

still have, has almost
no a

the author. form

English had,
verb

languages
and the

distinct

for this mode. of the from the the very the

this distinction writers

entirelypassed

Many

speakers
form is

longer distinguish
far from
Mode
never

subjunctive
that

indicative

by

of the verb.
seems

But, although

distinction

in form

obsolescent, it
ever

right to
meant
manner

say

subjunctive mode

will
means

be obsolete.

/orm
of

in any

lQ,nguage.
may be the

Mode indicated

manner

of expression.
of the

The their

expression
be

by

the form of other

words, by
but is it
no

relative exists

position,or
and
must

by

introduction the than

words,
There

always
matical gram-

recognized by important
The

grammarian.
this, and
that
a

distinction mode is to

more

to

give

up the

subjunctive
that
our

give
no

up

mode

altogether, and
loss of of
to

is to

acknowledge
for the be almost

language
mode

has

granmiar.

distinct
seems

form
to

subjunctive
a

is but
on

another the

manifestation
our

what

mination deterBut mar gramwords ; then

part of

language
if it must the of

get rid of all its inflection.

go, the

after all its inflection

is gone,
;

English
must to

will

have

surpassed by
and determine grammar

none

for then
nature

student the

go back be

of the

the

exact

thought dignity
but of

expressed
be

English (c) (d)

will be

elevated
may

to the

logic. always,
knowii
tilL often
case

The

subjunctive
of these indicative
sentence
cases

mode

usually, though

not

by
lowed fol-

being preceded by ^, though, lest,unless, except, whether, that,

Some

words,

if and

most

frequently, are
This is the of
a

by
doubt.
must

the

instead

of the
an

subjunctive.
admission

when
or

the subordinate In such

expresses
we

instead the be be form

condition

cannot

be the

guided by
to cannot

of the verb, but Sometimes the verb

is

determine

the

mode the In the

from
exact

thought
"

expressed. known,

in isolated
cannot

sentences

thought

then

be

parsed.
**

sentence,

If he

is

honest, he
expresses
to be

will pay
a

you,"

is subjunctive, because in the

the subordinate f8 honest, he

sentence

condition

; but

sentence,

If he

is liable

mistaken,"
an

is in the

subordinate

sentence

is indicative, because still distinguish the is the

it expresses

admission. the indicative

(")
was

Were
wast.

and

wert

subjunctive
that is mode

from

and

This

only

distinction

always

observed. the
^^

(/) sign

The
*'

verb Were

is sometimes I in her have

in the

subjunctive
would

without

usual he

; as,

place, paid

get my

lessons."

Had

requested it, I should

him."

148

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

IN-FINITE

MODES.

398. which

The

Infinitive and
asanmea

the

Partioipialare

those modes state, instead

in

the verb

the action^ the

same

being,or
form

of
the

affirming it, and

person and number

retains

regardless of

of the subject. (See Article 626.)

TENSE.

399. the time

Tense

is that

property of the verb by which

it denotes

of

relation,
has reference ; tense
not to

(a)
that of

While

mode
or

the

manner

of expression of
a

and

not

to

being

of

thought

denotes the time

the time of the

real
or

relation, that
of the sion. expres-

is,of action, being, or state,

thought

400.

Corresponding
are

to

the

three

arbitrarydivisions
Tenses
I shall
:
"

of

time, there
Present, 401.

the

three

Primary
; Future,

I write

; Past, I

vsrote

write.

Each

of these three

primary

tenses

has
:
"

perfect tense^

thus

making

Secondary
written have ; Past

Tenses Perfect, I

Present Future

Perfect, I

have

had

written

Perfect, I shall

written.

402. I

2%e. Present

is the tense

that denotes

present time;
denote

as,

plow.
403. The
Present

Perfect that

is the tense extends up

that may

any

period of past
present;
404.
as,

time

to^ and

ends

withy the

I h"ave
Past

plowed.
tense

The

is the

that

denotes

indefinitely any
the time

past time;
405. any The

as,

plowed.
Perfect is the tense that denotes

Past
more

of

past

event

it as completed definitely by representing

before the

occurrence

of
he

some

other

past event;

as,

I had

plowed
406.

the The

field when Future

as,

planted it.
that denotes

is the tense

indefinitely any

future time;

I shall

plow.

THE

VERB.

149
that denotes

407.

The

Future
event

Perfect
more occurrence

is the tense

the time
as

of any

future

definitely by representing it
of
field when
some

completed before the

as,

other he

future event;

I shall have

plowed
FORMS

the

plants it.

OF

THE

TENSES.

408.

The
to
;

Present denote

Tense habitual

has

three

forms:
or

(1)

The

simple
at

form
times that The
as,

action,
The

what

is true
to

all

as,

I write. is
now

(2)
to

progressiveform
on;
a

denote

the

action

going
express

as,

am

writing. (3)
more

emphaticform
I do write.

thing with

emphasis

(a)
(6) single

The

progressive form
act.

always

distinguishes a
instead up of
to

continuous

from

an

instantaneous The

present

tense
; as,
**

is often He This walks

used

the the

past
man

to

denote knocks

past action
him

(walked)
the the

and

(knocked)
their

down." the

is called

historical
orator

present
to

It is used animation
to

frequently by

historian, the
tense

poet, and

give

description.
present
is often used
j as,
**

(c) The
future will

instead When

of the he hasBxi

future

when

the he

is conceived about it."

of

as

present

opportunity
what

speak
The

(d)
true

present

tense

is used

to

denote with it does

general regard
not

truths
to

or

is

at all times.

This

statement

is true

principal
hold. of any but
"

sitions, propo*'

but earth is
a

in subordinate and
**

propositions
The
sum

always

The
is

sphere," ^two
that the the
sum

of

the

three

angles
j

triangle
Columbus

equal
believed

to

right angles,"
earth of
is
a

are

correct

sentences
^^

sphere,"
three
to

and of than

Some

old

mathematician
to two

proved

that

the

angles
more

any

triangle is equal
all the

right angles,"
the
most

cannot

claim the
our

be

elegant examples
that claim
to

of

false and the

syntax, notwithstanding
warrant

sanction writers
a

of and

nearly

grammarians
use

of

nearly English.
nor

all

speakers
a

faultless neither

Such

sentence
can

expresses

logical contradiction,
a

and that

usage

grammarians
in had
to

long
after

preserve its

form

of has the

expression
once

implies inconsistency
out.

thought,
no

absurdity
it is not

been

pointed
of the the earth

Columbus
sentence

belief,or
such years he
was a

at

least

intention

above

express hundred

belief,about
after his death

what

the

shape of
was

would its

be

four
at

; his

belief

concerning

shape

the

time

believing, and

that

is

just what

150

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

the

sentence

ought
about

to

expresa
as a

*^That

the

earth

is

sphere*^
would much would very
ever a

has

not

always
been truth
*^

been

regarded
*'

general truth, or believing

it. flat It earth

nothing
was

have

said

Columbus that that the

just as
no one

general
say,

to Aristotle

was

";

and

ever

Aristotle for

believed the
most

the

earth
to

is flat.*' what
*^

It is indeed truths
are

difficult,
truths. soul
is

even

learned,
would would souls of have

know
us us

general
that the that

Most

grammarians
but became because the than and
; but

say, say,

Plato
**

believed believed
tense

immortal/'
of
one men case

they
the the is
a

have

Plato

the

souls in the
case

beasts.** is still held

The
; the

present

is used other

belief
now

past tense
could the be
tense to

in the
more

because absurd

belief such

given
for

up.

What

ridiculously
a

standard the
to
common

determining
schools standard all

of able have

verb
to

Our
rectly cor-

boys

girls from history

had
to

ought they
had

be

speak

according
of

such

would that

to be

familiar know

with what would

the

thought through
and in what

times,

they might
and that could

theories have

endured
masters

ones

been

abandoned, they

they

be

theology
in such

and

metaphysics
before subordinate

they might
determine Such

distinguish general
upon
matters

from the

contingent truths,
verb

the

tense

for

sentences. not principles,

must

be

determined of

wholly by grammatical By
follow the
a

by

a a

perfect knowledge
unless above the the could verb be

everything.
cannot

law

of

sequence

of

tenses

present in the subordinate

in the

past in the

principal sentence,
All such
as

subordinate

sentence

is in-finite. the the

the in is
to

correctly expressed by
sentence,
that of because the verb. finite
'*

using
of

present
present

infinitive infinitive reference earth the

to
same

subordinate
upon of is
a

the

time

dependent
the time

verb, and

is present with believed the

the

finite

Columbus it
was

be

a as

sphere**
*^

good
believed

sentence,
that the

and earth

expresses
a

precisely

Columbus

sphere.**

409.

The

Present
to

Perfect any

Tense

has two of
;

forms

(1)

The

simple form
up

denote

period

past time
as,
"

extending
written.^^ of I have

to, and
The

(2)
been

ending with, the present form to denote progressive

the

I have

the

continuation
to ; as,
"

the act

through
^^

period of
has

time

referred

writing.
The
to

410.

Past

Tense

three

forms

(1)

The

simple
wrote,'^ of
to
an

form

indefinitely any past time; as, "I continuation form to denote (2) The progressive action through any past period not extending up
denote

the

THE

VERB.

151 The

present;
denote
411.

as,

"I

was

writing,'^ (3)
as,
"

emphatic form
forms
:

to

emphasis ;
The
Past

I did

write.^^ has
act two
was

Perfect

Tense

(1)

The
in
a

that the simple form to denote period of past time that extended other some specifiedpast time letter before
to

completed
ended written I had

up
;

to, and
"

with,
the

as,

he

called the of

for

it."

(2)
as,
"

The

form progressive
the abovethe been

denote

that

action

continued
;

through
I had

named letter 412.

period
before The
to

past time
called Tense for has

writing
The

he
Future

it."
two

forms

(1)

simple
event;
denote future

form

the time of any future indefinitely shall write,^^ form to (2) The progressive as, "I of the act through some the continuation period of time; as, "I shall he writing.'*^ denote (a)
It must be remembered denote time that time very the

past

tense

and but
**

the may I went

future, when
be followed

not

assisted adverbs will

by adverbs,
that denote

indefinitely ; definitely ;
as,

by
*'

the

yesterday.'''*

He

come

to-morrow.^^

413.

The

Future

Perfect

Tense
an

has
act

two

forms be

(1)
ends

The in
a

simpleform to denote that period of future time that future other specified some
the letter (a)
used Here

will up
as,
"

completed

extends time
;

to, and

with,

1 shall have written

beforehe
calU^ which
with

calls for it."

is present the word

tense, refers

to future

time, by being

in connection

before, the action is to time

;

(2)
continue
as,
"

The

form to denote that progressive period through the above-named

been

of future he

I shall have

writing an
IN EACH OF

hour

when

comes."

SIGNS

OF

THE

TENSES

THE

MODES,

ACTIVE

VOICE.

414.

The (1) (2)

Indicative
Present Past
: :

Mode

has

six tenses
verb verb

"

Simple form
indicative

of the of the

; I write, ; I wrote.

Past

152

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(8) (4) (5)

Future Present

Shall

or

will before

the simple
or

form

; I shall vyrite, the

perfect: Have,

hath, has,

hast

before

perfect
I

participle ; I have
Past had

toritten.
or

perfect

Had

hadst

before

the

perfect participle;
before the

toritten.

(6)

Future

perfect :

Shall

have,
have

or

will

have,

perfect

participle ; I shall

written,

415.

The (1)

Potential
Present may
:

Mode
can,

has
or

four
must

tenses
before

"

May,

the

simple form ;
before the

write,

(2) (3) (4)

Past:

Might, could, would,

I might write,

or

should

simple
before

form;
Present the Past

perfect: May

have,

can

have,
have

or

must

have

perfect participle :
before the

I may could

written.

perfect: Might have,

have, would
I

have,
have

or

should written.

have

perfect participle ;

might

416.

The

Snbjimctive Mode
or

most

commonly
it may the
same

has be
as

the in

Present^
any

Past^
and

Past

Perfect;
The

but

used

of the

six tenses. Potential.

signs are

in the

Indicative

417.

The (1)

Imperative
Present:

Mode

has

one

tense

"

Write,

418.

The (1) (2)

Infinitive Mode
Present Present have
:

has
the

two

tenses

"

To

before To

simple form;
before the

To

write,

Perfect:
written.

have

perfectparticiple; To

419. (1) (2)

written.

The
Present Present

ParticipialMode
:

has
in

two

tenses

"

The

form

that

ends

ing

Writing, perfect participle; Having

Perfect :

Having

before

the

420.

Change

each

of

the above

verbs

to

the

passive voice^

preservingits

tense.

THE

VERB.

153

PEBSON

AND

NUMBER.

421. which number

"

Person

and

Nnmber

are

the

properties according to
to

the of

verb the

changes

its form
as,

suit

the

person

and

subject;
number

"I

write.^*

"He

writes.^^

They
(a)

lorite.''
and

Person

belong only
their form

to

finite verbs. person and

Infinitives and
number of their

participles never subject. (")

haiW* Certain called
"

change verbs,

for the

whose
or

subject is usually
unipersonal
this is not Such and
a

the
as,

pronoun

it, are

times some-

impersonal

verbs;
verbs

**It thunders.^^ has for

**It been their

It

freezes.''^But
best of different the

and good distinction, do often have

rejected by subject nouns (e)

number As

the

grammarians.
persons modification

numbers. of

rule,

English

verbs

for

person

and

is confined

to the

present

tense.

422. of

Style is sometimes
There
are

named

as

one

of the of

properties
verb:
"

verbs.

four

stylesor

forms

the
am

(1) Common^ (3) Solemn^

I love. Thou lovest.

(2) Progressive^I (4) Emphatic^ You

OF VEEBS. in form

loving.
did love.

nfTLEOTION 423. may Infiectioii is any

to

variation

that

verb and

undergo
The

indicate

voice^ mode^
of

tense^ person^

number^ and
424.

its

principal parts,
a

Conjngatlon
;

verb

is the

naming
in form
a

of

its

principal parts
its different and number
;

its

Synopsis is its variation

tenses^ in

through
denote its

voices^ modes^ and

while Inflection is

single person
to

used chiefly

complete variation
persons, the
terms

through
These

all

its voices^ modes,

are

tenses^
to

and

numiers.
most

the

by
Move best

grammarians,
with the able
care

but the

meanings given not by all.

of the

Let Be
we

the

class

study
on

inflection

verbs

and may

given
become

following pages.
to

In this way form

know,

from

the

of any

verb, its voice, mode, tense, person,

and

number.

154

GRAMMAR

OF

THK

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

425.

A.

THE

VERB

"BE."

Pbincipal

Parts.

Pteaent^ Be

; Past

Indicative^ Was

Perfect Participle^Been.

INFI^ECTION.

OEDINARY

AND

SOLEMN

STYLES.

INDICATIVE
PBESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1.

Plural,

Style,

Solemn

Style.
1. We
are. or

am. are. or

2. 3.

You

Thou it is.

art

2.

You

ye

are.

He, she,

3.

They

are.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I
2.
was. were. or

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We
were.
or

You

Thou it
was.

wast.i

2. You 3.

ye

were.

3.

He, she,

Thfey

were.

PRESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I have
2.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We have
or

been. been. it has been. Thou hast been.

been.

been. ye have been. been.

You

have

2. You 3.

3.

He, she, or

He, she, or it hath

They

have

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. 2. I had

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We had
or

been. had been.

or

been. ye had been. been.

You

Thou been.

hadst

been.

2.

You

3.

He, she,

it had

3.

They

had

Be

in the

present and

Wert

in the

past

are

old

forms,

not

used

except in

the

Scriptures.

THK

VBEB.

155

FUTURE

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I shall be.
2.

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. We shall be.
or

You

will be.
or

Thou it will be.

wllt.be.

2. 8.

You

ye

will be.

3.

He, she,

They

will be.

FUTURE

PERFECT

T"K8E"

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I shall have 2. You 3. will have
or

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We shall have
or

been. been. Thou wilt have been.

been. beea

2. You 3.

ye will have been.

He, she,

it will have

been.

They

will have

POTENTIAL
PRESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We may
qt

I may You

be. may be.

or

be. ye may be. be.

2. 3.

Thou be.

mayst

be.

2.

You

He, she,

it may

3. They

may

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. 2.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We

might

be. be. it Thou

might
or

be.

You

might
or

mightst

be.

2.

You

ye

might
be.

be.

3.

He, she,

might

be.

3.

They

might

PRESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I may 2. You 3. have may been. been.
Thou

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. We mayst
have

may
or

have ye may have

been. have been. been.

have
or

been.

2. You 3.

He, she,

it may

have

been.

They

may

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I
2.

Plural.

Solemn been. been.

Thou

Style.
1.

might

have

We

might

have

been.

You

might
or

have it

migrhtsthave been.

been.

2.

Youorye

might have been.

have been.

3.

He, she,

might

have

3. They

might

156

6BAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

"

SUBJUNCTIVE
PRBSENT

MODE.

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style,

1. If I be. 2. If you 3. If be.
or

Plural

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we

be.
or

If thou it be.

be.

'

2.

If you

ye be.

he, she,

3. If

they

be.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I 2.
were. were. or

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we were. or

If you

If thou it
were.

wert.

2. If you 3. If

ye

were.

3. If

he, she,

they

were.

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I had been. had been.
or

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we

had
or

been. ye had been. been.

2'. If you
3. If

If thou been.

hadst

been.

2. 3.

If you If

he, she,

it had

they

had

IMPEBATIVE

MODE. Plural. 2.

Singular.
2.

Be,

or

do

thou

be.

Be,

or

do

ye

or

you

be.

INFINITIVE

MODE.

Present^ To

be.

Perfect, to

have

been,

PABTICIPIAL

MODE.

Present, Being.
the may
tenses

Perfect, Having conjunction if

be made all the

been.

Remarks. Indicative We

"

(a) By
Potential

using
Modes three
no

tenses
or

of

the

and above

conditional

subjunctive. only
in

give (6)

only
be

the has

usually given.
is

The

verb

progressive style, and

emphatic

the

Imperative.

THE

VERB.

157

426.

B.

THE

REGULAR "MOVE."
Principal

TRANSITIVE

VERB

Parts.
;

Present,

Move

; Past

Indicative, Moved

Perfect Participle^Moved.

INFLECTION.

OBDINAET

AND

SOLEMN

STYLES.

ACTIVE
INDICATIVE

VOICE.
MODE.

PRB8BKT

TBN8B.

Singular. Ordinary Style,

1. I
move. move.

Plural,

Solemn

Style,
1. We
move. or

2. You 3.

Thou it moves.

movest.
or

2. You 3.

ye

move.

He, she, or

He, she,

it moveth.

They

move.

PAST

TBNSB.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1. I moved. 2. You 3. moved.
or

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We

moved.
or

Thou it moved.

movedst.

2. You 3.

ye moved.

He, she,

They

moved.

PRBBBNT

PBBFBCT

TBNSB.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We have
or

I have You

moved. moved. it has moved. He, she, or It hath

mored.

moved.
ye have moved.

2. 3.

have

Thou

hast moved.

2. You 3.

moved.

He, she, or

They have

PAST

PBRFBCT

TBNSB.

Singular,
Ordinary Style.
1. I had 2. You 3. moved. had moved.
or

Plural.

Solemn

Style,
'

1. We 2. You 3.

had
or

moved.
ye had moved.

Thou moved.

hadst

moved.

moved.

He, she,

it had

They

had

158

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

FUTUSB

TBN8B.

Singular. Ordinary Style,

1. I shall 2. You 3.
move. move. or

Plural,

Solemn

Style,
1. We shall
or move.

will

Thou
move.

wilt

move.

2.

You

ye

will move.
move.

He, she,

it will

3.

They

will

FUTURE

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style.

1. I shall have
2.

Plural,

Solemn

Style,
1. We 2. You shall have
or

moved. moved.
Thou wilt have moved.

moved. moved

You

will have

ye

will have

3.

He, she,

or

it will have

moved.

3.

They

will have

moved.

POTENTIAL

MODE.

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular,
Ordinary Style.
1. I may
2.
move.

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. We may
or move.

You

may

move. or

Thou
move.

mayst

move.

2. 3.

You

ye

may
move.

move.

3.

He, she,

it may

They

may

PAST

TENSE.

Singular,
Ordinary
1.

Plural.

Style.
move.

Solemn

Style.
1. We

might

might
or

move.

2. You 3.

might
or

move.

Thou
move.

mightst

move.

2. 3.

You

ye

might
move.

move.

He, she,

it

might

They

might

PRESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I may 2. You 3. have may moved. have
or

Plural,

Solemn

Style,
1. We may
^^

have y" ^^^ have

moved.
^^"

moved. have

have^im^^*^'
moved. 3.

^^^

moved

He, she,

it may

They

may

moved.

THE

VERB.

159

PAST

PBRFBCT

TBNBB.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You mightest
have moyed.

might

have

moved. moved.
Thoa

might
or

have

moved. have

2. You

might

have

ye

might
have

moved.

3.

He, she, or

it

might

have

moved.

3.

They might

moved.

SUBJUNCTIVE
PBESENr TENSE.

MODE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1. If I
move. move.

Plural. Solemn

Style.

Style.
1. If
we move. or

2. If you

If thou it
move.

move.

2. If you 3. If

ye move.

3. If he, she, or

they

move.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I moved. 2. If you 3. If moved.
or

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we

moved.
or

If thou it moved.

moved.

2. If you 3. If

ye

moved.

he, she,

they

moved.

PAST

PBRFEOT

TENSE.

Singular.

Plural. Solemn

Ordinary Style.
1. If I had 2. If you moved. had moved.
or

Style.
1. If
we

had
or

moved.
ye had moved. moved.

If thou

hadst

moved.

2. If you 3. If

3. If he, she,

it had

moved.

they

had

IMPERATIVE
PRESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular.
2.

Plural.
move.

Move,

or

do

thou

2. Move,

or

do

ye

or

you

move

INFINITIVE

MODE. Present

Present, To

move.

Perfect, To
MODE.

have

moved.

PARTICIPIAL

Present, Moving.

Present

Perfect, Having

moved.

160

OBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENGB.

PASSIVE
INDICATIVE

VOICE.
MODE.

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1. I
am

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We
are or are

moved.
are

moved. ye
are

2. You 3.

moved.

Thou

art moved.

2.

You

moved.

He, she, or

it is moved.

3.

They

moved.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I
was

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. We
were or

moved.
were

moved. ye
were

2. You 3.

moved.
or

Thou

wart

moved.

2. You 3.

moved.

He, she,

it

was

moved.

They

were

moved.

PBESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1. I have 2. You been moved. have been

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You have
or

been ye have

moved. been moved

moved.
Thou hast been moved.

3.

He, she, or

it has

been

moved.
or

3.
it hath been

They

have

been

moved.

He, she,

moved.

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style.

1. I had 2. You been had

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1, We 2. You had
or

moved. mdved.
Thou hadst been moved.

been ye had

moved.
been

been

moved.

3.

He, she, or

it had

been

moved.

3.

They

had

been

moved.

FUTURE

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I shall be 2. You 3. moved.
Thou wilt be moved.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You 3. shall be moved.
or

will be moved. it will be

ye

will be moved.

moved.

He, she, or

moved.

They

will be

THB

VERB.

161
TBKSB.

FDtURB

PERFECt

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I shall have
2.

Flurdl.

Solemn
moved. moved.
wilt have

Style.
1. 2.
been

been been

We You

shall have
or

been

moved. been

You

will have

have ye v^rill

moved,

Thoa

moved.

3.

He, she,
moved.

or

it will have

been

8.

They

will have

been

moved.

POTENTIAL
PRESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1.

Plural.

Style.
be moved. be

Solemn

Style.
1. 2. We You may
or

I may

be ye

moved. be

2. You

may

moved.
Thoa

may
be

moved.

mayest be moved.

3.

He, she, or

it may

be

moved.

3. They

may

moved.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinal^ Style.

1. I 2.

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We
2.

might

be

moved. be moved.
Thoa

might
or

be

moved. be

You

might
or

You

ye

might
be

moved.

mightst be moved. be mOved. 3.

3.

He, she,

it

might

They

might

moved.

PRESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I may 2. You have may been have been
Thou

PluraL

Solemn moved. moved. mayst been

Style.
1. 2.
hav"e been

We You
moved.

may
or

have ye

been have

moved.
been moved

may
have

3.

He, she,
moved.

or

it may

have

3.

They

may

been

moved.

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I

Plural. Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You
have been

might

have

been

moved. moved.
mightst have

mi^it have
or

been
have

moved. been moved

2. You

might
or

have

beeu
Thoa

ye

might
have

moved.'

3.

He, she,
moved.

it

might

been

3.

They

might

been

moved.

162

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

SUBJUNCTIVE
SUBJUlfCTIYE

MODE.
FOBH.

The of the

sabjunctive
best writers

form

of

the and

Sabjunctive using only

Mode the

is

obsolescent, many
form.

rejectingit

indicative

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I be moved. 2. If you 8. If be moved.
or

Plurai.

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we

be
or

moved. ye
be

If thou

be moved.

2. If you 3. If

moved.

he, she,

it be

moved.

they

be

moved.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style.

1. If I
were were

Plural,

Solemn

Style.
1. If
we

moved. moved.
If thou
wert

were
or

moved. ye
were

2. If you 3. If

2. If you
moved.

moved.

he, she, or

it

were

moved.

3.

If they

were

moved.

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1.

Plural.

Style.
been had moved. been

Solemn

Style,
1. If
we

If I had

had
or

been
ye

moved. been moved.

2. If you

moved.
If thou hadst been

2. If you
moved.

had

3. If

he, she, or

it had

been

moved.

3.

If

they

had

been

moved.

IMPERATIVE
PRESENT^

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular.
2. Be

Plural, moved. 2. Be

moved,

or

be thou

moved,

or

be ye

or

you

moved

INFINITIVE

MODE.

Present, To

be moved.

Present

Perfect, To

have

been

moved.

PARTICIPIAL

MODE.

Present, Being moved.

Present

Perfect, Having

been

moved.

THE

VERB.

168

PKOOKESSIVE

STTIiE.

ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
PRB8BXT

VOIOE.
MODE.

TBNSB.

Singular. Ordinary Style,

1. I
am

Plur"U.

Solemn

Style.
1. We
axe
or are

moving.
are

moving.
ye
are

2. Tou 8.

moving.
it is

Thou

art

moTlng.

2. Tou 3.

moving.

He, she, or

moving.

They

moving.

PAST

TBNSB.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1. I
2.
was

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We
were or

moving.
were or

moving.
ye
were

You

moving.
it
was

Thou

wert

moTlng.

2.

You

moving.

3.

He, she,

moving.

3.

They

were

moving.

PRBSENT

FBRFECT

TEXSB.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I have 2. You been

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You have
or

moving. moving.
Thou hast been

been ye have

moving.
been

have

been

moving

moylng. 3.
been

8.

He, she, or

it has

been

moving.
or

They

have

been

moving.

He, she,

It hath

moylng.

PAST

PERFECT

TBNSB.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I had 2. You been had

PlurcU.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You
hadst been

moving. moving.
Thou

had
or

'been ye had

moving.
been

been

moving.

moving. 3.

3.

He, she, or

it had

been

moving.

They

had

been

moving.

FUTURE

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I shall be 2. You

Plural.

Solemn

Style.
1. We 2. You shall be
or

moving.
movmg.
Thou wilt be

moving. moving.

will be

ye

will be

moving. 3.

3.

He, she,

or

it will be

moving.

They

will be

moving.

164

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

FDTUBB

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular,
Ordinary
1. 2. I shall

Plural, Solemn

Style,
have been been

Style,
1. We 2. You
been

moving. moving.
Thoa wilt have

shall have
or

been

moving.
been

You

will have

ye

will have

moving.

moving. will have been

3.

He, she,

or

it will have

been

3.

They

moving.

moving.
POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style.

1. I mky 2. You be may Solemn

Plural.

Style,
1. We 2. You may
or

moving.
be

be ye

moving.
be

moving.
Thou

may be

moving.

mayst
.

be moving.

3.

He, she,

or

it may

be

moving.

3.

They

may

moving.

FAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. I

Plural.

Solemn

Style,
1. We 2. You

might

be

moving,
be

might
or

be

moving.
be

2. You

might
or

moving.
Thou

ye

might
be

moving.

mlghtst be moving. 3.

3.

He, she,

it

might

be

moving.

They

might

moving.

PRESENT

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular, Ordinary Style,

1. I may 2. You have may been have been Solemn

Plural.

Style,
1. We 2.
have

moving.

may
or

have ye may

been have

moving.
been

moving.^
Thou

You
been

moving. moving.

mayst

moving. may have been

3.

He, she, or it may

have

been

moving. 3. They

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style,

1. 2.

Plural.

Solemn been

Style,
1. We
2.
nave

might

have

moving. moving.
Th""i. uiightst

might
or

have

been have

moving.
been

You

might
or

have

been

You
been

ye might
moving

moving.
moving

3.

He, she,

it mignt

nave

been

moving.

3.

They might

have

been

THE

VERB.

1G5

SUBJUNCTIVE
FBESENT

M0DE.1

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I be
2.

Plural,

Solemn

Style,
1. If
we

moving.
be

be
or

moving.
ye be

If you

moving.
or

If thou

be

moving.

2.

If you

moving.

3. If he,

she,

it be

moving.

3. If

they

be

moving.

PAST

TBKSB.

Singular.
Ordinary
1. If I
2.
were were

Plural,

Style.
moving.

Solemn

Style,
1. 2.
wert

If

we

were or

moving.
ye
were

If you

moving.
If thou

If you

moving.

moTlng. 3. If

3. If

he, she,

or

it

were

moving.

they

were

moving.

PAST

PERFECT

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary Style.

1. If I had 2. If you been had been Solemn

Plural.

Style,
1. If
we

moving. moving.
If thou hadst been

had
or

been ye had

moving.
been

2. If you moring. 3. If

moving.

3. If he, she,

or

it had

been

moving.

they

had

been

moving.

IMPERATIVE

MODE.

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular.
2. Be

Plural.
thou be

moving,

or

do

moving.

2. Be

moving,

or

do

ye

or

you

be

moving.

INFINITIVE

MODE.

Present, To

be

moving.

Perfect^ To

have

been

moving.

PARTICIPIAL

MODE.

Present, Being moving.

Perfect, Having been

moving.

1 save

verb

space

subjunctive only tenses commonly

the and

in

mode

may
to

have the

any

of

the

six
are

tenses, but
named

to

given

subjunctive

here,

present^ pasty

past perfect.

166

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

EMPHATIO

STTLB.

ACTIVE
INDICATIVE

VOICE.
MODE.

PRESENT

TENSE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1. I do 2. You do

Plural.

Style,

Solemn

Style.
1. We do
or move.

move.
move. move.

Thou

dost

move.

2. You 3.

ye

do

move.

3. He, she, or it does

They

do

move.

He, she,

or

It doth

move.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular.
Ordinary
1. I did 2. You 3.

Plurca.

Style.
move.

Solemn

Style.
1. We did
or move.

did

move.

Thou it did
move.

didst

move.

2.

You

ye

did
move.

move.

He, she, or

3.

They

did

SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary
1. If I do 2. If you

Plural
Solemn

Style.
move.

Style.
1. If
we

do
or

move.

do

move.

If thou
move,

dost

move.
or

2. If you
it doth

ye

do

move.

8. If he,she,or

it does

he, she,
move.

8.

if

they

do

move.

PAST

TENSE.

Singular. Ordinary
1. If I did 2. If you 8. If

Plural. Solemn

Style.
move.

Style.
1. If
we

did
or

move.

did

move.

If thou

didst

move.

2. If you

ye

did

move.

he, she,or

it did move.

3. If they did

move.

IMPERATIVE
PRESENT

MODE.
TENSE.

Singular.
Do thou
move.

Plural. 2. Do ye
move.

THE

VERB,
^

167

^427. (1)

Model

for

Parsing Verbs.

Species.

(2) Classes,

(a)

transitive
or

or

utive intransitive; (i) attrib-

(3) Properties, (4) (5)

Construction Rule.
All the
uses

copulative; ("?) regular or irregular. give principal parts.) (If irregular, (a) voice, (6) mode, (jcf) tense, (d) person
and number. with

(agreement
of verb

subject).
stated in of

(a)
teacher

cannot

veiy the

conveniently
and of the

be

the the

parsing, but
and

may class.

be

made

clear See

by

questions
outline

explanations

(6)

complete

verb.

428.

Parsing.
The I
am

hunter sick.

killed the bear.

They
He
Killed,
its
v.,
was

will have

been

invited. honest.
agree with

considered

trans., attrib., reg., act., ind.,past, 3d, sing.,to

XV.
"

subj. huntery R.
Am,
v.,

intrans., cop., irreg.,

its

am,

was,

been,

"

to ind.,pres., 1st,sing.,

agree

with

subj. 7, R.
been with
v.,

XV.
v.,

Will

have

invited, its

trans., attrib.,reg., pass.,

XV. pass.,

ind., fut.

per.,

3d, plu., to agree

Was agree with its

subj. they, R.

considered,

trans., cop.,
R. XV.

reg.,

ind., past, 3d, sing., to

subj. he, the

429.

When
each
A.

complete parsing of all finite verbs. change active verbs to passive^and expand possible^ attributive. attributive verb into a copula and an
Write
Plato
reasons

(1) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8)

well. three

(2) Every trianglehas

He
You

sides.

has may
were

sold
come

his farm. after your I would work is finished.

If I Get

you

try that.

wisdom.

Gtet out James

of the way.
says that the

pudding

tastes

sour.

168

GBAMMAB

OF

TH"

""(QLISH

BENTENGS.

(":

I believe The The

man

I will taste struck struck the

on a

it.

(lo:
(11 (12 (14

boy.
rocK.

ship

The

city surrendered
smells
sweet.

to the

enemy.

(13: The
The He He Must I
can

general surrendered
rose

the fork

(16:
(16: (17 (18: (i" (20 (21 (22 (23:

is

talking
come.

nonsense.

may

I bear

all this?
a

write
should
were

letter.

You If I

study.
you, I would me, him

try

to

do

better.

Though
If he If he

he

slay hurt,

yet will I trust

to
come

him.

is here, ask
was

in. himself.

he

kept
he

it to

(24
(26: (26 (27

If I could If he Send would

me a

assist you,

I would

willingly.

study,
dollar. but now, is
no

might improve.

Troy
He What

was,

is

no

more.

is poor
was

and more,

will and of

always
what

be. is will not be.

(30
(31 (32 (33 (34: (35 (36: (37 (38 (39 (40

Bryant
The The Thou The When The

is the
was

author covered is

Thanatopsis.
with flowers.

place
didst hunters

State-house
create

building.
this wondrous

world.

bad

killed

bear.
this grammar, down the I will visit you. old

I have
storm

completed
have write
to to

may

broken

apple

tree.

If you Shall

should
we

her, it might
and

appear

that I had

requested it.

submit I
were

chains him.

slavery ?

I would He How
was

with

bom

great. do, George ?

(4i:
B.

do you
wash be

(1 (2:

Go,
Green You The The

your their

face, and
graves.

get ready for school

(3: (4:
(6: (": (7 (8)

ought lady
task is
was

to go.

accomplished.
not

accomplished
my when

in

a was

day.
broken.
ran

I could

not

go
was

because broken

buggy
my

My
To And

buggy
the
next

horse

away.

circle, teacher, bend

the wall dismount we,

thy steps,
for
as

from

hence

THE

V"KB.

169

I hear

and

understand and

not,

so

see

Beneath,

naught discern.
"

Gary^a

Banters

Irifemo^

line 71, canto

24.

(9)

Pass For

we so

then,
Heaven's wish

pleasure
the noble Caesar
a

is.

"

line 80, 7"2., the

canto

21.

(10) (11)

If you

to know

truth, speak
Brutus
was

truth.

The
^

Hath If it And

told you
were

that
was

ambitious

so, it

grievous fault.
CsBsar answered it..
"

grievously
mountains Marathon

hath look

Shakespeare.

(12)

The

on

Marathon,
on

And And

looks
an

the

sea

musing standing
not

there that
on

hour

alone, might
still be free ;

I dreamed For

Greece

the Persian's

grave,
"

I could

deem

myself

slave.

Byron.

430.
la.

Outline

of Verbs.

Classes.

Ih.

According
In-finite.

to their

relation

to

subjects.

Ic. Finite.
2c.

Id. 2d. 2".

Infinitive.

IFor
see

discussion Index.

and

outline

of

the

in-finite verbs,

/ Participle.
to

According

their action's

relation to objects.

Ic. 2c. Zb.

Transitive.

Intransitive.
to

According

their completeness of predication.

Ic. 2c. 4b.

Attributive.

Copulative.
to

According

their form.

Ic. 2c.

Regular. Irregular. Complete.

Kedundant. Defective.
to

\d. 2d. M. 65.

According

their rank.

Ic. 2c. 2a.

Principal. Auxiliary
i

Those

used

in the

conjugation

of

other

verbs.

Parts.

16.

Principal.
Present

Ic.

Indicative.

170

GRAMMAR

OF

THS

ENGLISH

SENTENCB.

2c. 3c. 26.

Past

indicative.

Perfect

participle.

Auxiliary.
Voice. Active. Passive.

3a.

Properties.
Ic. 2c.

16.

26.

Mode. Indicative. Potential.

Ic. 2c 3c. 4c. 6c. 6c. Sb.

Subjunctive.

In^itive. j
Participial.J

,^

Discussion

of the

In-finite Verbs."

Imperative. Primary.
Present. Past. Future.

Tense.

Ic.

Id, 2d 3d. 2c.

Secondary.
Present Past

Id, 2d. 3d. 46. 56.

perfect. perfect.

perfect.

Future

Person. Number.

STITTAX
431.

OP

VEEBS. agrees with its

Rule and
"

XV. number.
"

"

verb finite

subjectin

person

Example.

plow.''
two

**

He
more

plows.''

"

They

plow."

(a) pluraL; (6)

or

verb
as,

having
and I

or

subjects

connected

by and,
connected the

must

'be

"He

are

brothers."
or
**

verb

following
be mistaken."

two as,

more

singular subjects
or

by lawyer by

or,
or

nor,

must
was

singular ;

He

she

goes."

**

Either

the

doctor

(c)
nor,
women

verb be

following plural;
mistaken."
cannot as,

two
"

or

more or

plural subjects they

are

connected **The
men

or,
or

or

must
were

We

wrong."

the

(d)
or

verb

have

two
or or

or nor.

more

nominatives When
two
or

in differing
more

number nominar the

one

in person

and
in
a

joined by
sentence
a

of such vdth

tives stand
nearest to

before

one

verb,
with

the each

verb

agrees

it,and

verb

is understood

of the

others.

THB

VERB.

171

(1)
or

Put

the

plural subject next

to

to the

verb;
verb,
the

as,

**

Either

the

teacher

his

pupils were
Let and the the

blame.

'^

(2) order,
am

first person second

^*

be

next

to

the

the verb But

thiiyl person
; as,
**

next

in

person
or

farthest she

from

You, he, or I
better in

mistaken.*'
cases can

You the

is mistaken.*'

it is

always
its
too
**

such if it
**

to rewrite

sentence,

giving
the
or

each

nominative

own

verb,
; as, taken, mis-

be

done

without
was

making
to

sentence

sound
toere."

formal You
are

Either
or

the teacher she id.'*

blame,

his

pupils

(e)
and

An

appositive modifying
not

the the

subject expresses
verb
; as,
**

the subordinate

idea,

does

affect the **Your

form

of

I,your

master, command

you;" (/)
idea of

or, A

master,
for

I,
its

commands

you."
a

verb

having
must

subject
as, other

collective sxmj
not

noun,
was

conveying
with this

the

unity ^
he is

be

singular;
the up for of its

**The

divided.**

^*This

jury
'*The

days

guilty,but
is made

jury

does

agree

one.'*

regiment
A verb of

two

thousand
a
**

men.** noun, army

(g)
idea "The

having

subject
as,

collective The whole

were our

conveying
are

the

be plural ; plurality^ must "The jury are not agreed."

"

happy.*'
and ing." talkin dress

regiment
but

laughing
club
do
not

Your

club

wear

blue

uniforms,
to

uniform.**

(1)
and

It is

matter

of

importance by

the

pupil

that noun,

he
"

be

able of

to

tinguish dis-

the two that

ideas

conveyed

the

collective

that

unity,

of plurality, times idea

(2)
noun

It is many the

impossible
of

to

determine
of

whether

the it

collective in

expresses

unity

or

that

plurality, since
the the collective untwisted
as a

depends,
took has of

most

instances, upon
of
to
a

the In

particular conception
the

speaker
noun

the

collection

objects.
rope
a

plural
We

sense,
or

been

compared
to

having

its strands

threads say,
or

in the

singular,
when
to

the

same

in

twisted

state.

may

general rule, that

singular.

the term

denotes
or are

separation, distribution,
state, the verb
should

diversity, in regard

place,

time, action,
"

be plural ; otherwise
"

Say,
"

The

public

respectfullyinvited.'* family large.*'

"A is the number
is

My

family

are

in the country

(different places). "My

"The committee has
was

in

the

country"
of boats

(the
were

same

place). agreed."
up the

"The number

committee

not

"Congress
river shows this the The

adjourned."

have The

passed

spring, and
distinction pronoun
; as,
"

increasing daily." nicety.

last example

in its greatest you, You

or

(h)
a

whether

singular or plural, should many)

of the
were

always subject
"The

have

plural verb (i)

An

(one

or

mistaken."
to

adjunct,
to

prepositional phrase, joined

form verb. Do

the say,

must

not

be

allowed

affect the

not

deriva-

172
Uon show of

GRAMMAR

OF

THE
.

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

such
to

words
be
a

are

uncertain

^*

'^

The

ezamination

of his

friends

him Be

bankrupt."
use

(j)

careful to

the right form

as
**

of the verb
there. Do

when
not

the sentence
'*

is

introduced

by such words

hence,
wa$

or

say,

Hence

jariees
etc

eight parts of speech ; ''

There

differences

between

them,*'

4S2. (1) (8)

say verbs

Review
Define
a

of Verbs.
verb. Illustrate.

(2)
?
to

How

do and

verbSi

resemble

prep^

ositions, conjunctions, conjunctive

What about
on

adverbs,

relative

pronouns?
can

is meant the five verb

by

verb

phrase (6)

Illustrate.
every and

(4)

What

you

with

reference bases.

predicate.
illustrate
:

(6) Classify (a) finite, (7) Criticise

an

different

Define

in-finite verbs;
;

(b) 4
is

transitive, intransitive; (c) attributive, copulative

transitive
one

(d) regular, irregular; (") principal, auxiliary.

definitions verb
:

these

verb does

is

one

that

requires
an an

object;
Is

an a

intransitive verb

that

not

require
on

object. (8) object ? (10) by

the Name

always
What

transitive

if its action
a

terminates ? What and that the the and verb? voice

Illustrate.

(9)

may

complete
classes
of

copulative verb (11)

Define

Illustrate. is meant illustrate

are

and

illustrate the

copulas. (12)
each for
a

principal
weak the

parts of verbs?
verbs.

Illustrate. Name
ten

strong and

(13)

irregular verbs
of

often

misused, give
in
a

principal parts of each, use (14) Give general directions

and would, What

principal parts
auxiliaries also
an

sentence.

using
the

sAaZZ, will, should,

use

(15)
When

Illustrate

correct to

incorrect

of each. illustrate

(16)
each.
is
a

properties belong
is
a

(17) Define
? Illustrate. Tell how Can

and

(18)
be

verb voice

in the ?

active

(19)
an

When verb

verb

in the

passive
to the

Illustrate.

(20)
?

active
an

may

changed
be

passive voice.
?

Illustrate.

(21)

tive intransi-

verb

put into the passive voice illustrate each

mode. verb and and of the modes. What ?
can

Why

Illustrate.

(22) Name,
use

define, and subjunctive

form
of the Name

(23) Explain fullythe

say
two

of the

(24)
mode define

you Name three

a

about

the

relation divisions and

between of tense, of the

(25)
of the each

general
and

(26)
the

each

primary regular
What is

tenses
an

each

secondary
active number inflection

tenses

; illustrate

with

irregularverb, ip, by
person

and the

the

passive

voice. What

(27)

meant

and

of ?

verb?

(28)

is meant

by conjugation, synopsis,

433. that
ment

Supply
their

suitable in

verbs

in the

following blanks.
so

Scr

the verbs with

are

the

present tense,
be noted
:
"

that their agree

subjects may

173
THE VBBB.

(1)
(2)

Either You Either Which The What Hence Neither Which

or

he

or

to

blame.
mistaken.

Thomas the of teacher these of

two
or

(3)
(4) (6) (6)

the books roads

pupils
best very of the vowels

to

blame.

?
.

condition sounds the the of the

the

bad. ?

each

(7)
(8) (9)

following
nor

advantages.
brother received very

boy

his

industrious.
?

soldiers very kind

pensions

(10) (11)

Everybody
I knew that you

to

me.

my

father's

friend.

434.
two
or

Write
more

five
subjects

sentences

in

which

the

verbs

have

each

joined

by
in

an9. which

435.
more

Write

five

sentences

each
or

verb

follows

two

or

singular
436.

subjects five
or

joined

by
each

or

nor.

Write
two

sentences,

containing differing

but in

one

verb, following
and

more

nominatives,

number,

joined
437.

by

or

or

nor.

Write
two
or

five
more

sentences,

each

containing differing

but in

one

verb, following
and

nominatives,

person,

joined
438.

by

or

or

nor.

Write
band

sentences

in

which

the

collective

nouns,
are

school,
used

assembly,
as

(o/

musicians'),
verbs. in which

crowd,

pair, family,

subjects
439. Write verbs.

of singular
sentences

they

are

used

as

subjects

of

plural

174

GRAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

8EKTENCS.

THE

ADVERB.

440.

1. 2. 8. 4.

John He He I
am

writes is

correctly.

careful. exceedingly does tolerably well.

not
an

artist.
an

441. expresses expresses In

In

(1)
an an

writes

expresses

attribute, and
In

correctly

attribute attribute

of of

this attribute. the attribute

an

(2) exceedingly expressed by careful.

of
the attribute
pressed ex-

(3) tolerably expresses by

attribute in the
442.

attribute expresses /and All

well.

the ideas
an

(4) am expressed by
sentences

In

the

connection
not

tween be-

and artist^

expresses icized ital-

of

the connection.

such
are

as

the

words

four

above

adverbs.
an

An

Adverb

is the
or

attribute 443.

of an
An

attribute is
a

part of speech that expresses Or, of a connection.

"

Adverb other the

name

word

that

usually modifies a

verb^
of

or adjective^

adverb. adverb is to

444. this

As

suggests, the

use principal

part of
:
"

speech

modify

the

verb

but

it may

modify
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Moses?'* A
An An

verb

; as, *"He

talks
*^

^ intelligently is very weU as,

^*

adjective
adverb

; ajs,
*'

She

lazy.'' enough^
Has the Lord

; as,

He

works
;

prepositional
the The but

phrase
adverb adverbs the truth

spoken

only by
"Did he

(a)
come?" entire

Sometimes
"

is

used yes and

independently;
no are are

as, said

Fc"."

often

to to

modify
entire be
two

propositions ;
To

is, that
"Did he and

they

equivalent
there may

propositions.
affirmative
answers are

the

question,
"ITe did

comef^ "Fes." he Yes did and

answers:

come,^^

Sometimes

both* but it is

given

to

one answer

question;
for Yes

as, "Fes,

come;^^
no are

simply repeating
adverbs used

the

emphasis.

responsive

independently.

is of affirmation ; no,

of negation.

THE

ADVERB,

176
word

(6)
will he

The
come

adverb

frequently modifies
?
*' "*

understood
sometime

as,

**

When verb

again

Sometime,^*

Here,

modifies

the

will come^

understood.

GLASSES 445. Most

"

OF

ADVERBS

AS

TO

USE.

adverbs, like those

a

singleuse
446.

rmdifying use.
is
one
"

Simple Adverb
in

given above, have but a They are simple adverbs. having only a modifying use.
it and fell,"
are
"

447.

But
was

The

tree

lies where and

He

came

when

he

\i^nted," where
their And
"

when

adverbs^ because
the

they
and
has which

limit time.

verbs in it

so

as

to express to

ideas of

place

addition

this
to

another,
the
use

joins
limits.
a

its clause

modifying use, each the preceding verb,

to

clause it has

That

is, in addition
use.

verbial its adare

conjunctive
is
one

Such

words

therefore 448. in
a

called
A

conjunctive adverbs.
that

Conjunctive Adverb clause^which

modifiessome
some

word

subordinate
sentence.

it joins to

cipal part of a prin-

SUB-CI^ASSES

OF

SIMPLE

ADVERBS.

449.

Every simple
Most adverbs

adverb
are

is either

responsiveor
:
"

rogative. inter-

responsive;as
rapidly.
there*

He He He

walks stands
came

recently.
as

450. when

A used

few
to
"

adverbs, such
ask
or

how^ where^ when^ and

are

why.,

imply questions,
? ? I know I know I know how where when he

interrogative

adverbs;

as:

Sow Where When

does

he walk he

walks.
he

does did

stand ?

stands.
came.

he come

he

"451. when

In

the

three

sentences

to
are

the

left,how^ where, and

called
direct indi-

ask

direct

questions,and
;

therefore
to the

interrogative adverbs

in the

three

they right,

176

GBAHMAB

OF

THB

ISNOLISH

SEKTBNGE.

rectly imply questions, and

adverbs. interrogative (a)
The
or a

are

therefore

called

indirect

direct

interrogative
sentence ;

adverb
as
:
-^

may

be

used

in either

cipal prin-

Bubordinate did he

When The
sentence.

come

When adverb

do

you is

think

he found

came

?
a

indirect

intexrogative

always

in

aabordinate

(b)

Tbe

clanse

in which It may
a

an

indirect
:
"

interrogative adverb
'*:Where is he f is the
as, The

is found

is

always sabetantive, (1) Subject

UheV
of

be verb

finite of
a

; as,

question.*'
^^

(2) Complement

finite

copula;
"*

question is,
ishefi^ Where about Where

Where

(3)

In

apposition
of
a

; as, The

question,
verb
as, ; as,
;
'^

Where
"

answered." is he V where i8hefU" he is.^"* have

'

(4) Object (6) Object

transitive

as,

ask,

of
of

a
an

preposition;
infinitive

We We

talked believe

(6) Subject
been

**

answered." of
to
an

(7) Complement question (c)

adverbs We
must not

infinitive Where the

copula;

as,

**We

thought

the

be,
make A

is hef*^

mistake

of clause
ever

calling indirect
needs
a no

interrogative
No

connectives.

substantive
or

conne"tioe.

interrogativeword,

direct

is indirect,

connective.

GI"ASSB8

OF

OONJUNGTIYB

AJ)Y"BBS.

452. clause

Ordinarily a conjunctiveadverb
to
a

joins
:
"

an

adverbial

adverb verb^ adjective^ or

You You You walk
as

as

I direct.

will find him

are as

happy
he.

as

king.

tall

as

453. 454. clause

These

we

may
a

call

Ordinary Conjunctive Adverbs. Joiim

an

Sometimes
to
a

conjunctive adverb
as :
"

adjective

substantive;
is the
a

This It
was

place
when

where aU

the
were

accident
serious.

occurred.

time

455.
.

Such,

words
;

have

the
are

same

connective called

force

as

relative

pronouns

they

therefore

Selative

Conjunctive Adverbs.

THE

ADVERB.

177
prepositional
at which

(a)
phrases
you which which
are

conjunctive
^*

adverb w?ien you

is

usually equivalent
wanted you
a" as
^'
= ^^

to

two

; as,

Come

are

Come

at tJietime

wanted." you left it."

**

It lies where She such is

as

left it"=** I
" = ''

It lies in the place in is

"

good

She

good

to the

degree

to

am

good."
to
as.

In
one

sentences

the

last the first

conjunctive adverb equivalent

house
to

is

equivalent by
one

but

phrase,
house

the

force

of the adverbs

phrase being expressed

are

the

first

Relative
**

conjunctive
where

also
" =

but it

phrase (h)
The

; as,

The

\t occurred

*'

The

in which

occurred." teacher will find it

a

very

profitableexercise They
adverb.
a

to

have

the them

class into
exact

rewrite their idea

sentences

containing conjunctive adverbs, expanding

or

equivalent phrase expressed by

It is not every
accurate

phrases.
to

may

thus

see

clearly the

conjunctive
say that

(c)

conjunctive adverb
sentence to the
we

connects

two

sentences.

It always joins-a subordinate subordinate. in each Nor

part
a

of

the prinr-

cipal modified by the

adverb modifies
a

should

say

conjunctive
a

word

sentence.

It always subordinate

modifies

word

in

its subordinate word in the

sentence, and

the entire

sentence

modifies some

principal.
Tou

Thus

in,
eat

should adverb verb

where

you

work,
work,
and the entire

where where

is the you

conjunctive
limits the

; it limits

clause,

work,

should

eat.

456.

Distinguishthe (1) (2) (3) (4)

I know

uses

of
?
"

where Direct

in

"

Wliere is Paul
where

Adverb. Interrogative Indirect

Paul

is,
"

Interrogative

Adverb. I
am

happy

where

Paul

is,
"

Ordinary Conjxmcis,
"

tive Adverb. I like the

place where

Paul

Belative

Con-

jnnctive Adverb.
457. Memember:
"

(1)

The

direct

adverb interrogative and may be in either

directlyasks
a

question
a

principalor only implies

subordinate
indirect

sentence.

(2)

The
a

interrogative adverb
and is

question

always

in

substantive

clause.

178

GRAMMAB

OP

THE

ENOLISH

SENTENCE.

(8)

The
some

ordinary oonjnnotive adverb

word
some

always

limits it

in

an

adverbial

clause, which

joinsto (4)
The
some

part of the principalsentence. conjunctive adverb

in
an

relative word
a

always

limits it

adjectiveclause,
in

which

joins to
458. wTien I Mark
am on

substantive

the

tence. principal sen-

the my

ambiguity
feet," and

in such the

sentences

as,

"

I know
sponding corre-

of disposition

when

to

eg,ch signification.

GLASSES 459. Adverbs

OF

ADVEBBS

AS

TO

HDANINa. idea

of time; how

expressingthe
;
as
:
"

of time, either

when, how

long, or

often

Ever, never,

santly, always, continually, constantly, endlessly,forever, incesaye,

everlastingly,evermore, whenever,
and as,

then, meanwhile,

meantime,

when,

while, subsequently, after, afterwards, otherwhile, before,

day, to-

late,early, again, oftentimes, sometimes, occasionally,rarely,frequently,

now

then, weekly, daily, monthly, yearly, newly,

yet,
as

anew,

now,

nowadays,

yet, yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of

now,

late, formerly, already, just

ago,

anciently, as
to-morrow,
not

soon ere

as,

long since, long

and

erewhile, till now,

hereafter, soon,

long, by

by,

instantly,momentarily, 460.
as
:
"

directly,forthwith,

yet,

anon.

Adverbs

of

place ; those suggestingthe idea

of place;

Here,

there, yonder, everywhere,

where,

somewhere,

anywhere,
hence,

where, no-

wherever, wheresoever, herein, therein, hereabouts, whereabouts, hereby, thereby, aground, down,
on

thereabouts,
where, else-

high, whence,

off, afar, aboiit, beneath, above, before, behind, under, without, whither, hither, up, aground, nigh. 461. Adverbs
:
"

within,

backwards,

forwards, hitherwards,

of manner;

those

answering

or

asking

the

how question,

So, thus, well, ill, wisely, foolishly,justly, how,

anyhow,

somehow,
at

however, howsoever, otherwise, least,likewise, as, extremely,

length.

THE

ADVEBB.

179

lengthwise, suitably, considerably, happily, extensively, together, separately, accordingly, creditably,necessarily,really,certainly, foot by foot,
so

so,

wholly, clearly,namely, silently, feelingly, surprisingly,mournfully,

merely, proportionally, verily. 462. Adverbs of

degree
to what

those
extent

suggestingthe
:
"

idea

of how

mnoh, how
Much,

little, or
most,

more,

less, least, far, by far, farther, very, little,

too,

mostly,

entirely,actually, in

general, totally,highly,

gether, perfectly, all,alto-

immensely, painlessly, infinitely,clear, nearly, well-nigh, partly, partially, intense y, exclusively, scantily, precisely, enough,
somewhat, sufficiently,
at

quite, constantly, extravagantly, immeasurably, exactly,

even,

ever

so,

just

as,

all,simply, brightly,particularly,especially,in
furthermore.

likewise, moreover, particular,also, besides, still, 463. the Adverbs of cause,

"

purpose,

or

reason

those answering

why: question^

Why,wherefore, hereby, thereby. 464. Adverbs

hence, therefore,then, thence, consequently, whereby,

of doubt

as

"

Perhaps, probably, perchance, possibly,doubtfully, doubtless, certainly.

465.

Adverbs

of affirmation

or

negation
aye, nay.

"

Yes, no, not, yea,

(a)
to

The
name

classification cannot
all the different

be ideas

complete,
that may

because be

it would

be

sible imposof the of these

expressed by the adverb.

the adverb
to
one

In

parsing, the
named
must

pupil
; but

should, if possible,refer
finds
new are one

classes

if he
a

that

cannot

be referred

to any

classes, he

make

class to

suit it.
as

(6)
manner,

Adverbs but
answers

of doubt
this is
to
a a

usually given
classification.

subdivisions No
one

of adverbs adverbs

of of

wrong

of these of
an

doubt

question concerning the

he

manner

action.

If the

question.
word named

How

did

go?
be

were

asked, it could
that

not

be

answered
must

by the

perhaps. according
Adverbs

It must
to the

kept in mind

the

adverb

always
than

be

idea

that it expresses, the

manner

(c)
manner

that

denote
are
**

of the expression rather

adverbs
; as,

the

of
in
i

an

action^ sentence,

called

modal he

truly, verily, etc.

not

Thus

the but

Truly
Such

came,"
may,

truly does
for

refer be

to

the

coming

to the saying.

adverbs

convenience,

parsed

180

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

as

modifying (d)
An

the

verb the used may

in

the

sentence

in which

they

are

found,

but

in

realitythey modify
adverb All Adverbs others
are

verb
to

say,

understood.
a

ask

question
as

is called

an

interrogative
verb
to

adverb.

be

regarded
in

responcdve.
with the express

(e)
time

often

used

connection

more

definitely ;
A combination

as, I shall go presently. of words

; as,

(/)
an

used and

as

single adverb

may
so

be
so,

parsed
again
at

as

adverbial
at

phrase
and
not

by

by, day and

night, by

and

again,
and

random,

in vain, at least,on

high, in fine,at present,

more,
a man man.

last, out
the be the

out, through
does

through,
have
^^

no

But

when should

combination

the force of

singleadverb,
and there^ therefore introduce

the words Then be

a

parsed separately ; as,

idea of time, and A few

He

signed
;

it then

expresses

there of adverbs

place
are as

they

cannot to

parsed together.
sentence.

{g)
should

used

merely
**

They
have
no

then

be force you

parsed
in
see

introductory
;

expletives.
There
were

They
did

modifying
did ''''Why, of it?"

the

sentence

as,

fiftymen
what

present."
you think

Jones, yesterday?"

^^Well!

COMPARISON.

466.

Adverbs,
; as,

like

have adjectives,
;

one

property,
"

parison com-

loud^ louder^ loudest

best well^better^

brightly^
and

more

most brightly^

brightly.
as

The the

kinds, methods,

degrees are
(a) apply
to

the
rule for

same

those

of
and

adjective.
of

The the

the

comparative
and

superlative
adverbs.

adjectives will

comparative

superlative of

467. 1. 2. Work We

Parsing of Adverbs.

Species.
Classes.

3. 4.

Comparison.

5. 6.

Construction.
Rule.

Degree.
the
sun

while diligently
walked

shines. the

to the kennel

where
"

puppies were

playing.

adv., of manner more diligently, Diligently^ diligently, most diligently, pos. degree, and limits work^ R. XI. While^ adv., conj.,of time ; it limits shines and joinsits
"

clause, while
and

the

sun

shines^to work, R. XI.

;

Where, adv., relative, of place

it limits
were

were

joins

its XI.

clause, where

the

puppies

playing, playing, to

kennel, R.

THE

ADVERB.

181

(a)
clause should

The

pupil
adverb
noun a

should is
or

always

name

the When

phrase
a

or

phrases
but

to which

the its

conjuuctive
to
a

equivalent.
pronoun

conjunctive
to

adverb
one

joins

it is"

equivalent

phrase,

and

be

called

relative

conjunctive adverb. pronouns^ and adjectives, verbs

468.

Parse

nouns^

orally

by abridged
A.

model.

Write

the

parsing of
over

the adverb.

(1) (2)

She The When

sang wind

sweetly.
moaned
see

mournfully
you

her

grave.

(8) (6)
(6)

shall I lived
were

again

Sometime.

(4) They
We Do She

very

happily.
? Yes.

agreeably disappointed.
expect them
to-morrow
her

you is

(7)
(8) (10)
B.

continually changing
be
true.

mind.

It cannot

(9) Perhaps
Doubtless Time When How We How How How How is

I shall go. it is true.

ever

(1) (2)

flying.
house you be

will the often do

covered
?

To-morrow.

(8)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

lecture
we

Never.

see, therefose well well shall

can

believe. ?
!

she
can

play play
?

she
we

act

Wisely.
asunder.

is Ruth? burst

Sick.

(9) They (11) (18) (15) (16) (17)

The

their bonds
were

(10) Perhaps (12) They

She

there

fiftymen right over night.

she heard

fightingbravely.
the way.

old house work stood

stands and
as

day
silent do
was so

the

sad

news.

(14) Thoughts
The Be stick it
ever

often
a

lie too

deep
weak is

for tears.
to bear

trifie too

well

his

weight.

humble,
we see

there

no

place

like home.

Never

shall

his like when the

again.
the boat arrives.

(18)
(19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (26)

I shall meet The The

my

friend where

lilies grow

ground

is moist. calls.

patriot answers
I go ye the
came

whenever
cannot
come.

his country

Whither Ere He

day

dawns

he

will die.

before

I left. where Homer

was

}(""" P"P"""""'-)
," .^ .^-

It is uncertain Newton

bom. falls.

discovered

why

an

apple

182

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(26) Logic
(27) (28) (29)
Make As
As
we

teaches

how

we

think.
bud we

hay
is the you

while
so so

the shall

shines. be rewarded. the

man.

labor

boy

will be finished do you he he the

(30)
(31) (32)

When Mr. Can Did The The

have how

your do ?

task, then

you

may

rest.

Brown,
you you
season see

where when

sits ?
came

(33)
(34)

hear

? open
we

wheti

buds shall

is three

spring.
meet

(35)
answered

question, when
the you witches. guess when

agam,

was

asked

and

by
Can

(36) 469.
la.

I disturb

you

Oatline

of Adverbs.
2b. As
to

Division. As
to
use.

meaning.

lb.

Ic.
2c.

Time. Place. Cause, Manner.

Ic.

Simple. Limiting. Interrogative. Besponsive.

le. 2c.

Id.

3c. 4c. 5c. 6c. 7c. 8c. 2a.

Degree.
Doubt.

2d. 2c.

Independent. Ordinary.
Belative.

Conjunctive.

Affirmation.

Id. 2d.

Negation.
:

Comparison

(See Adjective.)

SYNTAX 470. adverbs. (a)

and Not

OP

ADVEEB8. and verbs^ adjectives^ other

Adverbs

usually

limit

always,

for sometimes be used

an

adverb

limits

prepositionalphrase,
'^I will do it

sometimes

it may

independently.
an

(b)
more."

Two "I The

negatives
have word
not

make had
no an

affirmative; to-day."

as,

not

no

bread

(c)
or or an

following
as we

intransitive
to

verb
to

should
condition

be

an

adjective
the agent
j

adverb, according
manner

wish

refer

the

of

the
to to

of

the action of the

expressed by
man, in I say, which
to

the **He

verb. looks

Thus, if I wish
strange

to

refer wish

the condition describe

at

;^^
'*He time

but

if I

the

manner

he my

looked, I say,
condition
at

looked of my

strangely
arrival

me." **I

And arrived

to

refer

the

I say,

aa/c,"

not

safely.

THE

ADVERB.

183

(d)
sake wall" of

In the

poetry
metre

an

adjective is
**

often

used

instead
sweet

of from

an

adverb
her
nest

for
on

the the

; as,

The

swallow

sings

471.

All

liabilities to
to

error
:

in the

use

of the adverb and Position.

or

be may-

reduced 472.

three

heads
use

Choice, Form,
adverb that

(1) Always
expresses,
use

the

expresses^

most

nearly

the

meaning
the adverb

intended.

(2) Always
that the adds
most

the lest adverbial the

form of

the word. the sentence

(3) Always give

positionin

to the

correctness^

clearness,and

eleganceof

expression.
Discuss
Do She All How There
^ot

473. (1) (2) (8) (4) (6) (7) (9) (10) (11) (12) rapping (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (20) (21)
Indianola.

the
so

following sentences:
fast ; you than
were

"

walk

will he
not

soon

become

weary.

is less beautiful your he

supposed.
invited.

neighbors
be

got it again, I scarcely knew.

found River
one man

cannot

that

is

willing to
southern

undertake

it.

(6) Th^

San

Jacinto you
are

flows

through
not, you

the

part of Texas.
the debt.

Whether

willing or distinctly. sillily.

very
came

will have

to pay

(8) Speak
She He
Two

slow

and very

behaved
was

running

rapidly, but
to

suddenly stopped.
alike.

young

ladies tolerable there

came

the

party nearly dressed

of

am

only

well.
a

(13) Suddenly
at my

tapping,

as

some

one

gently rapping,

chamber

door. nobler than his brother.

The The The He You

boy lady
fox is

acted

dresses
an

remarkably
artful clever. wrong
was

elegant.
animal.

is

exceeding

exceeding
been further
I you
a

have

informed said about

on

this

subject.

(19) Nothing
Come We

the

matter.

quick
remained

walk week

too at

slow.

Galveston,
he.

and

proceeded

thence

to

(22) (23) (24)

No We Such

one

is nobler back
were

or

loftier than
cave.

went

to the

cloaks

in fashion

about

five years I shall

since.
now

(25)

I received

the

with gift

but pleasure,

gladlier resignit

184

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(26)
you

If

you

have

only
at

learned

to

spend

money

extravagantly

at

lege, col-

may Com

stay
should lost

home. be

(27)

generally
$1000

planted by

in

April.
he will
never

(28)
chance.

Having

once

speculation,

have

another

(29) (30)

That

was

remarkably
considered the

fine

speech. proposed,
which
we

Having
We The At I do

not

measures

he

failed of

of

success.

(81)
(32) (33)

those

things
smell the house

frequently sweetly.
mountains in
are

repent

afterward.

flowers this
went

place by
the

considerably

high

and

steep.

(34)

buggy.

474.

Beview

of

Adverbs. modify. (4)

tinguish Dis-

(1) (3)

Define define direct

an

adverb. and illustrate

(2)

Illustrate the classes

what of

an

adverb
to

may
use.

Name,
:

adverbs

as

interrogative,
adverb.

indirect

interrogative,
In what and kind

ordinary
of the
a

conjunctive,
is each of

and used each. adverb the the

relative
?

conjunctive, (6)
State How used of ?

(5)
the

sentence

definitely
may the

modifying containing
\xihen,

connective

use

(7)
be classes of

clause with

an

indirect

interrogative
and chief illustrate in

Illustrate
to

(8)

Name,
What
are

define,
the

adverbs
?

as

meaning.

(9)

errors

use

adverbs

THE

PREPOSITION.

"

185

THE

PREPOSITION.

475.

He He

spoke to
came

the

hoys.

He We

spoke to
came

them. Aer. words

with

Alta. above the

with

476. express

In

each

sentence
are

two

italicized

ideas

that

related, and

the

little word the

case

in black the stantive sub-

type expresses the relation and

that 477. relation its A

governs words
are

of

follows it.

Such

called

prepositions.
called

Preposition is the part of speech that expresses

it affirming

without

and

governs

substantive

object.
(a)
The italicized pronouns in the of
two sentences to

the

right

show

more

clearly the (")

The verb it.

governing
is the

power

prepositions.
that

only
the

part of speech

expresses pronouns,

relation

by
of

affirming adverbs, these, only

Besides

preposition,
express govern

relative without

conjunctive
it ; but

and

conjunctions
the

relation
a

affirming

preposition can
I. CI.ASSES

substantive.

OF

PBEFOSITIONS.

478. into
:
"

are Prepositions

classified, according to their form,

(1) Simple.
above, from

"

Single prepositions
"

; as, in, a", on,

or more

by, for,

etc. as,

(2) Compomid.
under,
"

Consisting of Any
combination
to the extent

two

prepositions;

from

etc.

(8) Complex.
a

of different parts of speech of, to

the distance

used

as

single preposition ; as,

of, etc.

H.

TBBMS

OF

REI.ATION.

479.

Since
two

prepositions are objects,there

a
are

relation

words
terms terms

and

relation

implies

expressed by object and

always two preposition. These

The the

of the relation
are

called erned govterm

anteoedent.

object is the substantive

antecedent

by
which
the

the

preposition,and

is the

to

preposition joinsthe

substantive.

186

GRAMMAR

OP

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

480. (1) (2) (3)

to

The
A A An
noun:

objectis always
"*

substantive.

It may

be

"

We
: :
**

went

to the sat

n'ver."

pronoun adverb

He

by
and

me."

In such
now
: : ;
*' "

before expressions as, since tJien, then.

then, tillnow^
p.

here, forever, between

(See Whitney's Grammar, good,^^

school." deserves timber Noah the but

144.)

(4) (6)

An An A A

adjective
infinitive

On She She have

high,
did
never

of old, in vain, for

''

nothing
thinks

cry.'' [to']
to

(6)
(7)
"

participle
clause of
:
"

of going

We

been

talking about
upon how since

who

prizeV
on

The

labor and

clearing land depends justicehave

been
set

much before

there is
was a

it.'''

"

Reason We

jurymen
"
=

sailor.''
"

**

started him
**

before after He has

the he
not

sun was

"

We
=

started
'*

before

sunset." him He has

We his been

supported
election."
seen

elected"
seen

We

supported
"
= "

after
not
=

been "We
"

since shall

fie arrived

since

his

arrival."

wait

till morning until Christmas die

ere

comes" comes"

*'

We He

shall wait will may remain die

till morning." until

He

will remain "*She may

**

Christmas."

day dawns"

"She

ere

the dawn words

of day." after,before, since, till, until, and unmistakably

is inexcusable. will That
ere,' when to

(o) by

The

followed
them
as

subordinate

clauses, are
adverbs

prepositions ; they
:
"

parse

conjunctive following
into

are

prepositions
be

the

considerations

clearly establish
one

First, the clause

a

following
that is

of these

words

can

always
clause
a

abridged
the

substantive of the
or

certainly the
word

object
to

of this The be

word, leaving
introduced

meaning
cannot
"

original sentence
any other

unimpaired.
ever
"

by
'

when, where,
be shall
so

known

conjunctive
dinner which

adverb
=

abridged.
after
as
"

Thus,
"

We and

shall start in the is

after

is over"
means

We

start
same

dinner the

latter sentence,

precisely the
"TTe

former, after
shall
start

universally conceded
is over" italicized is not group the

to

be

preposition. But,
to
means

We

when for

dinner

lent equivaof words

shall and

start

when

dinner,"
not
one a

nothing
Second,
to

is therefore of any

sentence.

dispose
a
"

of

these the

words

as

conjunctive adverb
one

gives
For

its sentence in

meaning
man

exactly
made

opposite
his
to

of the

intended.
a junctive con-

example, is, he

The it must his

;

died

(tfterhe made
so as

will," if after i8
the idea There is but

adverb,
That
event

modify
will

express

of time.
one

made

after. After

what?

other

mentioned

that

is,his death.
words

No,
clauses.

it is better to call these And The

prepositionsgoverning
seems

the

following

why

not

f
a

(6)
in;-^

object

of

sometimes preposition

to

be

phrase,

as

THE

PREPOSITION.

187

He A A But it is much and like

more

has

lived

there from from

to

since above

before the

war,

came spirit

the clouds.
,

stream

runs

under

the rocks.

convenient

call since

before,from

above, from
the

under,

combinations,

compound

prepositions,

governing

following 481.

substantives.

The

antecedent It may
"The
*'

of

a
"

preposition

is the

word

the

phrase
(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) 482. in the
List.
"

limits.
verb:
noun:

be:
iies
on

A A A An
An

book
saw
'"

the

table."

We
:

the be

city in flames."
unto

pronoun

Woe
"

you
to

of little faith." the heads

adjective
adverb
"

All

reverence

hoary
for

with my

age." purpose."

I have
:

read

the for

book

for sufficiently alas

An

interjection The

^^Alas

maiden,

judge." used
are

prepositionsmost following
"

commonly

given

A, aboard, about, above,

amidst,
among,

according to,
around beside
or

across,
or

after,against,
as

along, amid,

amongst,

round,

to,

at,

athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beyond, from,

without.

twixt, besides, between, besave,

or

but, by, concerning, down, of,

or

during, except,
out

for,
until,

in, into, notwithstanding,

toward

on,

of, since, till

up,

through, throughout, to, (a)

or

towards, under,
either

with, within,

Most

of the

remaining prepositions are

nical, poetic, antique, tech-

comic. A is We
now

(b)
noun

rarely used
went
a

as

preposition except
all the other

before

participial

; as.

fishing.
as

(c) Of 483. To which between

484.

is used

nearly

much

as

prepositionstogether.

Parsing of Prepositions.
parse it
a

preposition
it shows

is to state

the

part of speech
antecedent

to

belongs, and
which

name

the

object and
to

the

relation. easy determine the

It is

generallyvery
answer

object

of but

and preposition, the

correct

often difficult to find the

to two

antecedent;
the

questions will always give

after the

both.
to

(1)
find

Put the

the

interrogativewhat
then

object;

(2) put

preposition interrogative

188

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

what
"

before

the

phrase to

find antecedent.

For

that they dashed rapid torrent Frantically, the torrent. Through (1) Through what? Dashed through the through the torrent? 485. Kodel. 1. He
came

example : through."
(2) What

torrent.

Preposition.
from
the

2.

Relation.

3.

Rule.

city.
shows

From^ prep.,
came,
A.

and

the* relation

between

cityand

R. (1)
He

XIII.
went

with

us.

(2)
(3) (5) point
B. of

It fell Put it

through
on

the

air to the
or

ground. pocket
shelter. the

the

table until

into your under

across

(4) They stayed

He
went

night

from
moves

St. Louis, in

plains, to
in

California. from the

(6) Light

straight lines, and

I from

all directions

emission. sable

(1) Night,
In

goddess

her

ebon

throne. Young,

rayless majesty,
leaden
came

now a

stretches

forth
"

Her

sceptre o'er
but

slumbermg world.
holds she

(2)

All To

Mary.
in the with love of nature

(3)

him

who

Communion A various the

her
"

visible

forms,

speaks

language.
mouth he

Bryant.
the Six Hundred.

(4) (6) (6) (7) (8)

Into

of hell rode
came.

I left before You have

changed
after he

since

saw

you.

I shall go She

leaves.
come. ere

will wait

till you you

(9^ They

will leave
must

you

are

aware.

(10)

You

stay until

the

train

arrives. South other

of the State of the character (11) The eulogium pronounced on Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her revolutionary and

merits, meets
C.

my

hearty
to

concurrence.

"

Webster,

(1)

From

peak
the
unto

peak,

the
"

rattlingcrags among,
Byron,

Leaps (2) Day knowledge. (3)

men, and He
"

live thunder.

day
19. from with

uttereth

speech,

and

night

unto

night
of

showeth

Psalm
came

passed

Rome to Paris, in theitn through many

the

company

many

eminent

cities.

THE

PBEPOSrriON.

189
mind,
"

(4)

Ah

1 who truth that

can

tell the

triumphs by
taste

of the

By

illumined,
choice

and

refined.
the

Sogers.

(5) (6)
(7) Helena,

Or

plant, so grateful to
not

nose, grows. cations

"

Which He

in I know the

what

far country in the

ChurchilL

crossed the South

or

plains to
of

search

for
was

gold.
banished to St

After in the O^er With

battle

Waterloo,
Ocean.

Napoleon

Atlantic

(8) (9)

bog

steep, through strait, rough, dense,

or

or

rare.
"

head, hands, wings,

in his

feet,pursues

his way.

Milton.

At

midnight,
The Turk

guarded tent.
of the hour in

lay dreaming

When

Greece, her knee

tremble

suppliance bent.
and
"

Should In The

at his power.

dreams, through trophies

crawled of
a

camp

court, he bore
Halleck.

conqueror. under the

(10) 486.
la.

He

from

ruins.

Outline
Kinds.

of

Prepositions,

lb. 25. 36. 2a.

Simple. Compound. Complex.

of Relation. Antecedent A A A An Verb. Noun. Pronoun.

Terms

16.

Ic. 2c. 3c. 4c.

Adjective. SYNTAX
OP

PEEPOSITIONS. the relation

487. its

Rule

XIII. the word

the

"

objectto
(a)
When but

the
a

shows preposition phrase limits.

omitted flew it up,

of

object of
an

preposition is adjective:
*^It

usually
around,

becomes and

an

adverbj

sometimes

down

again." (6)
iron
J

**It overlooked One

the may

plains
have
same

ftcZow?."

preposition

several room." severBX and

antecedents;

as,

^*

They wash,
*'A

cook, eat, and

One the

sleep in the
may the may

(c) (d) against

antecedent

have

prepositions ; as,
the

ment govern-

of

people, by
preposition

people,
have and

for

people."
as,
"

One all

several

objects;

positive law

fraud, falsehood,

violenceJ*^

190

GRAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(e)
and

One

object may
the
He halV

have "He of the

several

prepositions;
and voted

as,

**

He

ran

tip, down^ measured

across
"

approved o/, and

measure

voted

for^

the

Better,

approved of

for it."

48d. Use
may I. IV. Choice.

Prepositions. All
"

error

in the

use

of prepositions
Omission.

be reduced II.

to

"

Position.

III.

Insertion

or

Sepetition.
I.

CHOICE.

489.
expresses should itself.

Great

care

should

be taken

always

to

select doubtful

the

preposition that
the ary dictionthe

precisely the
be consulted

relation for the

intended.

In

cases,

the antecedent, object,

and

preposition

490. (1) (2) (3)

Exercises
The He The

to he corrected
was

and
with

then
a

parsed :

"

sultry evening
died with
a

followed

rain.

fever

(means
Senate

both

died).
House of

soil is adapted for wheat.

consists does and in
a

(4) Congress (5) Of what (6) Religion (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Charles The He

and
?

Representative^.
with each

happiness
in

consist

Christianity may
you

differ

widely

other,

I differ from

opinion.
in the creek.
were

dropped
out

his dollar

persecutions of the Quakers

went

barbarous.

of

fine

morning.
between his son,

I have He

been

to New

Orleans.

(12)

divided

his estate

daughter,

and

nephew.

H.

POSITION.

491.

(1)
As

Phrases

should

be

so

placed

in

the

sentence

as

to

make

it

correct, clear, and

elegant. implies, the

its

(2)

its

name

preposition

should

generally

be

placed

immediately 492. (1) (2) (3)

lain in

before

object. and
with
a

Exercises
We We These
saw a man a

to he corrected

then
Roman

parsed :
nose.

"

digging
lecture
were on

well

heard
verses

teaching geography by
to
a

at

10 o'clock. who has

written

young

man

long

since

^is grave
Wanted. mind.
"

for

amusement.
man

(4)
turn

A. yoxxng

take

care

of

horses

of

religious

of

THE

PREPOSITION.

191

(5) (6)

He Whom

went

to

see

his friends

on

horseback.

did

he

give

it to ?

II.

INSERTION

AND

OMISSION.

493.
proper

(1) Prepositions
connection of the should

should different
not

not

be

inserted of the when

so

as

to

destroy
the

the

parts
omitted

sentence.

(2) Prepositions 494. (1) (2) Exercises

It It
was was

be

required by

sense.

to he corrected
to remonstrate.

and

then

parsed :

"

in vain
to your
use

brother
me

to

whom

was

indebted.

(3)
(4) (5) (6)

What She San

is it to
not

could

refrain is the you

men more

shedding
other say. have side

tears.

Francisco of what talented

the

Rocky
from

Mountains.

I admit

(7) Many
(9)
He
was

deserted

the party. than bears.

(8) California

is not

noted which

for its you

gold

right in
is the

that

blame
as

him.
as

(10) Ignorance

mother

of fear

well

admii-ation.

IT.

REPETITION.

495.
one

(1)
or

preposition having

several

objects object

must

be

used

before

only,

each, of them.
each renders the sentence

(2)

To

repeat the preposition before

sometimes

inelegant, sometimes Exercises

He is
a man

forcible.

496. (1)
fortune.

to he corrected
of

and

then
and of

parsed:
honesty.
he luck

"

sagacity, experience,
economy, and

(2) By industry, by

by good

accumulated

497. (1)
a

Beview
Define the How

of

Prepositions.
(2)
verb How ? does
a

preposition.
is it unlike
a

preposition
other

resemble words all What of

verb

? you
?

(3)
name?

(4)

What

relation from

can

(5.)What
and of
a

distinguishes
the classes be ?

the of What

preposition
the

them may be?

(6)

Name

illustrate

prepositions. (7)
may may
;
one

the

object

preposition
the have
one

antecedent clauses. may

one

Illustrate. One

(8)

Name

prepositions

that

govern

(9)
have

preposition
have

may

several

antecedents have

antecedent

several

prepositions ;
several illustrate

preposition may
errors common

several

objects ;

object may

prepositions.
the

Illustrate

with

originalsentences.
use

(10) Classify and

in the

of

prepositions.

192

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

8ENTEK0E.

THE

CONJUNCTION.

498. 2. 3. 4. We He

1. Men should

and be

boys should gentle toith

to stand

be industrious. children
to say

and

with

horses.

endeavored rain
are

and

something.

The

descended weak
came

9JiSithe

5.
6.

Words The In

but deeds beoaiue

children each

floodscame. are mighty. they wanted

it may that be

to

see

us.

499.
two

sentence

above
ideas

seen

that

the that

italicized word
two

parts express
black Such words

are^related,and
relation and

the the

in

type expresses
are

this

joins

parts.
A

conjunctions.

500. is to

Conjunction is the part of speechwhose only office Or, a Conjunction is the part of speech express relation.
is only office In the
to connect sentences

whose
601.
connect
on

first five sentences

parts of sentences. above, the conjunctions

or

coordinate

parts; in the

last

sentence, the to, the part

on

part
the

the

or right explains,

is subordinate

left.

(a)
and
use

The

conjunction
adverbs has

is not
are no

the

only

comMctive.

Relative
have also
a

pronouns

conjunctive
; the

connectives, but

they
in the
a

modifying

conjunction
indicates

modifying
that

force

sentence.

(")
it other.

The

conjunction,
the

like the relation

preposition, is
the

relation

word, because
bear
to

always

parts connected

each

(c)
the expresses it is
an

The

verb unlike

also both

is

relation

word

; it is

always
the finite

connective.
not

But

verb,

the but

preposition

and
a

conjunction, verb,
or

only
it if

the

relation
or a

affirms it if it is

assumes

infinitive The

participle.
is like
assume

(d) being

conjunction
to

the the

preposition
relation
over

and

unlike

the the

verb

in

unable in

affirm
no

or

; but

it is unlike

sition prepo-

having

governing power

substantives. of
a

(c)

From
"

all these

notes, the definition

whose

conjunction
to express

will

cleariy

appear,

t^at part

of speech

is only office

relation.

THE

CONJUNCTION.

198

502.

A
Two

conjunction may
independent
hearts
are

join :

"

(1)
and

Bentencea;

as,

**

Young

heads

are

giddy ^ happy,

young

warm,''''

(2)
because

Two its Two Two

dependent

sentences;
drunkard
**

as,

**The

child

is

not

father
words;

is

and and

its mother Alice

ran are

is dead.''^ kind and obedient.^* and into the all

(3)

as,

Mary
**

(4)
we

phrases;
**

as,

The
to

boy
learn

out
use

of
can

the house and

to

torn-fieldJ*^
leam.^^

We

should

try

all

remember

(5)
succeed

A U

subordinate
we

sentence

and

part of

principal;

as,

**

We

try,

''^

GLASSES 503. upon 504.

OF

OONJIIirOTIOirS. be
most

Conjunctions
two

may
"

conveniently classified
meaning.
either coordinate
or

different As
to

bases,

use

and
are

1186;

conjunctions

subordinate. 505. A Codrdinate

same

Conjunction is

one

that

joins elements
joins a
siibordi-

having the
506.
note

grammatical
to

construction.
one

Subordinate
some

Cdnjimction is

that

sentence

part of the principal,

is to be able
or

(a)
instance

The

one

thing of importance
the conjunction

to

determine

in

every

whether A

is codrdinate may

subordinate,

(6)
two

co5rdinate
; as, to
**

conjunction
We
saw
**

join
and but

two

words,
**

two went

phrases,

or

sentences

Samuel

Peter,^''

She

to Fhilar-

delphia and

Brooklyn,''^
**

Mary

rode

Philip
a

VHilked.''^
sentence

(c)
Apart

subordinate

conjunction always joins

as, He he
came

subordinate because

to

of the
**

principal ;
He
was

to

the

front
to

he
**

wanted
was so

to Jiear.''^

silent for the train.^^

knew

not

what

say.*^

She

slow

that

we

missed

507. 508.

As

to

meaning, conjunctionsare

"

Copulative,denoting addition;
"John will
or

as,

and^ also^likewise.
him."

work

and

I shall

help

509.

Adversative,

Disjunctive,denoting opposition ;

as,

hut^ nevertheless^whereas.
**We
went

but

they

did

not

go."

194

6BAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

510.

Correlative, those used

. . .

in

pairs;
,

as,
.
.

both
. . .

and^

either

or^
^^

neither
. .
.

nor,
and

whether
its mother
were

or.

Both

the

child

there."

611.

Alternative, those used

as, or,
nor.

to

denote

one

of

two

tives; alterna-

"George 512.

or

his

brother

will

help you." clause ; as,

Causal,
**

one

introducing a
because
one

causal

because^

since^ for.
He
came

he

wanted

to
a

see

me."

613.
as,

Conditional,
**

iwtrodu-dng
him
some

conditional

clause;

if.
I shall pay

if

he

insists

upon

it."
are

(a) And,
as

that, for, and

he it did

other any

conjunctions
power

often
; as,
"

used And he

merely
it came did it."
as

introductory words, pass."

For what
"

without

connecting
Such
to

to
^^

That shall

it is doubted." man?"

.**I believe
words

that be

profit a for

should

parsed

introductory expletives,according preferable,

introduce
to

Rule be
or

XVIII.

Or,
as

if it is

thought they
neither

and
some

and

may

sometimes
sentence

parsed

joining what

preceding
such
are

word. words
as as

(6)
. . .

For

convenience,
. . .

correlative

either

or,

nor,

both

and,
words

commonly
but and,

parsed

correlative

coniunctiona ; only expletives,

are

but

in

reality the
no

either, neither, and

to introduce

both,
the

are

having by
the

force

in the
or,

sentence

parts that

joined

following

nor,

and

(c) Conjunctions introducing

or

clauses

that

express

cause,
*^

conclusion,
of me,
"

effect
I
am

are

sometimes and he

called

illative heart."

conjunctions
"

; as,

Learn am."

for
was

meek

lowly
was or

in

I think,

therefore I
in

He

honest, hence

trusted."

(d)
the
two

In

studying

teaching
subordinate

the

conjunction, keep
are
:

mind

that f

things absolutely indispensable

or

(1) What

does

it connect

(2)

Is it codrdinate

514. 1. 2.

Parsing of Conjunctions.

Species.
Class.

3. 4.
'

Sub-class. Construction.
CoObdinatb.
are

6.

Rule.

(1) Oxygen

and

hydrogen

gases. and

{Words.)
to
a

(2)

He

strove

with

all his powers

noble

end.

(JPhrases.)

THE

CONJUNCTION.

195
pluck
the flowers.

(3)

You

may

walk

into

the

garden

but you

must

not

(Sentences,)

(4)

Plato

was

both

philosopher

and

poet.

(Correlative.)

Subordinate.

(5)

His

friends he

trusted

him

because

he

was

honorable.

(6) Although (1) And,

R. XII.

tries he

always

fails.

conj., cop.

; it connects

the

two

nouns,

oxygen

and

gen, hydro-

(2) And, conj., co6r.,

powers and
to
a

cop.

; it connects

the

two

phrases,

loith all his

noble

end, R. XII.
connects not

(3) But,
walk into

conj., coQr., disj.; it garden

. . .

the

two

sentences, you
XII.

may

the

and
are

you

must

pluck

the flowers, R. both

a

(4)
Or

Both the

and
noun

conj., coQr., correl,

a

introduces, and
poet, R. XII.

and

connects,

two

phrases,

philosopher
words

and

better.
and
.

Both and
a

are

correlative cop.

both

is

an

expletive
two
noun

ducing, intro-

is

co"r.
a

conjunction connecting
XII. and Article 613
; it connects

the

phrases
orable, hon-

philosopher
to

and

poet, R.

(6).
the

(5) Because,
the

conj.,subor., causal
R. XII.

clause, he clause, he

was

verb, trusted,

(6) Although, conj.,subor., disj.;

the

it connects

the

tries,to

verb, fails,R. XII.

(a) (6)
as

Some

prefer, and
and call

with

reason,
a

to

consider

such

sentences

as

the

last compound,
In

although
the

coordinate connected
are

conjunction.
to be

parsing, require
above. That

parts

classified definitely
etc.

is done

is,say they

nouns,

phrases, verbs,

515.
A.

Selections
and

for
Rome he

Parsing.
were

(1) Carthage (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7)

She We came,

rival powers.
at home.

but

remained
or

all must

work

starve.
me.

I will work He Out We gave

me

if

he

will pay advice and up

both

and the
our

money.
street

of the
must

yard
either

he
or

rushed.
return

hasten
me,

march

by night

(8) Though
B.

he

slay
us

yet will I trust

him.

(1) (2)

And That

now

let
were was

proceed.
mistaken is evident. wise. the open

you

(3) (4)

Aristides Not

both

just and

truth, but falsehood,

fears

day.
.

196

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

BNGUSH

SBNTENCE.

(6) Scrooge
over.
"

went

to

bed

again,

afid

thought it

over

and

over

and

Dickens. work
storms

(6)

Men

must

and
be

women

must

weep,

Though

hidden

and

waters

deep.

"

Kingaley.

(7)

For Than

none

made

sweeter

melody boy.
green
"

did

the poor the be

blind
was as

Wordsworth,
or

(8) Whether
(9)
Men
must

thing

blue. them than I

was

taught
valuable

if
hut

you

taught
that

not. iron.
a

(10) Gold is more (11) He treated

(12)
He looks
(M

less useful

me

o"

he (/*

believed

thief.

tired.
to

(13) Johnson
(14)
(16) 616.
la. I believe He
was

went

Congress,
he knew

while

his

children

went

to the

tentiary peni-

and

to the

gallows.
is truthful.
not

him, because

silent, for of
to

he

what

to say.

Ontline
aa

Conjunctions,
that

ClaBsea 16.

Use.
:

Co'drdinate

One

joins elements

having

the

same

granmiat-

ical construction.
25. Subordinate
:

One

that

joins a limiting clause

to

some

part of

principal sentence.
2a. ClasaeB lb. 26. 36. 46.
as

to

meaning. Denoting
:

Copulative:
Adversative Correlative: Alternative
as,
"

addition

.(and, also,likewise).
and
. . .

Denoting
Used in
to

opposition (but, nevertheless,whereas).

; either
...

pairs (both
assert
one or

or.

: or

Used James

the

other

of

two

alternatives ;

John One he
:

will

go."
a

56.

Causal:
because

introducing
went." One

causal

clause;

as, **I

shall

not

go,

66.

Conditional
came

introducing
learn."

conditional

clause ;

as,'

**

He

that he

might

SYNTAX 517. and Rule XII.

"

OF

OOKJUirOTIOlSrS.
connect

Conjunctions

words^ phrases^

sentences.

518. (1) (2)

they
come

A
Two TiKTO

coordinate
independent dependent

conjunction may
aentencea
:

connect
went

"

as, ^^John
*^

and

Mary

came.^^
me

aentencea

; as,

I shall go

if he invites

and

after """."

THE

CONJUNCTION.

197

(3) (4) (6)

and

Two

prepositional
takes

phraaea

; as,

'^

Up

the mountain

and

through
to

the glen, he Two

his silent way.*'

infinitive

phraaea

; as,

**

He

tries to be

honest, and

be

industrious.''^ Two

participial phraaea
into
nouna

; as,

**

saw

him

standing

on

the bank

looking (6)
T'wo and Two
^*

the

water.
or
"

'^'^

pronouna, The old

or man

either and

with

or

without

modifiers

; as,

"

He

/ went."

his little girl came." modifiers it

; as,
*^

(7) (8)

verba,
He

with
a

without and
^^

He

\oent

and

turned?'* re-

bought

book
; as,
**

read
man

through.^^
and

Two Two

adjeotiLvea
adverba

The

is wise

great.^"*
the

(9)

; as,

Slowly

and

silentlycame

night."

519.
sentence

A
to

subordinate
some

conjunctionalways joinsa subordinate

of
"

part
to

the

principal.

It

may

join its

subordinate (1) (2)

A An verb

sentence
**

; as,

He

learns as,

beoanae conduct

h^ studies
was

^^ diligently.

adjective;
adverb

^^His

such

that

he

was

missed.''^ dis-

(3)
(a)

An

; as,

^*

He

was

so

slow

that

they
the

all

left^I'm." hy

It has

heen

stated

by

some

authors of the
same

that

parts connected

coordinate

conjunctions
and

must

he
to

class ; hut

this rule is too is often its

strict for writers

speakers
or an

follow.
; as, out
same

prepositional phrase
cannot

joined
The if
some one

to

an

adjective

adverh and

**I

hut

think rule

cation applihe: ; thus

somewhat

constrained
must

of place.'*'* The
grammatical
must

should

parts part

connected is
an

be in the

construction be
a an

adjective,the
used
as an

other

part
and he

either

adjective,or
the of the have

expression
a

adjective;
part must

if

one

part is
as

noun,

object
same

of

certain

verh, the
verbs

other

used

the

object

verh.
same

Generally,
mode
and The

joined by

co5rdinate

connectives

should

the

tense.

(")

subordinate the man,

noun

conjunction although
it modifies
; but

is sometimes

said be

to

join a
^

to participle

the

must ellipsis

always

supplied
the

as,

*'The

although
that is not

[he was]
connective

running rapidly, played

when
or

piece

perfectly."

(c)
**

The

word

it introduces

substantive
as,

clause; subjective, objective, predicative,

That the
stars
are

appositive
**

element;
Astronomers

suns,
are

is the
"

belief
* *

of

astronomers."

believe
are

that the stars

**

suns.

The

astronomer^s
are suns

belief is,that the stars

suns."

The

belief that the

stars

is held

by

astronomers."

198
The

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(d)

conjunction
it
in the

tJian sometimes

follows

the words
sentence

else,other, and
to
an

rather, but
an

nearly always joins a

comparative
than she does.**
a

subordinate
as,

adjective
than I

or

adverb walks When

care

degree;

**He

is

better

am."

*^He

faster than should

(e)
words,
as,

introduces be taken wiser that than

subordinate both Do be

sentence,
in the say,

limiting
is old

two ;

they

comparative degree
**He
as

^*He than

is older L"

and

I.**

not

and

wiser

(/)
tiou

It is claimed

by good grammarians
sentences.

that

the

coordinate

conjunct
tives alternato

always
The as,
**

joins two
word A
or

(g)
;
an

has
or

two

uses

(1)
rules

To in
or

come

between
"

two

king
term

queen
;

always
**

England
supreme

(2)

precede always

explanatory
in

as,

sovereign,
in the the

governor,

rules

England.**
When is
a

(h)
Mary, (Q
Or

series

of

words before

same

construction
**

is

used,

the

connective and The

placed only
and and
a

last ; as,

We

saw

John, James,
collective

Peter.**

conjunction
as, "Paul them

m^y Peter

give

to

the

parts

connected six hundred "Paul

same

signification ;
it may

(together) weigh
the have
as some

pounds.**
and Peter

give

distributive
sentences sentence.

signification;as,
two

(each) weigh
Each is
a

coal.**

As

the

disposition.
to

partial compound
with and
a

Or,

prefer

call it,a

simple 0)

sentence

compound
should
nor

subject. always
and or; the introduce as,

Neither

either

parts that
he
nor nor

are

nected con-

by
were

the

corresponding
**

''^Neither

his friends

present.**
**

It neither

improves

understanding,
nor

delightsthe
be,
"

heart.**

He

neither

improves
nor

his farm

his

mind,**
of

should
are

He

improves
too

neither with that

to

his farm their

his mind.**
; but

Many
the

feood writers

entirely
must not

careless

correlatives

student writers

composition
must

remember attributed

whatever

excellence

such

possess

be

their

carelessness.

520.

Parse

all the

conjunctions. changes
because the
"

Rewrite

incorrect

tences, sen-

maMn^
(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7)
That
we

the necessary
this summer,

I shall visit him may

he

desires

it.
us

fully

imderstand

subject, let
him.
nor

consider

the

following propositions.
Neither Our John Tones He is

flatterynor Baptist

threats

could be

move

judgments
the
are

should came,

neither

hasty

unjust.
nor

eating neither
from old
as

bread and

drinking

wine.

different,both
not
so

emphasis
his brother.

pauses.

but taller,

THE

CONJUNCTION.

199

(8)
Webster.

He

was

as

eloquent,

and

perhaps

even

more

eloquent

than

(9) (10) (11) (12)

It We This

is

as

good,
and consistent is

or

better, ought
to

than do

mine.

may, is

good
with

to

others.

neither wise

logic,
he
can

nor

history. something
or more.

There I do
not

no

one

so

but he is

learn

(13)
(14) (16) (16)

know

whether that but his then the in I the

in be

Boston,

New

York.

Read He If No The
I

distinctly,
is

you

may

understood.
poor.

honest,
are

judgment
he will fact

is

you
one

going, dispute play

that

go. that and Edison in the is

a

(17) (18)
(19) (20) (21)

will

great

inventor.

children remained shall

not

yard
have

street.

might
I
am

company,

but

they

have

gone.

go
were

unless

invited. shall he

Though

he

dead,

yet

live.

521.

Beview

of

Conjunctions.
Illustrate.

(1)
words each. words illustrate
?

Define

conjunction.
name? does the

(2)
showing
differ

What the

other connective all other

connective force connective of

can

you How

Illustrate, conjunction
may of
a

(3)

from

(4)
the

What
two

parts classes
connect.

conjunction
as

join
to

(6)

Name,

define,

and what

conjunctions (7)
Discuss

use.

(6)

Illustrate

parts

each

may

(a)
What ? do

Correlative

conjunctions,
of
most

(6)

Introductory
in the

conjunctions. study
of the

(8) conjunction

yOu

consider

portance im-

200

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

THE

INTERJECTION.

522. him I"

^^

0, pshaw^ he is
words

too

emotional, but

alas^ I

am

like

The that

italicized
come

above
ideas.

express

isolated
are

feelings
tions. interjec-

in

between

They

called

523.
an

An

Interjectionis

an

exclamatory word
comes

used

to

press ex-

isolated

feelingthat

in

between

thoughtsor

ideas.

(a)

The

word

interjectionmeans thoughts
sentences
no

thrown
or

between. the

That word

is,the
that

tion emo-

is thrown it is thrown

in between in between

ideas, and

expresses

or

parts of sentences.
and
no name

(") Interjections have (c)

to

classes

properties.
its part of

To

parse

an

simply interjection,

speech, referrmg

Rule

XVII.

STHTAX 524. Rule XVII.

OF An

INTEEJEOTIOlSrS. does interjection upon be any other

not

"

depend
to the

for grammatical construction

625.
nature

word.

Interjections might of the feelings they

:

classified into

according
:
"

express,

(1) Joy

eigh, hey,
: :

io.

(2) (3)
(5)

Sorrow Wonder

oh, ah, hoo, alas, alack, lackaday, welladay, orwelaway.

heigh, ha, strange,

or

indeed.

(4) Wish,
Praise

earnest,
:

address

(generallyfollowed

by

noun).
what.

well-done, good, bravo.

:

(6) Surprise with disapproval

(7) Pain, (9) (11)
or

whew,

hoida, zounds, hoity-toity,

fear
: :

oh, ooh, ah, eh, O dear.

(8) Contempt
Aversion

fudge, pugh, poh, pshaw,

out, off,shoo, whew,
:

pish, tush, tut, humph.

aroynt.

foh, faugh, fie, fy, foy.

:

(10) Expulsion
Desire

begone, avaunt,

for attention

ho, soho, what-ho, hollo, holla hallo, halloo,

boy, ahoy.

THE

INTERJECTION.

201

(12)

Exultation Mirth Salutation

ah,

aha,

huzza,

hey,
te-hee-he. all-hail

heyday,

hurrah.

(13)
(14)

ha^Jia-ha,
:

he-he-he, hail,
:

welcome, ho,

(16) (16)
(17) (18) (19) (20) good by, (21) (22) (a)
Do
not

Call
Call

for for

attention silence horror

lo, hist, ah,

:

la,

law,

look, ^st,
aw,

see,
mum.

beheld,

hark.

hy:8h,
:

whist, hah,
what.

Dread,

or

oh,

Languor,
Desire for

or

weariness

heigh-ho,
avast,

heigh-ho-hum.
whoa. of

stop
caused

hold,

soft,
the

Feeling good Feeling Feeling

Do allow
not

by

thought

parting:

farewell^

adieu,

day,
that that

good
follows

night.
a

discovery: interrogation
in the absence
to

oho,
:

aha,
ehfhaf

ay

ay.

prompts

hey

use

interjections
course

of
too

corresponding

emotions.

the

of

thought

be

frequently

interrupted

by

emotions*

202

6BAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE;.

IXFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

526. way either both

to

In

other

places it

has

been

insisted that the proper

is not but contain
to to

teach

the

subject of

grammar grammar, should also their

some so

neglect
them of the guage. lan-

practicalor technical together. Every lesson

grammar, I intend and
to to

teach
some

of principles Here grammar.

to

applicationto
lessons that in it will be the

give

technical clear
most

I shall

try

present,
is with

young

teachers, what

regarded

as

perhaps
; that

difficult fives and 527.

subjectconnected Participles.
Orammar,
to

this branch

is, Infini-

the Host that there

Difficult is no. is
so

Study.
other

"

I think branch

perhaps

it is safe the
common as

say

schools well
as

which

much

taught in misconceived by the

seem

teacher
the idea
or

the

pupils.
one

Many
may still be
me,
one
"

teachers hold

to have

that indeed

in grammar
no

almost

any

ion, opin-

ago there and

and opinion, superintendent said to about is no certainty it

"

right. A few years I despise grammar ;

will say
one

book it ;

thing
fuses con-

another the

book

will

contradict
never

this, of
knows

course,

class and

the teacher
a

what
a

to do."

Well^ this is indeed

and that I
am

sad
a one

state

of

if it is affairs,
extent

reality,
another.

sure

that

to

very

great
and

it is. book

It is true

one

book

will say

thing
that

another the
a

It is true,

also, that this will confuse is,it is

true

pupils,and, pity
cases

though
teacher

it

also
not

in what

majority of
to do.

the

himself
"

does

know

But

the question the

remains
or

Is this the ?

fault of the that

of subject, is
a

books,
as

of the

teachers

I hold

grammar

science

INFINITIVES

AND

PAETICIPLBS.

203

exact

as

any

taught in
;

our

schools, with
that in almost

the

possible tion excepcase,

of mathematics teacher understands the

and

every know differ.

if the
to

his fact

business, he may
that the books

what

do,

regardless of
may
are

Well, how
to all that
me

he

know

this,is the question of importance

condition of
our

in the

superintendent.
that

Let

tell
structed con-

you.

First,let it be understood

language

is not

on according to anybody's text-book grammar. should On the contrary, everybody's text-book on grammar have been constructed according to the language. This is The earth was in all science. true not formed according to anybody's text-book on geology, but all the text-books
"

on

geology

have
as

been any
one one

written that

to

explain

the

construction find it to be. and another

not to

of the

earth,
suppose
are

examines says
one

it may

Now,
know

geology
to

thing
and the

another,
to

the
to

pupils
do ?

be
;

confused
on

teacher
are

what earth

No

the

contrary, they
from
on

go to the

itself and

find for

themselves different

its construction.

Suppose they
of both which is their

find it to be books earth this

or or

the statements

all their the

books

geology,
It is not

right,the
to
answer

text-books?

necessary method

of

teaching grammar
The

tific scienquestion. Now, this same a subject may be applied in investigating in any other branch. as as successfully
must

teacher, however,
and literature

be

familiar sufiiciently
to

with is and fering dif-

language
what

in
;

general

know

what text-books

is not with

good
is to

usage

then, if he finds
use

reference

to the

of any

part of speech, all

and and write there
a

he

has

to do

step to
which that
one

the

blackboard
of

sentence
see

containing that part

of the both way be

speech

let the agree

or

class the

for themselves

text-books the

with

language.
text-books which is

Suppose
have
it You

text-books the

all the

and
sure

language another,

right ?

may

it is the

language.

But

204

GBAHMAB

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

do

not

understand with
the

me

to

say

that

the teacher

should be
on a

pense disvery ject sub-

text-book.
one

This, I think, would

has written
a a

foolish

for any

that

text-book

will most the

have likely

better
what

understanding of
I
mean

it than

ordinary teacher ; continually comparing

with

but the

is

this, that
the

by

statements

of
and what

text-book

the

usages
soon

of
be

our

best
to

writers

speakers, the
text-book that
is is

teacher
most

will

able

determine
the

nearly in
one

accordance

with

language, and
Teachers
a

the

that he should
may
not

adopt
on

for his class.

erally gentheless, never-

be
most

aware

of the

fact, but

it is

fact

that
upon This other is true

books
on

geology
rather in

have

been

written the earth.

books

geology
on

than

upon

with

text-books

is it true nine

with

text-books of

general,and particularly English grammar. Ninetyhave

upon the been written upon

one-hundredths
grammars the ideal for

them
than
on

other
But that

rather text-book

this

English sentence. subjectwill be the one

subject-matterthe English sentence, as in literature. So spoken and written by great masters of words is concerned, the Engfar as construction or use lish
has
its

language

is very

now

pretty

well

settled,and
in
our

there

is

no

necessityfor
Nor
on

much

disagreement
for the
or

text-books.

is there the

need

for confusion

part of the
of the

teacher,

keep

the

scientific method text-book

in

pupil or perplexity if he will superintendent, view, that is, verify the

by referring to usage in the ence, language, always remembering that, when there is a differthe best text-book must give up in favor of language. to the investigation let us apply this scientific method Now
statement

of infinitives 528. A

and

participles.
of Other
"

Knowledge

Languages
Let Some
me

not

Necessary
another and

to

an

Understanding of English.
statement

make

inary prelimteachers

just here.

text-books

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

205

are

responsible for
understand

pupil to
must

understand used
could in be

misunderstanding, that for. the he English infinitives and participles and also the infinitives as participles
the the

they were Nothing

we

Greek,
absurd.
so

the

Latin, the Hebrew,

etc.

more

have
see

it before

us,

that any
also he

English is what one willingto

may

it

is,and
at it

look

may

what

it

is,and

know
of

that it will be
those

what
from

it

is, regardless of the

our

nature

languages

which
much
some

which
Even

English words have been taken, and after of our English syntax has been modelled. of the new text-books on just now grammar
use

appearing
of
away

the

Latin

names

for the should the

cases,

for the tenses

such
as

verbs,
;

etc.
are

The
as

teacher

throw times

books
be
a

they
on

much

behind that

would

treatise

anthropology
the
names

giving
footed
to
an

them

ancestors.

This in

foreign languages
artifice
on

classifymen by fourformerly applied to our practice of continuallyreferring teaching English is in most cases
teacher
or

would

the

part of the

writer

to

conceal

his

ignorance of English itself. Suppose tliat the foreign language agrees in its syntax with the English, we must the understand the note English syntax before we can
agreement
throw
on

;
our on

and

after

we

understand
back

it, what

English
the other

to go

to the

lightwill it foreignlanguage?

English syntax differs from the foreign; then, again, a knowledge of the foreign will throw no light on the syntax of the English. So that the thing for the teacher of English to learn is that he is teaching English,not Latin, Greek, German, or French, or anything else.
529. What Part of

Suppose,

hand, the

Speech.

"

Let
and

us

determine

to what

part of speech the

Or
must

infiuitive

the

they be

made

to constitute
are

Here, it is true, the authorities

participle belong. a new part of speech? not agreed; but let us

206

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

follow

our

scientific

method,

and Let

we us

shall be able to determine follow

come

their scientist

part of speech.
not

the upon

method
an

the

would
was

that he do ? he
is

adopt if he should altogetherfamiliar

animal
must

with.

What of the make

all

he

class
must

Evidently he must class it with some already familiar with, or else he must for it. If it differs materiallyfrom
do the
to

animals
a new

others, he
he the the

latter

if not, the

former.
he he

Now, knows;

suppose here Into

decides

class it with
which

the

animals

question arises,Into
class that it most 530. The

class shall

put it ?
do the

nearly

reserniles.
"

Scientific Method.

We

must

same

with

infinitives and differ

as

But participles. the proper

to be
a

scientists for this

a new

themselves
animal

could
; some

to

class

might declare it possiblya bear.

animal agree and itself in every

wolf, others
what is to be

fox, and
done ?

still others

Now let it

Bring
every

in

the
to

testify.Suppose
characteristic
suppose

that

it be found

essential

and

phase

of

its nature

with

bears, and

that, notwithstanding
in ?

this, a committee
it a calling

of scientists
;

high
to do

authority persistin
I think all sensible

wolf

what
the
"

are

we

people
631.

would

take

side of the bear. Now

this is about
our

The Final
to

Test.

condition

with

respect
have

infinitives that

and have

participles. Most
been

grammarians,

those especially

considered

high authority,
not

declared

that

infinitives and
claimed

are participles

verbs. classed This

Some, it is true, have

under is it then
as
:

that What

they

should

be
test ?

that Be

part of speech.
that
we

is the final the nature

sure a

understand

of the verh^and

make

careful examination
in the
note

and participles of infinitives best

they are found

writers^and
or

language of the

English speakers
to

and verbs

whether
them.

they are

found
Now

agree

with

'

to

from differ

532.

Finite Verb"

dp not

always

Assert"

let

us

pro-

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

207

ceed

to make

the
ever

comparison.
been

One

of the

tions strongest objec-

that and
or

has

verbs participles

urged against callinginfinitives that they only ansume is, action, being,
office of is not verbs well
to

state, while

it is the may

assert;

but

this

objectionwe
it is true that

easilysee
finite verbs

founded, for, while

it For
come

infinitives and

is true

also

that

participles always assume, do not always assert.

:
"

instance, take the following sentences

we

When he
w

you
a

will talk

it

"

over

; peen

"I

do not

believe that
verbs in the

thief."

It may

easily be
come

that

the

subordinate

sentences,
assume;

and there

is^do
never

not

make
been would

assertions^they only
a

yet
or

has

grammarian
that

that
are

for this verbs.

any
none

other of

reason
our

deny

they
can

In

subordinate
said
as

sentences

the

finite verbs
still
we

all

properly be regard them

have
to

to

assert^

they only

assume;

verbs.
"

533.
"

They

the Classes of yerbs

Attributive

and

lative. Copu-

It is easy

observe, also, that the different classes

commonly attributed to verbs apply as well to infinitives and either participles. First, we say that all verbs are in* the sentence, "The attributive or copulative^ man as,
farms^'' we
it does
attribute
"

say
not

the

finite

verb any

farms
other and
man

is attributive
to

cause bethe

require
of its

word

express

it asserts is
are a

subject;
"

in the is

sentences,
we

The

man

farmer," and

The

well,"
In

say their

the verbs

copulative because
words
we

they only couple to

attributes.
same

subjectsother
reference
man

that may

express
see

the

lowing folwith the

want
to

sentences to

the

distinction
"

infinitives.
to
a

For is

instance, in
We

We in the
"

want

to
man

farm^'*
to

farm

attributive, and
"

We
man

the

he

farmer," and
are

want

he

well," the
from these

infinitives sentences,

the finite

copula, may

clearlycopulative. It is seen also,that the infinitive copula,like be completed by a predicatenoun or

208

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

predicateadjective.
534. Transitiye
are

Show

that

have participles

the

same

uses.

and

IntranBitive.
or

"

We

say

that

all finite

verbs

either "John

transitive

intransitive* "The it
a

Thus, in the

sentences,
the

plows
is
as

the

field," and

boy rwns^''
the
;

verb
of is

plow
a

transitive, because

represents
receiver action of

action
rwM

doer

terminating
because the
:
"

upon

and
as

intransitive

it

represents the
The John
same

pertainingwholly to following infinitives

and
"We
want

doer. We
want
to

is true

the

to

the

boy
is
to
as

run.'''' To parse

transitive, everybody would

the

plow the field," plow is clearly noun field as its

So far
as ever

object;
I have the

and

to

run

clearlyintransitive.
one

yet been
to any

able

learn, no

has

attributed and

classes. Copulativeand
other

Attributive^ Transitive
verbs.
"

transiti In-

part of speech than

like
"

Show run.^^
with the

that

participles may
Begular and

be used

to

and plow'*''
same

to

535.

Irregular.-^_ The

is true

Irregular. Every regular verb, like to plow^ and plow^ has its infinitive and its participle, sponding plowing; also every irregularverb like see has its correinfinitive and participle, to see^ and seeing.
classes,Begular and
636.

May

express

Action, Being,
and

or

State.

"

We

milst

serve, ob-

too, that

infinitives

like the? participles,

finite

verb, may action, as, to run^ running ; being, as, express to 6e, being^or state, as, to standi standing; although as

previously stated they action, being, or state.

637.
seen

can

only

assume^

not

assert, this

May

be modified

by Adverbial
and

Elements.

"

It may finite
"

be

also that be lie in the

infinitives

like participles, elements

;

verbs,

may
to

modified the shade

by

adverbial
the
sun

as,

when

is hot,^^

Boys like "Having come

We

from
638.

country, he enjoyed the city."

"

They have the Propertiesof Verbs

Voice.

"

find

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

209
the

also

that

infinitives and
and

have participles tense^ that

are

same

erties, propto

voiee^ mode^
finite verbs. killed say in
a

always given
sentences,
"

For

take illustration,
"A

the

John We

snake," and
the verbs
sentence

snake

was

killed

by

John."

that
one

have

voice because makes its

the the

verb

they are used so that subject represent the

Now,
for the
same

doer^ and
reason, sentences
we

in

other say

the

receiver.

may have
want

that
:
"

the

infinitives in the John

following
snake,"
"The

voice
the

We

want
to

to kill the

and

"We

snake
is my
a

be killed

by
"

John."

the snake boy killing killed by the boy is

brother," and

The

snake

being

copperhead."
clear,also, that infinitives and Indeed,
no

539.

Mode.

"

It is

have

mode.

other be

verbs
seen
"

can

participles lay such

undisputed
sentences

claim
:
"

to

mode,
"

as

may

from
"

ing the follow-

"I The
to

may

go"
of other

mode
the

(indicative), (imperative), I go "If I may (potential), go" (subjunctive). the finite verb go depends upon its relation
in
a

Go

words

sentence

but
as

the
to

infinitive and
mode. As

never participle soon as

we see

leave

us
we

in doubt

their

them,

know

that

their

peculiarmanner

by asserting. Thus, in and "The "I the sentences, the man to go^'^ want man having gone we did not see him," to go and having gone without in the senat once, show tence, consideringother words that they assume the action. have 540. Tense. Now, do infinitives and participles ? tense First, let us find out why finite verbs have tense. because Finite verbs have tense they can be used so as to mark But different periods of time. infinitives and participles
of

expression is by assuming^ not

"

can

mark
"

different
the
man now

periods of
to be ;

time.

Thus, in the
I believe

sentence,
that the the

I believe

honest," the thought is,

in the

man man

is honest
to have

and

sentence,

"

been honest," the

thought is,that

he

210

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

was

honest

some
can

time

in
two

the

past.
called

So

it is clear time and

;

that

these words

mark the tWo

distinct

periods in
Present

they,

therefore, have
Perfect.
541. Time

tenses

Present

expressed by the Tenses.

connected this
"

"

A with

very the

important
tenses

and

very

practicalquestion
and

of
pressed ex-

infinitives

is participles

"

What

is the time

The by each of the tenses ? only statement is commonly found in the grammars the time is,that by infinitives and participles depends upon sentence." expressed by the finite verb in the same
"

that
pressed ex-

that

In

the time has

same

first place, this

statement

is not

always
the

true.

The
often in the

expressed by
no

the

infinitive and
to that
seen

participle
finite verb
"

reference

whatever
may

of the the

sentence,
to be to be to be

as

be

from

following:

The The The The The The

horse horse horse

man man

sold, was sold,

is
now

once

valuable. valuable. be valuable.

was a a

sold, will sometime

the the the work work work

having having having

done, done,

congressman.

done, is

congressman. be
a

mUn

will

congressman.

In

the
to

next

place,the
any infinitive

statement
even

is not when

nite defisufficiently

give

information and

it is true.

When
upon
to

the that hold

time

of the

participledoes depend
The
time

of the without

finite

verb, the following rules will be found

First,
"

exception.

of

the

present

and present participle is present infinitive Thus that of the finite verb. :
"

with

referenceto

He He He He He He

came comes

(past)

to the

front

to hear to

(past) the speaker.

(now)
the

will
came comes

(now) to the front come (future)to the

(past) stumbling

hear

speaker.

front

to hear

(future)the speaker.

(past).

(present) stumbling (present).

come

will

(future)stumbling (future).

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

211

From infinitive

the sentences
and

given

above

we

see

that

the

present
to be

present participle may

the rule time is

express is also

past time^
seen

present time^ or future time^ but

true, the
"

that their

present with
"

reference

to

that

of

finite verb."

Second.

that

and infinitive verb of the finite illustration

believes
:
"

expressedby the perfect is always previous to perfectparticiple

time in the
same

The

sentence.

For
He He He

(now) me to have believed (yesterday)me to (future)me

be

been have

mistaken been been

will believe

to have

(past). mistaken (the day before). mistaken (previously).

true

The

same

may

observed

to be

of

participles:
"

Having
Having Having

prepared prepared prepared

his lesson his lesson his lesson

(previously)he (previously)he (previously)he

(now). recited it (yesterday). will recite it (future).

and

recites it

It will be

seen

that

the

perfectinfinitive
either
^'

participle,
the

like the present, may

express says,

present^past, ov future
time

time, but
of the 542. that when

as

the

rule

The

expressed by

perfectinfinitive
The

and

is previous perfectparticiple

to that

finite verb."

Subject of
and

an

Infinitive.

"

I have
as

already sho^yn
verbs, may,

infinitives

as well participles, in transitive,govern as objects,

:

finite

V I want

him
"

to

learn

tences following sengrammar.^' They want

"

the

me

to
now

believe

Aim."
to

Having
that that

seen

him
have

we

came

home."

wish

explain
us

they

subjects also.
must

Grammarians
because it of it
some

all tell
We ;

finite verbs action

have

jects, sub-

cannot

assert
a

without
us,

asserting
we

actor

but,
to

as

trial will action

convince

find

assuming it of for saying that So we have the same actor. some reason infinitives and participles have subjects. It is true must that some grammarians deny that infinitives have subjects.
assume

equally difiicult

without

212

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

For
not

instance, in such

seijtences

as,

"

For

him

to act

so

is

honorable," they have

But
no

called is not
a

him

the

object

of

the
tence, senno

for. preposition
for
more
"

for

preposition in
of relation. that in the

this

it has

antecedent is the
so

term

It is

than preposition he should

act

word

sentence,
Both
use

That

is not

honorable."
no

ar^

having merely introductory expletives,

to

other

than marians gramthat

introduce

their

sentences.

But is
a

suppose

those

still insist its antecedent

act
so

that

/or

preposition,and
sentence

say

is

honorable^ making the

for

read, "To

is not is to
we

honorable do the
must

him," the question still remains. Then, if

him
to
we

Who

acting?
say,
"

express
so

all of

our

thought
has any

For

act

is not him
be
as

able honor-

for him."

Now,

if certainly,

this

last

grammatical construction,
infinitive
to act.

it must

supplied the subject

the ing, followhim believe

of the
"

In

such

sentences
"

We
a

believe

him

to be

truthful," and
be

We

to

be

liar," him
the

should

parsed

as

the

subject of
with
to

the

not infinitive, sentences

object of always
some

the

transitive

verb

for believe^ their

us

should
Now

be

parsed
have him
to

in accordance

meaning.
that the

authorities, in
not
a

trying

show for

infinitive that
if
we

does

subject,say,
we truthful,

stance, in-

believe
so

be

fore there-

believe
of But the

him;
to

it is in accordance

with

the of

meaning
believe.

sentence

parse
a

him

as

the

object

that
seems

is too
to next

narrow

view, for,although this disposition

in

be

consistent
"

this sentence, him

to be
a

it will

not

do

in the

sentence,
to parse

We him

believe
as

liar;^^for

in this sentence, the and The Him

sentence
a

the

object
to

of believe
one

gives
;

meaning
two
one

contrary
are

the

intended

evidently the parsing

is the of

sentences

grammaticallyalike.
parsing
o" the the other. of

should of

be

the

subject

the

not infinitive,

object

believe.

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

213

543.

Jn what
is the
case

Case?

"

Another

question
the

What from

of

the

subjectof

importance, f We see infinitive

of the word of
an

of

all the is

be the

that the case foregoingsentences it is true that the same objective ; but subject both of a finite verb and also it

tive infinimay tive. infini-

When
finite

is,its

case

is

always

determined When

by

the

verb, and

is therefore

nominative.

it is the

subject of an infinitive only, it is always objective. So the fdllowing is the rule that determines the case of the
subject
does
case,

of

an

infinitive upon

Wh^n
other

the word

subjectof
it is in

an

not

depend

any

the

infinitive objective

544.

-is the

Now, it is instructive to ask also. Why Why? in the objective case? Some subjectof an infinitive
"

grammarians,
and

who

admit

that in

the

infinitive has

subject,

objective case, still insist because it is the subject of the that it is of the influence of a preceding infinitive,but because is incorrect. transitive verb. This, also, I hope to show
Take, for instance, the
him
to be
case
a

that

the

subject is not objective,

the

sentence

given above,
word
to

"

We
not

believe

liar."
upon

Now,
the

if the

him

does is will

for its the

same,
so

infinitive

6e, and
case

depend governed by
remain the

preceding transitive verb, its regardless of any change the

the finite verb
to
a

infinitive
same.

imdergoes,
But let
us

long as change the

verb believe in

remains finite the the

to

the

infinitive the
a

verb, leaving the transitive

sentence

believe he is

same,

and Here

will he and

read, "We
him

liar."
same

words the

stand

preceding transitive verb believe^for this verb has not been changed. The* the change therefore must depend upon change in case in the sentence when that is made we change the ; that is, infinitive to a finite verb, the objectivehim changes to the he. So we the subject of an nominative infinitive is see preciselythe
relation

214

GRAMMAB

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

in the

objectivecase,
a

for the

same

reason case

that
;

the

subject
it is the

of

finite verb

is in the nominative the nominative and the

that

ject is, the sub-

verb is in finite verb ; Bubjectof a finite

of

case,
an

beeause

mbject of

the In

objective case,
and

because

it is the
a

is in infinitive subject of the infinitive. is in the native nomithe

other words, the subject of

case

finite verb of
an so

the the

subject
language

infinitive

is in

because objective,
545. that
True in

is
"

constructed. We
must not

Other

Languages.
a

suppose
to

this objective subjectis

;

construction
common

peculiar
and much

the

English language
noticeable,
Latin
on

it is

just as
of their
so

more

account

extended and

inflection, in

and

Greek, and

it is

understood

disposed of
accusative"

by grammarians of those languages. infinitive is in "The subject of an and Q-reenougKs (objective). Allen " 240 (/). "The subject of the infinitive mood
"

the

Latin

Grammar,

is

put

in

the

accusative."

"

Andrew

and

Stoddard's

Latin

Chrammar,

"239.
"

The

subject of
andras
"
"

an

infinitive
'

is in the say

accusative that the

; as,
men

Legousi 'tous went away.'

"

apelthei, They
s

Goodwin^
mood in

Greek
a

Grammar.
clause Greek
"

The in

infinitive the
;

dependent
Bullion's he says, the case." is

has

its subject

accusative."
in Art.
same

"

Grammar.
the the

Art. of
an

729

and

730

When

infinitive

is the
in

with
same

subjectof

subject ing preced-

verb, it is put
"The
"

the

subject of
the

the

infinitive

put in the accusative."

Crosby'sGreek
"

Grammar.
has
a

subjectof its own, it is in tive the accusative. When, however, the subject of the infinifrom different the is not principal subject of the Greek Grammar. sentence, it is not expressed." Kuhner^s
When infinitive
"

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

215

subject of an infinitive is governed The subject is in of an infinitive by the rule given above. the objective when it is not dependent upon another word. case Examples of infinitives haviug subjectsdifferent from
So
we see

that

the

those

of the

finite verb
We She He Whom believe
wants

"

him them

to be

mistaken.

to leave.

is the do

man

whom
want

you

thought
your

to be

me.

you

to have

? library

Examples
those

of

infinitives
:
"

whose

subjectsare
mistaken.

the

same

as

of the finite verb

He does
wants not

intend
to

to be

She
He Who

leave. who
was

is the
wants

man

thought

to

be L

to

have

your

library ? be
:
"

The (1) (2) (3)

(4) (5)
dence A A A

subjectof
noun

an
**

infinitive may
want

; as,

We
**

Paul
want

to

sing for
to

us." us."
to be

pronoun

; as,

We

him

sing for
me

participle
clause I know

; as, ^^He ; as,

thinks
*^

cheating
thinks I say

beating me."
to

Another A that

infinitive
; as,
**

He

to cheat

to be

rob." it to be

He

thinks

that

nothing

about

evi*

nothing."
a

646.

The

Subject of
have
some

Participle.
"

The
noun

like participle,
or

the
that

infinitive, may

for its other

subjecta

pronoun
or a

depends
or

upon

word

in the upon

sentence, any
other
:
"

noun

pronoun Thus

that

does

not
a

depend

word.

the
The The

subjectof
of of
a a

participle may
; as,
^*

be also
blushing
**

(1)
(2)

subject
object

finite verb tramdtive

Alice
; as,

answered John

yes." stealing

verb

We

saw

watermelons."

(.3)The
admired

complement

of

copulative
*^

verb;

as,

**He

was

man

by everybody."
The

(4)
the

object

of

preposition
^*

; as,

Speak

to the

girl standing by
board, the black-

stove."

(5)
charge

In is
a

apposition
very

as

Johnson,
**

the
wrote

gentleman
to

writing
the

on

fine penman."

He

Jordan,

scientist

having

of the

expedition."

216
In

GKAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

the

preceding
and

sentences

the

words

Alice^ John^

man,

ffirlf gentleman^

the scientist^ upon

not

subjects of participles,
words,
are

being
is the

also

dependent
words and

other

governed hy

those other

John
etc.

participles. Thus Alice it is the subjectof answered. nominative case, because it is the object of saw^ is objective case, because by
So
we

the

may any

say

that

when
word
not

the in

subjectof

participle
case

depends
the
not

upon

other

the sentence^ its

is

governed by

that other

word^
the other

following sentences depend upon any

(2) (3) (4)
I understand We Brown Our
were

by the participle. But in do subjectsof the participles

'

word

"

(1) Mary''8 leaving surprised everybody.

your

quibbling
at his

with

him. your

not

surprised
come

accepting

proposition.
the

having
leader

in, we
been

conversed

with

him.

(5)

having

we killed,

abandoned

expedition.

Iti the the

first three

of these

sentences,

it will be

observed,
'

used in dependent constructions. are nouns as participles Thus, leavingis the subjectof the verb surprised^ is is the object of the verb understand^ accepting quibbling And the objectof the preposition it will be observed at. is in the possessive also that the subjectof each participle But in the last two sentences, the participles, case. having with any and come having been killed^have no connection and the subjects. except their subjects, part of the sentence

Brown
we

and
sum a

leader^ are
this all up

the in

nominative the
not

absolute
:

case.

So the

may

following rule

When

depend upon any other word in the sentence^ it is in the possessivecase nominative or when the participle is used as a noun in absolute : possessive a dependent construction^and absolute when the participle, with its subject, is used independently. together
subjectof
does participle (a)
the This rule is not

found,

so

far

as

know,

in any

other

book,
are

but

student

will find

it verified

by

all correct

sentences

in which

found

subjects of participles.

INFINITIVES

AND

PABTICIPLES.

217

647. We

Case
seen

of

the that

Complement
the

of

an

Infinitive
a

Copula."
is

have

infinitive

has

which subject,

objectivecase, and that it may, like finite let us Now inquire verbs, be copulative or attributive. itive. of the complement of the copulativeinfinwhat is the case be a "We In the sentence, thought John would farmer is the complement of the copulativeverb farmer^'' let us abridge Now would case. be,and is in the nominative
commonly
in the the subordinate and Now what it will
sentence

into We

one

whose

verb

is
a

an

tive, infiniJ*^

read,
case

"

thought
of the
word

John

to be

farmer
not

is the does may their

of farmer?

Its form John

does
us

tell
;

us, neither

the be

form
to

tell

its

case

but

both in

seen

be

objectiveby supplying
we

nouns pro-

stead.
"

Then We

should

have

sentence
"

She thought him to be A^r." thought them to be tA"." "They thought hsr to be we." that the complement of an infinitive So we see copulai% in the its subject as case same generallyobjective. When, ; that is, its complement however, the subjectof the infinitive is nominative I was is also nominative thought to be "Ae," ; as, have So we the following rule for the complenot her. ment like the

following :

"

of all tive verb

one

copulativeverbs
same case

The
as

complement of

copula-is but

is in the

its

subject. There

exception
548. have

to this rule.

Case of the

Complement

of

CopulativeParticiple.
"

previously referred to Rule VI, in which stated that the complement of a copulativeverb is its subject. We have stated also that as same case
We

it is in the
to this

yule

there

is

one

exception.
rule
to

Here

we

must

notice which

the the
a

applicationof exception will

scholar, we
is in the

that

the
the

in participle,

appear.

In

sentence,

"He

being
the

asked

his

opinion,"he, the subjectof

absolute
case.

ticiple, par-

nominative
same

case,

and

scholar,the
would be

complement,

is in the

The

form

the

218

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

same

for the
since
no

nominative
reason

as

for for

the

nominative

absolute,
be
an

and

appears

supposing

this to

exception to be parsed as
Ai",the

the
a noun
**

general rule
in the JK"

stated

above, scholar should

absolute
case.

nominative

But

in the sentence,

subject of Scholar^ possessivecase.

possessivecase,
to

being a scholar has been questioned," the participle is clearly in the being^
the

complement,
This
So

is not then the

in

the
ception ex-

but rule be

in the nominative.

is the

the

in

full,would
549. Donble
"

previouslygiven. given as on page 234.

of

rule, stated

Nature

Infinitives
seems

and

Participles
"

Their

Construction. that
now

So

from and that

all this it

we

ought
but verbal

to agree
we

infinitives

are participles

verbs;
to

must nature

understand
are

in

addition also
as

their

they

used So

in

sentences

nouns^ nature.

and adjectives^ We
must
as

adverbs. understand

they
that
an

have

double
or

not

infinitive
same

participleis used
time. It
to
an

all

these
the the
an

parts of speech at the

a

always performs
that, it has
or adjective^

of office
force adverb. that

verb; and
of
one

then, in addition
the

also

or

other,
"I used

noun^

Take education verb

the is

sentence,
a

like education."
as

We the

see

noun,

the

object of
"I
same

transitive
to to

like; and

in the
to read

following sentence,
stands in the it is said
some one

like

read," the infinitive

the
transitive of it
a a

relation
the
use or

verb
noun.

like^so
But and

to have

construction

will say. with

same

Why
For

not

simply
reason,

call

noun,

be

done in the

it?

this
to the

that, although it stands

as

relation its verbal

to

verb and

the

noun

does, yet
to
as

it also
an

retains

nature, take
to
an

may

be

made

govern in
^^

object,and
"I be shown
or use

adverbial

element,

the

sentence,

like

read when
it
to

historyin
the
retains

the morning,
has the

It may

also that of
"

infinitive

construction
as

an

adverb
came

its verbal

nature,

in the

sentence,

He

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

219

leam.^^ purpose of
not
reason
an

The of his

infinitive

to

learn

in

this sentence
has
one

tells the

coming,
of

and

therefore But
some

the

construction say, the

"

adverb
an

purpose.

will For

Why
same

call it

adverb, and

be done

with its

it ?

govern
as

given above; and an object,

the

it retains be
"

verbal
an

nature

may

modified
came

by
to

adverbial
grammar

element,
without
or

in

sentence,
^^

He
same

learn also

much

study. participlewhen
sentences:

This it

is true

of

an

infinitive in
ease

is

used
to

as

an

adjective,as
work the with message
most to

the is is
use

"The
"

time
"

do

your

the

present

The

lady sending
that the the
noun

you the

Martha." of
an

Here

it is clear

infinitive

has
we

adjectivemodifying
that it is
a

time; but
the

know

also the

verb

because

it takes
ease.

adverbial
has

element the

with most
of is
to

sending

construction force element say.

a

an

lady;
and

but

its verbal adverbial

we

seen

objectwork and Also, the participle adjective,modifying in the object message

Now for
a

the

you.

general

statement

may

An

or infinitive participlehas

the used

construction
;

of
used;

noun,

when
an

it is

used

as

nouns

are as

the

construction

of
the

when adjective,

it is used

adjectivesare
is used 550. infinitive it is used the
as

construction used.
a

of

an

adverb, when
above
a

it

adverbs

are

Construction
or as

of

Noun.

"

We

said of

that

an

particlehas the
nouns
uses are

construction The A "The

noun

noun,
now

when recall
:

used.
nouns.

pupil must
may be

different
a

of

used

The

boy is pleasant." TJie We agreeabl subjectof an thought John to be disThe complement of a finite John copula; as, The complement of an is 2k farmer. infinitive copula; as The "We to be a farmer ^ object of a thought John The preposition;as, "I like all the boys but Henry. I like the boy. In apposiobjectof a transitive verb ;
subjectof
verb; as, finite infinitive ; as,
'^^

"

"

''^

"

"

220

GRAMMAR

OP

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

tion;
Now
as

as,

"Henry,

the"

man

that

came

with

you,

is my

brother."

infinitives- and
be
seen

participles may

have

the

same

uses,

may

with
The
"

those

by comparing the immediately preceding :

"

following

sentences

subject of
grammar

finite verb
is

; as,

"

To

study grammar

is

pleasant."

Studying
The be

pleasant."
as,
once
**

subject of

an

infinitive ;
**We

We

once

thought
studying

to

study grammar
to

to

disagreeable."
complement
"

thought
as, **To

grammar

be

disagreeable."
The it.
"

of

finitecopula;
is
an

study

grammar

is to learn

Studying
to be

grammar

learning
it."
"

it.

'

'

The grammar

complement

of

infinitive copula;
We know

as,

"We

know grammar

to

study
to be

to understand

studying
to

understanding
2%e **We The "We In like

it."
a

object of

preposition; being
transitive

as,

**

We
^

like it all but

be

criticised^

it all but
a

criticised.^

object of
like

verb;

as, **We

like

to

study

grammar."

studying grammar."
as, **To

apposition;
to

study anything
it."

diligently,to

give proper

attention proper

it,is

to master to

"Studying
it."

anything diligently, (/ivm^

attention

it, is mastering

551. gave direct may

me

Constraction
a

of

an

Adjective.
"

In

the

sentence,
word An
"

"

He
is
a

the good for all ills," medicine. adjective, limitingthe noun

medicine

good
gave

infinitive
me

have

the
to

same
u%e

use,

as

in the As
use

sentence,
it
was

He

permission
it
was

his tools." To
a

good medicine,
an

so

using permission.
the construction of

is therefore

infinitive the
a

with
noun

direct

adjective, modifying
may be

boys are to blame'' is to he found (findable)in (blamable), "Gas Indiana." Neither infinitive nor active participle an an be used resultant active can as a an adjective. When is so used it loses its verbal force and becomes participle merely an adjective(see Article 558).
sentences,
"

permission. An as predicate adjective,

infinitive in the

used
The

also

as

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

221

552.

Constmction any of the of

an

of

an

Adverb.
an

"

Whenever

an

infinitive
to have

performs
the

ofi"ces of
an

adverb, it is said
An infinitive limits
a

construction of

adverb,

with
as

the
an

construction adverb
limit
an

adverb
as,
"

usually
We
came

verb,
But

of

purpose;

to ieam.^^

it may
as,

adjective or an "Apples are good to eat;

read it." In such

adverb
"

to

express studied

purpose; French is too

"

I have

enough
weak adverb
to

to

sentences

as,

"He

atandy^^the infinitive has the construction

of

an

of of
to

degree, limiting the

infinitives express:
"

adverb

too.

The of
an

principal uses
adverb
are,

with

the

construction

Cause:

"I

grieve
"I
came

to

hear
to

it."

Purpose:
A

learnt fell ^o
went

future

event
*'

**

He

rise
to

no

more." me."

Manner:

Everything
He is old

suit

Degree:

**

enough

to

walk."*^

553.

How
"

to

determine

the Construction difficult

or

of

an

Inflnitiye what

or

Participle. It is often
the infinitive find what
to
one

to

determine It

struction con-

helpful to
can

has. participle part of speech the word the

is always

will be that
or

be

made

take
can

place

of

the
"

infinitive He

ciple, partiis is

when
is almost

be

found.

Thus,

likes to leam^^^
to
come

like, "He
our our

likes edueation.^^
same

"Time '^Future

beyond beyond
expresses ture^

control," is the
control." the
same
"

as,

time

He

is skilful in
as,

building houses,"
in arehitec-

thought
means

"He

is skilful

determining the construction of an infinitive or participle is to expand it into a clause and the clause He observe what use performs. Thus, desires that I He is the same desires me to see you^'' as, in which, that I see clause. see you^^^ you is a substantive
" " "

Another

of

He

came

here

to

learn

grammar

^"^is equivalent to

"

He

came

here

that he

might

learn

grammar^'' in which,

thit he

222

ORAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

might

learn

grammar

is

an

adverbial

clause.
same

"

The
The
on

boy boy
the and

on sitting

the bench
on an

struck struck

me," me,"

is the in

as,

"

that sits
bench is

the bench

which, that sits

many infinitives

adjectiveclause.
be found in
a

But

will participles
to express,

either

equivalentsit is impossible dinate singleword or in a complete suborwhose

or

sentence.

554. When

Not the

the Infinitive infinitive

or

alone, bnt its Clanse. Fartioiple participlestands alone it may

of
as
or a a

"

be

correctlyparsed as having the construction when But it is used adverb. or adjective, phrase or clause, then it is the entire phrase
the of
a

noun,
a

part of

clause, not
construction

infinitive
noun,

or

participlealone,
adverb.
as,

that

has

the
we

or adjective,

Thus
wants

may

parse
as

to
an

learn

in

such

sentences

^'He

to noun,

leam^''
the
me

infinitive
wants.

having
But

the

construction
sentences
as,

of
"

objectof
to learn

in such should

He
an me

wants

gramm^r^'' we abridged clause

has the 566. is
A

say

to

learn

is

and infinitive,
to learn wants.
a

the

in which of
a

it is
noun,
a

found,

grammar^

construction

object of
Noun.
"

becomes Participle

Whenever

ciple parti-

and

lowed immediately preceded by the article the and folby the prepositionof it loses all its verbal force should then be parsed as a participial in the as noun,
sentences
:
"

following
much of the

The

closing of
was

the

bank
the

caused

alarm." fair."

"The The

dispute
same

concerning
of
a

opening
is
a

is true

participlethat

limited
noun;

directlyby an adjective. It then becomes Such walking is tiresome." as, "Ordinary be carefully must distinguished from the
in which the
same

structions con-

lowing, fol-

words

retain and

their

power

to be

modified should bank

at

by
this

adverbial be

elements

therefore
time

parsed

as

and objects, participles: Closing the

to govern
^^

necessitates

closingall

other

forms

of

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

223 bank

business."
too

"

He

was

made

the bankrupt by closing

other Opening a bank here is opening many business in the enterprises." But since the participles sentences immediately preceding sustain also the relations of nouns subject of a verb, object of a verb, object of a the preposition,and complement of a copulative verb, mth the complete parsing of each will be as a participle construction of a noun. soon."
"
" "

The article

often becomes without the noun a even participle in the adjective, as or Painting^music, sculpture,
"

architecture, and
such
cases

literature

are

the

five
to

fine arts."

In

it is sometimes
a mere

from is

exercise delightful Painting in (1) evidently refers to an action, which takes time, in place, at some place upon some object,in some and It is therefore a paractor. some by some manner, ticiple. But painting in (2) is simply the name of one of the fine arts, not referringto any action, and is therefore A participle only a noun. always retains the idea of time^ and if active and transitive it can be given an object without its force in the sentence. Thus, the first might destroying be written, Painting pictures in the morning is a delightful
"
"

distinguisha participle in (1) as participialnoun, Painting and (2) Painting is a fine art." ;
"
"

difficult

exercise," but
a

we

would
^^

not

say,

"

Painting pictures is

Painting pictures is practisinga fine art." So we that it changes the meaning of the see second to put in an objectfor painting. When 656. A Participle becomes a Direct Adjective. any that is commonly is made word to limit a noun a participle immediately following it,it then loses its verbal force and
"

fine

art;" but

rather,

becomes

participialadjective; as, "The But in the following irresistible." driving winds were the same should word be parsed as a participle, sentence for it performs the verbal offices of taking an adverbial merely
a

direct

224

ORAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

winds driving everything object: "The before them But in this sentence, as did much damage." in all such, the participle performs also the office of an that its complete parsing will be ew a partiso adjective, with the construction of an adjective. ciple
element

and

an

667. active

becomes Participle

Predicate the

Adjective.
"

When

an

participle performs
its verbal
"

office of

predicate adjective
is
"

it loses
"

nature;
"

as, "Wealth
are

deceiving.'^

Time

is fleeting.

the italicized words

adjectives.It
an

All such as amusing. should be parsed as participial predicate is impossible to give a sentence taining con-

Children

active

participle with

the

construction

of

predicate adjective following a pure copulative verb. Passive of frequently have the construction participles He lives there loved by everypredicateadjectives ; as, body."
"

658.

becoines Participle
sentences
as

Besnltant

or
"

Factitive

Adjective
^^

in all such

made
569.
a

him The

His following: amusing.'''* Iron's density makes

"

the

peculiarities
it

deceiving.
with of the We
are

Progressive Form
"

of

Finite Verb
some

is formed

present active
to

participletogether with

form
"

verb

he ; as,

Henry
Be

is

plowing
careful
to

the

field."

our reciting

from

the

conduct

distinguishthe progressive form of a finite verb, as in, He is pleasingme," as in, Your copulative and predicateadjective, And both be distinguishe is pleasing.'''' of these must from the copulative verb followed by a participle
lessons."
" "
.

with

the
a

construction
man

of done

predicate
is
"

noun,

as

in,

"Doing
560.

what

wants

pleasing him."
of
noun a

It is difficult to An with infinitive

one

distinguish
the construction

(1)
as

direct adjective
in

from
in
:
"

with the construction

of

apposition,

(1) My (2) My

desire task
to

to teach

is now is

satisfied ;

and,

teach

pleasant.

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

225

The

infinitive the the task

is
term

in

apposition when
it modifies without the

it may

pleasant^or To teach is pleasant; or, the terms change places so as to read, To teach^ my may task^ is pleasant. But in (1), desire and to teach do not the same to teach mean thing ; merely explains which desire for teaching: It would desire give no meaning to To teach is now satisfied." In the (1), therefore, say, of an teach has the construction to adjective; and in of a noun in apposi(2), to teach has the construction tion.
is
" "
"

places with thought of either My

change changing the

be written

sentence.

Thus,

(2)

may

"

(2)
in

An

with infinitive
one

the

construction

from adjective
as
:
"

tvith the construction

of a

predicate predicatenoun^
a

of

(1) George
(2)
Iron To The

is to blame
to be
cease

is not

(blamable). there. found (findable)

to live

(3) (4) The

die is to way
to

(death

is cessation

of

life).

believe

is to investigate

(investigation).

infinitives in all such

sentences

will be
as

observed, only express

express. and

of The

(1) subjectssuch
as

and

(2), it

attributes

the
not

adjectivesmight copulative verb

at

infinitive

completing
ideas
to

the
could

subject noun
not

express

all

identical,and

be

made
Such

exchange
infinitives,

places
But in

without

destroying
the

the

sense.

therefore, have

the

(3) and copulas,not

nouns.

No and
to

to
same

cease

predicate adjectives. (4), the italicized infinitives complete but like predilike predicateadjectives, cate adjective will here take the place of is precisely the investigate.The sense
the

construction

of

if

we

write '*To

sentences,
the
cease

"

To way

cease

to

live

is to All

die," and
such

investigateis
as

to
to

believe."

infinitives,then,
and

to

and of

(3)

(4)

have

the

construction

in investigate predicate nouns.

226

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

561. (1) (2) (3)

Infinitives and
Both Both Both Both Both
are are

are paxtioiples

alike

in

"

verbs. unlimited and time

by person
not

and

number.
state.

assume,

assert,

action, being^ and

(4) (6)
562. (1)
fine
never

express have

relatively,not of

absolutely. adjectives, and

adverbs.

the constructions

nouns,

Infinitives and
The

are participles

nnlike
as,

in

"

participle may
or an

become
^^

noun;

'^Painting
while

is the

one

of the

arts;"
loses

adjective; as,
nature.

Howling

wolves,"

infinitive

its verbal

(2)

The

infinitive usually has

sign;

the participle has

none

except

its ending.

563.
to has
no

Sign

of the

Infinitive.

"

It must

be understood

that

the
use

force when it is used as the sign of prepositional The It is merely a sign,nothing more. infinitive. the infinitive is comparatively of the sign to before would
not

recent, and
form parse for the the

be

needed

if

we

had Brown

different others

present indicative.
as

Goold

and

they object of its sign to^ which the English of to-day furnishes call a preposition. But no ground for such a disposition. One had as well parse the present active the object of its ending as participle in which construction a ing. In Anglo-Saxon there was in the dative ; but have to governed a verbal no noun we of it in English, We told by high authority trace are
infinitive the that the human But very
race

has

descended this be
true

from
or

four-footed

ancestors.

whether

false,it would

be certainly the
man

unscientific,to say the least,to describe

not
as

of the

surpass the has

But this would to-day as four-footed. stupidityof parsing the English infinitive if it
a man ever

object of fo, which, as clearlylost it as sign

of the

had

prepositional force,
additional

has

lost his

pair
in

of feet. This

infinitive is often

lengthened

into

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

227

order

to^ as, "He

in order
to

came

in

order be

to

learn.^^
as

In the

such

tences, sen-

learn

should
to

parsed
the the

infinitive.

It

gives
564.

the

wrong

meaning
is omitted the

divide

phrase.
verbs and

The

sign

after

active rather

m(ike^
The

lety8ee^ hear^ also after

"Make omission him of
come

adverbs
as

lief; as,
etc.

in," "I
others. of the

had

lief not

6e,"

the
some

need^ sign is optionalafter dare^ help^

and

and please^ The

omission

sign after
^o
come

nlake

and say,

bid "Bid

is confined him
come

"to positive expressions. One

would in."
see are as

in," or,
When

"

Bid the

him

not

verbs
verb

have
to

and

followed
the him

the infinitive,

he^ as

well have J*^

suppressed; as, "They would "I saw him [to be] sentenced
(a)
definite what These rales
statements
can

by a passive sign to^ is often [to be] killed.^^

may

not

be

but altogether satisfactory,

must

no

more

be

given.
He

The

student

learn the

from

language expressed
do it ?
"

itself in
a

is the

best

usage. when
; as,

will often
a

find that

sign
Dare

is

sentence,

which,
omitted

put in
"

slightlydifferent
you
to

form, would
**

require

the
**

sign
dare

to be to

I dare

do

it ;

"

you

do, but

I dare

not

dw."

666.

The

Infinitive is that

form

of the verb, usually

the

ceded prea

by
noun,
an

the

sign

to^ that^ while

an

performing
assumes or

of office
the

or adjective,

adverb,
and

implies action,
same

being,or

state

without

affirmingit, and
number

retains

form, regardlessof the person

and Latin, (a) In Greek languages,^^ infinitive^*is used verb
to
as as

of its subject,
most

in the

English general
its

and
name

other the

modem
as

of

verb,

the

give, the verb

In

to

love, etc.
infinitive without

(6)
form
as

English,the
the

sign generally has commonly

they demand

the

same

present

indicative,and
so

they
use

are

spoken
separate

of together,
ment. treat-

but

they

are

different

in

that

(c) All participlesending in ing and having substantive infinitives. frequentlycalled infinitives or participial

uses

are

also

228

GRAMMAR

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

((2) The
adverb,
very In

infinitive

commonly
that of
an

has

the

construction

of

noun,

or

of

an

seldom

adjective.
verb voice. has four from

(")
have
:

English,
"

every each

transitive for each

infinitives and
the verb write

four
we

participles,
"

two

of

Thus,
white. to be have

(a)
InfinitiveB

Present Present

Active, to
Passive,
to

(b)

written. wbittbn. been written.

(c) Perfect Active,

(d) Perfect Passive, to have (a) Present Active, wbiting. (6)

Participles.
Present

Passive,

being

wbittbn. written. been written.

(c) Perfect Active, having

(d) Perfect Passive,
having

(/)
and

Of

course

every

intransitive

verb

would

lack

the

passive infinitives

passive participles. 666.

The

is Participle

that

form

of

the

cated verh^ usually indi-

hy
noun,
an

its

ending^ that, while

an

performing
assumes or

the office of

or adjective,

adverb,
and

implies action,
the
same

being,or

state

without

and it, affirming

retains

form

of regardless
(a)
of
a

the person

number
has the

of

its

subject,
of
an

The

participlecommonly
very
"

construction In all such

adjective,or
as

noun,

seldom

that

of

an

adverb.

sentences

the

following :

(1)
George
when
we

"I walk

saw

George walking
the

down be

Washington
observed that
to the

Street ; "
we use

(2)

"I

saw

wire,"

it will

the

participle
to the

wish

to direct

particularattention,not
when the
as a

act, but rather

in
our

agent
Here

; and

the

infinitive should be

act

is the

uppermost
the

thought.
of
an

walking
to walk

parsed
In

with participle is
an

construction the

adjective limiting George, George In

the wire, has

(2), walk

and infinitive, of
a

clause,
saw.

the construction

noun,

the

object of

foregoing discussion no effort has been made to itives with anybody's dictum have it harmonize concerning infinthe other hand, no and pains have participles ; on with the uses it accord been spared to make performed by wherever infinitives and they may be found in participles
the

English

sentences.

Professor

Whitney

classes

infinitives

and

as participles

INFINITIVES

AND

PARTICIPLES.

229

nouns

and
from of
no

adjectives.He
small that
one

says,

"

The and

line which variable. and

separates
The

them is be
one

the latter is indistinct consequence

in grammar,

it may it
can

point fairly
call

denied
a

who

is not But
seems

himself here

grammarian." brought together,it

"The
nouns

in regard to right^ in the light of that that

the

facts

Professor

Whitney
and

ought to have said: from and participles

invarialleJ*^
and
more

line and have The

separates infinitives
distinct
more

adjectivesis
added, with

Then

might consistency,
"

he

ing mean-

consequence
one

in grammar, is not

that

right in

point is one of no small and it may be denied that fairly a regard to it can call himself
Participles.
"

grammarian."
667.
are

IndependentUse
absolute
in
a

of Infinitives and of To

There

several
but

constructions

infinitives

and

ciples, partinot

sentence

like,
of

"

tell the

truth, I do

like

him," the infinitive may

of
an

adverb
to

struction parsed as having the constood. limitinga verb underpurpose,

"

be

tell the
to

parse

it would read, To supply the ellipsis, If we truth, [I confess]I do not like him." wish to tell without supplying anything, all that can

Here,

be done 568.

is to say that it is

an

infinitive used

independently.

Parsing
1. 2. 3. 4. He He The

of infinitives and has

participles.

find his hat. attended came by his friends. apples are to he picked to-morrow.
gone
to

I believe

him
state

to

have been mistaken.

construction of every tive infinistruction con-

(a) Require pupils to

or

the definitely
to
an

participle.
of
a

It is not
an

enough

say

of it

simply

that

it has
state

the

noun,

adjective,or
of
a noun

adverb.
nominative construction

Expressly
case, of
a or

whether
a noun

it has the
a

the

construction

in the the

of

in

objective case
of

; whether
a

it has resultant

direct the

adjective,
tion construc-

predicate adjective,or
an

adjective ; and
idea whether

if it has

adverb,
cause,
etc.

state

definitelythe
observe

it expresses,

whether
or

of

time,

purpose,

Also

it is the infinitive

participle

230

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTEKOE.

alone, or
noun,

its entire

clause,that
adverb.

should

be

given

the

construction

of

adjective,or
To
"

(1)
found,

find, v.,

trans., attrib., irreg.,

"

find, found,
adv.
of purpose,

act., inf., pres., with

the

con.

of

an

and XI. limitinghas gone^ Rules XVI (2) [Being] attended, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., part., of a pred. adj., limitingAe, Rules XVI pres., with the con.
and X. To be
con.

(3)
with
and X.

picked, v., trans., attrib., reg.,

of
a

pass.,

inf.,pres.,
XVI

the

Rules pred. adj., limitingapples^

(4)
been,
to
"

To

have

been, v., intrans., cop., irreg.,

" "

am,

was,

inf.,pres. perf.,

the entire
con.

have been mistaken^ has the

case,

of

abridged clause, him in the objecnoun a tive

and IV.
to the
a noun

Rules obj.of believe^

form of

XVI

(h)
or

This

parsing
there is

does

not
case

necessarilygive case
would
reason case

infinitive
so our

but participle, for that and

only

tells what
no

be for

given
not

to

used. tives infini-

But

matter,

good

denying

case

to

for, in English, participles,

Sentences

means

form

but

relation.

569.

for

Parsing.
written

(a)
of the all the

Give

the

complete
and of
sentences

parsing, according
as

to the

models,

of all

italicized

words,

all others
are

signed by
See

the

teacher. the

(6)
was

Several

following
intended.

ambiguous.
sentence, and
he
can

that

pupil understands probably

possible meanings
one

of

each

which the

meaning

See,

also, that

give

parsing corresponding

to each

meaning.

570. (1)

(a) Very Simple

To He
sin

Constructions.

is to suffer,
to rest.
come

(2)

likes have

(3) They (5) (6)

He Let The I
come

to assist

us.

(4) Training
came us

horses

is

making
in at the

them door.

useful.

tumbling

get permission
is anxious here the go
to

to remain.

(7)
(8) (0)

boy
from

have

his trial.

not

to talk.
to
come.

Flee The

wrath

(10)

curious

to church

to

see

; the

vain, to

he seen.

INFINITIVBS

AND

PARTICIPLES.

231

(11)
(12)

The
A

dog lying by
letter written

the child with

a

is protecting her. is
more

pen

desirable

than

one

done

on

typewriter.

(13)
(14)

Learn

to live and

live to learn, children. it.

It is wrong To He The
see a

t6 deceive

(15)
(16) (17)

thing

is to believe
to he

believes task

trying

succeeding,
was

to write

an

essay is

assigned

me,

(18) Lying, telling untruths, to read seems (19) Sometimes

deserving
to

of punishment,

not

be to understand,

(20) Studying seems enjoyed reading Shakespeare (21) Having

(22)
She The The The To does

to be learning,

an

hour, let

us

get

our

nothing

but

criticise.

(23) (24) (25)

-

rustling of
leaves
return

the

leaves

frightened
us.

us.

rustling leaves rustling

home

frightened
near us

frightened
!
never

us.

(26) (28)

after

this, never

(27) Making
She

sport of

is to blame

a poor simpleton, how for keeping us waiting.

rude

child,how dreadful 1 (29) Murdering her own (30) He sits there growling instead of giving thanks. succeed better, we may (31) In time to come

(32) (33) (34)

(36)

This He The He The

campaign
fell to rise child did is not

seems no more.

more

exciting.

well well

enough enough

to to

stay, get the prize.

difficult.
to be scolded. current events
are

his work
to

(36)
(38) found

desire

please is worthy of being cultivated. yet clear, that is

most

(37) Being
She

brief and
to

thought
books

study

to

be better

than

(39) Good
here. Please Please

and

magazines discussing all

for writing to you. from

to be

(40)
(41)

excuse excuse

me me

writing

to

you.

(42) WesawMm/a?Z. (43) We saw him walking

(44) (46)
He

down

the

street.

thought merely
is considered blames
one us

to ask

to be to

get what

he

asked /or.

He He
For

to be reliable.

(46)
(47)
undertakes

for being interesting.

what
to

to know

try

to be is

a^

difficult

as

to be what

one

to be.

(48) Suddenly

there

came

tapping,

as

of

some

one

gently rapping,

rapping

at

my

chamber

door.

232
571.

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENOUSH

SENTENCE.

(ft)More
The The I I
am am

Constmotions. Interesting
upon the upon

(1)
(2)

slave

stepped

block
the

to

he sold,
to be sold,

auctioneer

stepped

wagon

(3) (4) (6) (6)

(7) (8)
used
as

going going
does

to sell my to town

wheat. wheat.

to sell my to
sea

Whom He He The
a

she
to go

want to

help f
to work to he to

thought
believes house

try
to

to learn

to he

sailor,

the
to

m"in

to have

been

hanged
this

satisfythe
was

moh. built
to

have

been

dedicated

morning

be

church. band is to have is to become

are worn a a new man.

(9)

The The

leader.

(10)
(11)

boy

Diamonds I have I had

to become

the

wearer.

(12)
(13) (14)

to go
as

to

sleep.
be
as

lief not

live to

be in

awe

of

such

thing

as

I myself.

An

important study
is

is

reading.
it

reading, (16) George book is reading a Studying (16) (17) I want to try to do what he

attentively.
done.

wants

(18) Try (10)

(20) (21) (22)
You The The An The The

to

get ready.
to be

Is it better may

horn

great,

or

to have

greatness thrust

upon

us?

expect the dishes

we are

to he

broken.

plate being broken,

stones

did for

not
a

buy

it.

being broken story

was

foundation.

(23)
(24) (26)

amusing

told.

story is amusing. story is amusing

the children.
was

(26) The story amusing the (27) Making children laugh

(28)
The

children
is

written
them.
a

by Hawthorne.

amusing
has become

amusing

of the

child

problem.

(29) Amusing him is pleasing him. made the man (30) His peculiarities despised by everybody (31) A man
(32)
He His The The The died loved

amusing.
is

generally

bad

man.

by

his

friends,but despised by
him
to the

his enemies.

(33) (34)
(36)

wickedness letters letters

made

despised by everybody.
are

being

written been

president.
man

having
run

written, the
horse

mailed

them.
manageable. un-

(36)
(37)

dog having
him

out, my
been been

became

frightened and

I believe

to have

mistaken mistaken

about

me.

(38)

I believe him

to have

for

me.

INFINITIVES

AND

PAETICIPLES.

233

(30) Marley was dead, to begin with, having (40) Selling whiskey to minors
for

been

forbidden^
of

we

may

look

happier

homes.

(41)

His

having disappointed
his denying
we

you made be

in his

surprising as
attempting.

having
never

reading is not so specialpreparation for doing it. teaching

do what
to
we

(42) Clearly (43) (44) (46)

do
.

shall

able

always put

ofE

I do The We
us.

not
team
are

remember ordered commanded

to have

seen

you

try it before.
away.
we

by

him
to

is do

now

running
others
as

unto

would

have

others

unto

to be you. (46) It did not seem (47) He is said to be very rich. (48) You had better try to go, (49) They are about to begin, hold it half a (50) I sometimes To that bey or not to be, (61)
"

sin to put in words is the mind

the

griefIfeel,

question
to

Whether The

*tis nobler
arrows

in the

suffer

slings and
arms

of outrageous
a sea

fortune,

Or to take
And

against
end

of troubles.

by opposing

them.

572.

Beview
What

of Infinitives and by
the

Participles.
of Show

(1)
speech
not

is meant

scientific method verb.

studying
that

each

part of
do the

Illustrate.
assert
"

always

classes of verbs,

finite verbs a (3) (2) infinitives and Show that participleshave (4) (a) attributive tend copulative; (b) transitive s,nd that Show infinitives that and

Define

transitiv in-

(6)
being,
or

Show

participles may
and

express

action,
the erties propdo of

state.

(6)
"

infinitives

have participles

of

verbs,
?

(a) voice, (b) mode,

?

(c)

tense.

(7)
is govern

What

tenses

infinitives and
these Show the and
tenses

have participles

(8)

What

time

expressed by objects?

each

(9)
of

What

parts of speech may

(10)
is

that

infinitives and

participles may
that has
a

govern

objects. (11)
Show that is the

What

only part
?

speech

subject ?
In what
case

(12)
case

infinitives
an

have participles Dlustrate.

subjects.

(13)
what

subject of
of
a

finitive in-

(14)
that

In

is the and

subject

? participle

Dlustrate. may
case

(16)

Show

infinitives

participles when
substantives.

copulative
In what is be what

be

completed by complement
of
an a

either of
an

adjectives or
infinitive

(16)
In what

is the

copula? (18)
is meant ?

(17)

case

the the

complement subject
and
of

participial copula? (19)

a

Illustrate

may

infinitive.

What nature

by saying

that
to

itives infintheir

have participles

double

(20)

In addition

234
verbal

ORAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

use,

what of

oses an a

may

each
or

have of
a

(21)

Show

how

to determine Show
;

the word direct

construction that is

infinitive

participle. (22) become,

a
"

how

a a

commonly
a

participle may
of

(a)

noun

(")

adjective; (c)
of the with of of
noun. a

predicate adjective ; (d)

form
a

resultant

adjective ; (e) a part

"

progressing
the
a

finite verb. of
a

(23) Distinguish, adjective from

one

(a)

an

finitive instruction con-

construction in

direct
an

with

the

noun

apposition ; (b)
from
one

infinitive the

with

the of

construction
a

predicate adjective

with

construction

predicate

(24)
are

In

what unlike?

are

infinitives

and what

participles alike
you and
"

? the

(26) sign (28)

In

what the

they

(26)
Define
"

Tell

know
a

about

of

infinitive.

(27) (") {d)

an as an

infinitive

participle.

Use

the word

interestixig,
;
as as a a

(a)
noun

adjective,
as a

[1] direct; [2] predicate ; of

the progressing

[3]
a

resultant

(c)

part

form of
adjective ;
of
a

finite verb ;
as a

participle with
the of of
a a

the construction

of
"

an

(e)

participle with

construction transitive finite

of

noun,

[1] subject
of of is
a an

finite verb,

[2] object
of

verb, copula
each

[4] complement [6] complement [7]

in

copula,

[3] object [6] subject

whose of the

tion, prepositive, infini-

an

infinitive Use

subject

objective,
words:

apposition.

(29)

similarly

following

amasing, 673.

perplezing, Bnles of

enticing, deceiving,

distseBsing.

Syntax.
SUBJECTS.

FINITE

VERB.

I.

The
case.

subjectof

finite verb

is

always

in

native the nomi-

INFINITIVE.

II. when of
a

The

subject of
also the

an

infinitive

is in the

objectivecase
complement

it is not finite verb.

subjector

attributive

PARTICIPLE.

III.
upon
case

When
other

the

subject of
in the absolute:
a noun

does participle
it is in the

not

depend

any
or

word

sentence,

nominative
as

possessivewhen
its

possessive the participle

and

is used
absolute when

in

dependent construction,

the

with participle

subjectis

used

pendently. inde-

BULBS

OF

SYNTAX.

235

OBJBCm
.

TRANSITIVE

VERB.

IV.

The

object of

an

active

transitive

verb

is in

the

objectivecase.
PREPOSITION.

V.

The

objectof

is preposition

in the

case. objective

IDENTIFICATION.

ATTRIBUTIVE

COMPLEMENT.

VI.

noun

or

pronoun
same

used
case

as as

the
its

complement

of

copulativeverb
"

is in the

When the

subjectof a complement is nominative.

APPOSITION.

the

subject. Exception, is poscopulative participle sessive,

VII.
case as

A the

noun noun

or or

pronoun pronoun

in it

apposition

is in

the

same

explains.

POSSESSIVB

CASE.

VIII.
a

noun

or

pronoun

limiting another possessive case.

noun

fying signi-

different

thing is

in the

ABSOIiUTE

CASE.

IX.

noun

or

pronoun
case.

used

independently is

in the

nominative

absolute

MODIFIERS.

ADJECTIVES.

X.

Adjectiveslimit

nouns

and

pronouns.

236

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

ADVERBS.

XI.

Adverbs

and (usually)limit verbs, adjectives,

other

adverbs.
GONNECTIVB
OB BEIJLTION

WORDS.

CONJUNCTIONS.

XII.

Conjunctions

connect

words,

phrases, and

tences. sen-

PREPOSITIONS.

XIII.

the word

prepositionshows the phrase limits.

AOBEEMENT.

the

relation

of its

objectto

PRONOUN.

XIV.

A and

pronoun

agrees

with

its antecedent

in person,

number,

gender.
FINITB VERB.

XV.
and

finite verb

agrees

with

its

subject in

person

number.
INFIXITIYES AI9^D PARTICIPIiES.

XVI.

Infinitives

and

participles are

used

as

nouns,

and adjectives,

adverbs.

INTEBJEOTIONS.

XVII.

An

does interjection upon any other

not

depend

for

cal grammati-

construction

word.

EXPIiETTVES.

XVIII.
are

The
used

words

and^ that^there^for, and

as

some

others

often

merely

introductoryexpletives.

ANALYSIS.

237

ANALYSIS.

574.
sentence

Orammatical
as

Analysis
how
"

is such

separation of
related,

the

will show of

its

parts

are

675.

Value

Analysis :
the

(1) (2)
sentence

It

impresses
sentence.

principles governing
to relate

the construction

of the

It leads

the student determine

ideas, and
of the

to

see

that

their relations

the

relations

parts of the

that express

them.

One's
upon

therefore, will
its

always depend
and

analysisof a sentence, his understanding of

teacher
to compare

thought. (3) It enables the class understandings.

the

ferent dif-

(4) It cultivates clearness, of expression. facility (5) (6)

576. may It leads It is Form
to the

accuracy,

precision,and

general analyticthought. delightfully interesting.

of

habit

of

Analjrsis* Analysis
"

be also
may

either
or

oral

or

written.

It always mental. Again, written analysis

is

be in full

by diagram.
exercise in but

full

affords

valuable

Writing the analysis in tion, punctuation, capitalizathe

teacher

and spelling,

neatness,

should

hot

require more
577.

of it than

is necessary
seems

to the

end

sought.
have

Analjrsisby diagram
its former

unfortunately to

fallen from

good standing. It has very largely from the schools. been discarded Admitting that, like be overdone, I confidently any other good thing, it may charge that all other criticisms I have heard urged against it are, to put it most superficialand unpedacharitably,

238

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

gogical.
"You how
;

The

most

profound
a

of
in

these

objections is,
"

cannot

put

sentence

diagram

till you
use

know

doing This objection(?) holds equally against solving a it ? problem in arithmetic, demonstrating a proposition in geometry, and writing out a translation. 578. Analysis may be regarded as a kind of abridged
you
"

and

when

know

how, what

is the

of

parsing.
their

It consists

in the

classification of sentences

and

elements.

OLASSIFiaATIOir 579. 580.

OF

SEVTENOES.

Sentence
As to

(A)
A A

of thoughtin words. eaypression are rank, sentences Principal or Suboris

an

dinate.
581. 582.
a

PrincipalSentence
Subordinate

is

one

not
one

used used

as as

a an

modifier,
element in

Sentence

is

sentence, principal

(a)
John

^*

John

struck James" James/'

**John In

is

principal sentence,
James'*

but

in

^*

I believe
as a

struck

struck the

is subordinate, I be

used the

simple objective
sentence,
**

element. John the

last, either
may clause is

believe,

or as

entire

I believe When That

struck

James,''

regarded
as

the

cipal prinof
an a a

sentence.

subordinate James

is used

the the

subject
clause

verb,

as

in

*^

John of the

struck

certain,"
Also

then when

is
as

inseparable part predicate 683. 584.

as or noun"

principal

sentence.

it is used

Clause
are

is

subordinate

sentence.

Clauses

ing Substantive^ Adjective^ Adverbial^ accordthe office of

a

they perform
an

noun^

of

an

adjective^

of
585.

adverb. A Substantive subject

of
a

Clause
verb be of
a a
"

may
That

be
he

"

(1)
believe

The

is

thief

is evident."

"We

Industry
The

wins

to

good
to be

motto."
:
'^

(2) (3)

complement
I believe

copula
*'

His

motto

is,Labor
all

conquers

all

things.^'' **
The

his motto
a

Labor that

conquers he is
a

things.^"*

object of

verb

I believe

thief

ANALYSIS.

239

(4) (6)
by

The
"

object

of

preposition :
Ac
**

"

They

are

disputingaboiit
a

who

was

elected.'*^ In

I left after

came.

"

apposition ;

The

question, Are

we

nation

was

answered

Sumner."

586.

An
An

Adverbial
or

Clause

may

modify
degree^
as
:

"

(a)
than I

adverb
"
"

to adjective
are
"

express than 1

**

Henry

walks

faster

run.

You

better

am,

' '

(6) (1) (2) (8) (4) (6)

him."

verb

to
'*

express We Come
:
""

Time-. Place
:

shall start where You

when the
roses

the train
are

drrivesy

*'

blooming.'*''
you may

Condition Manner
: : :

will succeed

if
you

try.^^
direct.^^

'*

I shall He
came

proceed
that

as

(6) Purpose
Beason

**

he

might
you

be instructed.''^
are

**

I will leave
or

because
:
"

here.^^ he

(7) Opposition
Such

concession
are

Though

slay

me,

yet will I

trust

clauses
etc.

introduced

by though, although,

notmthstand-

ing, however,

587. (1) class;

An

Adjective or Relative
one

Clause
the

may

be

"

Restrictive:
or
**

that

restricts

predication,

or

distinguishes of
the
same

the object as,

objects represented
Words that
are one
'*

by its antecedent
are

from

others

names

nouns." its antecedent the

or

(2) Explanatory:
additional into
*'

that

explains
which
are

expresses
are

an

idea;
"

as,

Words,
who

signs of ideas,
was

divided

classes." man,
An

Solomon,
understood

built the temple,

the wisest the

of

kings."
that of

The

who

mathematics,
expresses
reason a

easilyfollowed
it has the been

explanation."
with

(a)
the clause.

explanatory
For

clause and
we

thought coordinate,
called of the
a

principalsentence, example,
way: in this ideas." "The

for this may

coordinating
tences sen-

express
are was

meaning
into of

last three

"Words "Solomon

divided the

classes,and kings,
and he of and

they
he

are

the the

signs
the

of

wisest

built

temple."
sentence

man

understood But it will

are

mathematics,
not

easily followed
the

explanation."
to say:

give
and that

the

meaning
are

preceding
in all

"Words should

nouns

they
in

names."
are

The

student

remember and in
a

who

BJid. which restrictive

used

explanatory
authorities

clauses, prefer

very

sparingly

clauses. when whom the

or

Best tive relawhich

that

all restrictive

clauses of

except
course,

immediately follows
must

preposition. Then,

be

used.

588.

pound^ Simple^ Comand Abridged. Complete^ Partial-Compound^ Complex^

(5)

As

to

structure, sentences

are

240 A
are

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

589Cows

Simple Sentence
quadrupeds.
came

is

statement; single

as

"

The ?

history of America

is a very

interesting

story.

Who

with

you

590.
sentences

Compound

Sentence

is

one

containing two
one

or

more

of equal rank^ joined by

as:
"

or

more

cod'rdinate

connectives;
Art not hit is

long

and

time that

is
were

fleeting.

He

aimed be

at the

target but

he
were

could last

it. first The

They

first shall

last, and

they

that

shall be

(a)
and any

first in
a

compound
member,

sentence

is called Or

the may

leading sentence^
be

other,

coordinate

sentence. etc.

they

designated

as

first member,

second

591.
or

Fartial-Componnd Sentence
are

is

one

in
;

which
as
:
"

either

both
John

of the principalelements
and

compound
They
came

Mary
John

are

handsome
came

couple.
and

and

desired

an

interview.

and

James

remained,

592.

Complex
be either
you
are

Sentence

is

one

containing one
The subordinate
or

or

more

completesubordinate
itself may
I believe

sentences.

sentence

simple, complex,
I she
am

compound.
that said you
were

mistaken, and

the

man

taken. miscrown

If he
their

is industrious

is

economical,

prosperity will

efforts.

593.
She is

A
a

Complete Sentence
musician.

is

one

whose

verb is finite ;

as

"

594.
or a

An

Abridged
be

Sentence
as :
"

is

one

whose

verb

is

an

tive infiniweU

participle ;
her
to
a

I believe entertained.

musician.

She

being

musician,

we

were

695.

2iTe Declarative^ Interroga((7) As to JiBe, sentences tive^ and Imperative. Exclamatory,,

596.
as
:
"

Declarative

Sentence

is

one

that asserts

or

denies

He

is honest.

He

is not

honest.

ANALYSIS.

241 is
one

597.
;
Is he
'

An
as :
"

InterrogatiyeSentence
?

that

asks

tion ques-

honest

598.
;
How
as

An
:
"

Exclamatory

Sentence

is

one

used

in

tion exclama-

honest

he

is I

599.

An
;
as

Imperatiye
:
"

Sentence

is

one

whose

verb

perative is im-

Go

to

the

ant.

Hear

me

for my
used

cause.

(a) (")
but

An

imperatiye
**

is often beautiful
an

with

the

force

of

an

exclamatory

tence sen-

; as,

See

that of

bird."
sentence

The

subject
a

imperative
in the graves.

is
or

usually thouy
a

you,

or

ye^

it is sometimes Green To And the

noun

third

person,

pronoun
name.

in the

first.

be their
next

Hallowed bend
we.

be

thy

teacher, circle,
this wall
"

thy steps, Inferno,

line

from

dismount

Cary^s

Dante^a

71,

canto

24.

600.

In the

following,describe
use.

the sentences the

as

to

rank^
plex com-

structure^ and

Also

point

out

simple and

the

subjectand predicateof each

(1) Hope
(2)
Give A The Read What The deferred
me

sentence*
sick.

maketh

the of

heart

the with

portion
many bucket

goods hangs
is

that
waters

falleth to
the

me.

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

the

river

branches

land.

old oaken books

a

in the

well.

that

impart information.
man

piece
fall.

of work

vine

still

clings

to

the

mouldering wall, and

vacation is over*

at

every

gust

dead

leaves He

(8) (9) (10)

will return
was see

to school

when

Homer Then

the you

greater genius, Virgil the better

his face ?

artist

not

OLASSIFIOATIOir
601. 602. Elements
are

OF

ELEHEFTS.

the constituent
to

parts of a
are

sentence.

(A)

According

rank, elements

Principal and

Subordinate.

242

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

BENTEKCfl.

603.
cannot

Elements Frinoipal exist. They are The

are

those without

which

sentence

the

Suijectand
is the

Predicate.

604.

Subject of

sentence

part that expresses

that

of which
The The

somethingis predicated.
a

(a)
(")

subject is always
unmodified with

substantive. is called the and simple subject^ the

subject

simple

subject together 606. The

its modifiers

is called the

complex subject.

Predicate

of

sentence

is the

part that makes

the predication.It consists

Sugar
U
sweet.

of

an

attribute and
Birds
are

copula;as:

"

animals.

Here which
are

is sweet is and
are

and
are

are

animals

are

the
sweet

of predicates,
and animals

the

copulas
often Susan
a

and

the

attributes.
copula
and

(a)

The

attribute
reads
=

are

united is
a

in

one

word

as:

"

Susan

reader. contain one,

(b)
the

predicate
of

must

alwaysbe
that
can

verb

or

since

verb

is

only part

speech

predicate.
of the
or
**

(c)
the
some

The

copula
of the

is the part pure

predicate that joins the attribute

The pure

to

subject.
form
as

It is either verb
to

impure.
He is

copula
other

is

always
are

be;
"

as,

wealthy."
"He

Many

verbs

used
was

impure

copulas; agreeable
;

as, "I "He

feel dizzy;"
was

looks

sad;"
It is

"She

considered

appointed
used. be

colonel."

(d)
a noun

The
or an a

attribute

is the
or an

attributive

part of the predicate.

so

always

adjective
substantive
:
"

expression
the attribute

(6)
(1)

As A A A An
A

may

"

noun

He

is "If

merchant.^^ "A"." is

(2)
(3) (4)

pronoun:

I were

participle
infinitive clause
an
:

: :

"

Lying
"

tellinguntruths."
is to teach you be the
:

His

business

music."
man

(6) (/) (1)

(2)

"The

question
the She

is.Are
may

?"

As
An An-

adjective
: :
"

attribute is

"

adjective
infinitive

goody found
am

"Oil

is to be
:

in Indiana."

(3)
606.

prepositional
'

phrase to

"I

for peaces
are

(jB) According
Partial'

form, elements
and

pound^ Simple^ Com-

Compound^

Complex.

ANALYSIS.

243
without

607.

Simple
from

Element

is

one

modifiers, or

sidered con-

apart
*'The

its modifiers.
In this
eentence
man

old

man

speaks fluently.**
it is without
are

fluently is
and

simple simple

element,
elements

because if

modifiers, and
apart from

speaks

are

they

considered

their

modifiers.

608.

Compound

Element

is

one

having

compound

'*

Smith and

and
Jones

Jones is a

went

to Boston

and
;

to

Chicago.**
element

In

this sentence
to Boston

Smith
to

compound

element

also,the

and

Chicago, 609. A

Partial-Compound Element

is

one

part of whose

base is
**

compound.
and

He

is wise
"

good.**
is amidst

Here

wise but

and the

good
attribute

is the is

partial-compound compound.
In this **The
sentence

predicate
work amidst
was

the

copula

simple,
is

performed

hardships
a

and

dangers.**

hardships and

dangers

partial-compound element.

610.

Complex

Element

is

one

whose
any
In

base

or

some

part

of it is modified
"

by something
ran

not

part of the base.

this
sentence

The

little children and

to

to
are

the

old

oak.**

The

little

children

the old of
a an

oak

complex
is the
or

elements. its

(a)
idea.
''

The It may

base be

element
a

part of it that expresses

a
* *

primary
base
to

vjord,

phrase,
our

clause, In this sentence is the base

The

littlegirlcame
The little

to

school.

girlis the
element

of
our

the

element

girl,and boy
that is

to school

of the

school. of the that

In the sentence, *'A

that

is truthful

will win and the the

respect,**the base
of the element
is

element,

boy
is not

truthful,is boy,

base entire

is

truthful
When the that

that, is, or

truthful,but
is

clause, that
the form

truthful. (b)
element

base of
of the
*"

an

element That that

clause,determine
it is
a

of the
a

by
**

clause. student

is,if

simple
class

clause, call it
has
a

simple
believe

element

; as,
a

is attentive
a

in

vantage. great ad; as,

^*

If it is

compound
and

clause,call it
that

compound
**

element
a

that he is honest

he will succeed."^^ element

;

If it is as,

pound partial-comhe is
;

clause,call
young and as, **A teacher that

it

partial-compound
If it is
a

I understand

capa"Ze.**

complex clause,
his work
is

call it

complex
makes

element

grumbles

when

heavy only

it heavier."

244

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

((7) Aooording to use, elements Adverbial^ Attendant^ Subjective^ jectivcy

611. 612. An like 613. An

are

Adjective^ ObConnective. modifies

a

and

Adjeotive Element
an

is

one

that

stantive sub-

adjective.
is
one

ObjeotiYeElement
verb.

that

is the

object of

transitive
614.
a

Snbjeotiye Element
or

is

one

used

as

the

subject of
thing any-

finite verb 615. An

of

an

infinitive. Element
or

Adverbial
a

is

one or a

that verb

modifies
as

else than
or

noun

pronoun,

its

subject

object.
616. An Attendant Element is
one

that

has

but logical,

no

grammatical, connection.
**The
sun

having risen, we
risen is the

pursued
for

our

journey.'*
its the

In

this

sentence,

The but

sun

having

independent

in

grammatical journey. road,

construction,

expresses

logicalreason
he

pursuing
not ;
our

We,
Still Those

while

spake,

ceas'd the
"

onward
so

passing through

wood

for

I name

spirits thick beset.

Dante.

617. the

Connective It may

Element

sentence.

conjunctive or relative preposition. 618. (Z") According

ClasB^ the Second
619.
a

joining two parts of be a conjunction,relative pronoun, adverb, conjunctive adjective, or

one

is

to

base, elements
the First

are

of

the

First

Class, or
of the

Third
Class

Class. is
one

An

Element

whose

base

is

single word.
**The furious
are

animals the

ran

rapidly away/*

All

the

elements

of this

sentence

of

first class.

620.
a

An

Element

of

the Second
an

Class is

one

whose

base is

prepositionand
The

its

or object,

infinitive.
Biver. He tried
to

city of Indianapolis

is

on

White

finish

his

work.

ANALYSIS.

245

621.
a

An

Element

of the' Third

Class

is

one

whose

base is

subordinate
I believe that

sentence.

he will do it. been

If you try, you

will succeed.

T%at

the earth

18

spherical has

proved.

622.

Point
"

out

each

elementy tell what

it

and modifies^

describe it : (1)
(2)
As As As
to to to

Btmctore.
use.

(3) (1)
(2) (3) (4) glee. (5)

base.

The A A The
man man

merchant less that children

fulfilled his contract

diligentin
is honest
came

business will be

would

have

failed in the

enterprise.

respected.
and

with

laugh

shout,

and

filled the halls with

We

all desire

him

to become

minister. the
estate.

(6) The money being furnished, he purchased (7) Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. (8) (9) (10)
While As Tou
we

the

robbers

were

plundering,
that

she
we

set
saw

fire to the the you. Indian

house.

approached
will

the

top of the hill

so we

wigwams.

please

to

speak

can

hear

OONNEOTIVES. 623. 624.

A

Connectiye
are

is any

word

that

joinselements.
Coordinate emd

There

two

classes of connectives:

Subordinate.
625.
A

Coordinate It is
etc.

Connective

is

one

that

joinselements

of

equal
626.

rank.
nor^

always a

coordinate

conjunction; as, and^

that

but^ or^
of

Subordinate rank.
"

Connective

is

one

joinselements

unequal
It may

be

(1)
He

A
will

subordinate pay you

conjunction.
if he

promised.

We

belike

her

because

she

is

truthful.

246

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(2)
The which

relative that
not

pronoun.
w

boy
was

truthful
a

will The

always
man

make toith

friends. whom

had

dream,
is

all

dream.

you

were

walking

my

cousin.

(8)
There

relative he

conjunctive
a

adverb. she will it.

may

time

when

regret

There "Where

is

land

of

pure

delight, reign.

saints

immortal

(4)
Be

An

ordinary
while

conjunctive
you may. Do

adverb. directed.

merry

as

you

are

Come

when

you

are

wanted.

(6)
As

A is

conjunctive
the labor
so

adjective,
the reward

(Very
should

rare.)
he.

DIAGBAMMING.

247

627.

DIAGRAMMING.

Subject
Ji"IS'et.
A6d.
el.

Predieate

Adv.

el.

Adv,

el,

{infinitive,)

8ubJ.
AtU, (appoHHve)
el.

eh

Subtjeet,

\ JPredieate,

Conneetive

{eonj, adv,)

628.

The

above

blank

diagram
the
be

exposes

at

glance all
diathe

of principles grammed analysis. It may following

the essential

straight-line system of from easilyunderstood

of the

"

629;

Explanation.

"

The

importance

subjectand

is indicated by the heavy of the principalsentence predicate line and line. separated They are written upon the same by a heavy vertical bar to show that they are of equal rank. All modifiers lines to show are placed below and on lighter that they are subordinate to the subjectand predicate. To distinguish an objective element^ let the line on which it is written from that be brought down extends one
over
a

the verb. that is

The

mbject of
to
one

an

is written infinitive

upon

line

joined
a

drawn
a

under
in the

the

infinitive. A
nective con-

conjunction is
that
its
a

written

in

break

line.
so as

also is, A

must modifier

be written
an

to show

both

uses.

dotted

line

indicates

ment; eleappositive A

parenthesis,an

independent

element,

short

248
horizontal also to

GHAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

bar is used
a

to. separate

separate
relative the

The

prepositionand positionof elements

of their
lines

copula and its object.

in in

an

attribute,
mines deter-

the
the

sentence

diagram: Word the left when to they precede the term modifiers turn modified; to the right when they follow it. Phrases (prepositionalor infinitive) always turn to the right. Clauses turn convenient. to the right or left,as is most
630. DUaBAHS AND ANALTSES.

direction

(1) Sugar is sweet. (2) Truth is a virtue. (3) Grass grows. (4) The little children, eager
the

for the

story, gave

all their attention

to

speaker.
the

(6) Smith, (6) He and

631.
"

merchant,
and
we

is dead.

I went

returned.

Diagrammed

Analjrsis.

(1)
is^sweei. TnOh

(2)

Sugar

"

IT

(4) (3)
Grass
children
nttie

\ gave
a"ten^on to-speakeK
their
aXi

grows*
The

eageft

the\ (5)
Smiths

(6)
JETe

Its^-dead.

T
ifnerehanti

u
(XfM
we

^ent

th^

returned*

DIAGBAMMING.

249

632.

Written

AnalysiB.
is
a

(1) Sugar
the

simple declarative sentence, of which Sugar is is the simple predicate, simple subject, unmodified; and is sweet
is sweet ; is the is
a

unmodified

copula,
virtue is

and
a

sweet

the

attribute.

(2)
is the

Truth

simple

declarative is
a

sentence, of which
is the

Truth

simple subject, unmodified attribute,modified

is

; and

virtue the

complex
element

cate predi; and

; is virtue, the

simple predicate, is, by

a,
a

copula,

unmodified

virtue, the
first class.

simple adjective

of the

(8) Grass
the

grows

simple
grows,

declarative the

sentence, of which

Ghrass is

simple subject, and

simple predicate.
the story, gave of which all their attention The children
to

(4)
the eager

The

little children, eager is

a

for

speaker,

simple by by
the

declarative

sentence,

little children, is the

for the story, is the

complex
and

subject,of which complex

which

simple
of the of the

subject, modified
first class ; also first

two little,

simple adjective elements

a

eager eager of the

for

the story,

adjective element
the story,
a

class,of

which

is the base, modified second

by for

complex
of of

adverbial which the

element

class,of

story, the
first class.

noun,

is modified

b^ the, a
dead,
is a

for story is the base, simple adjective element

declarative which

(5) Smith,
of which the

the

merchant,

is

simple

sentence,
Smith
is

Smith,

the merchant,

is the

complex
a

of subject,

simple subject,modified
first class ; merchant, of the

by
the

the merchant,

complex adjective element by the, a simple adjective

also the is dead is the

of the

base, is modified
sentence

element

first class, of which

; is the

simple

predicate, unmodified

copula,
we

and

dead is
a

attribute. declarative
tence, sen-

(6)

He

and

I went He and

and

returned is the I is the

compound

of which

I went He and

tive leading, partial-compound,declara-

sentence, of which
connective Of the

compound also,went
coordinate

subject,and
is the

and

the

ordinate co-

; of which

sentence,
and is the

simple predicate.
we turned re-

compound
is the

sentence,

connective, and
of which
we

sentence, coordinate, simple, declarative simple subject, and returned the simple predicate, both

is the

unmodified.

688.

Order
^

of
the
^

Written Analysis,

or

Oral.

f(a)
(1) (2) (8)
,..

As ^s

to structure. to
use.

Describe Give Give the the

,^

sentence

|(j)

complex subject simple subject.

Structure.

{(a)
(6)
Use.

(c)

Base.

250 (5) (6)

Give Give

6BAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

the the the

base

of each

modifier

and

describe

its modifiers

as

above.

complex

predicate.
'

(7) Give (8) (9) (a)

receive while

simple predicate. (a) Structure.

the modifiers

Describe

of the

predicate
and

as

to

lb)Use.
(c)
Base.
as

Give The

the

base

of each

modifier the

describe
order with

its modifiers the utmost

at the

above,

pupil should
he will most of the very

follow

above
to

precision.
same

In this way
one

readily learn
of drills in without
as a

and analyase,

time
;

best

careful,accurate,
any in grammar inattention in is in

rapid thinking
not

to

attempt
the

to

analyze
far

following

particular order concerned,

the class and and

only
also

defeats
a

object so
means

lesson

but

is of

very
to

effective

of
a

creating

giving

the

pupil

himself

habit

of carelessness

thought

sion. expres-

634.

Simple
the
use

and
of

compound sentences and adverbs adjectives

for
:
"

illustrating analysis,

(1) (2)

Flowers Dew

bloom.

sparkles.
banished.
will differ. decided. wind
was

(8) Frogs leap.

(4) Napoleon was (5) Grammarians

(6)
It has The been

(7)
(8) (9)

angry

is

howling.
murdered.
statue
was vases

Little A

Arthur

beautiful

marble

carved.
are

(10) (11)
(12)

Those We We He She

elegant
both

Etruscan

broken.

wept.

all consented.

(13)
(14)

spoke eloquently.
chattered searched know

incessantly.
everywhere. presently.
waves

(16) They (16) I shall

(17) (18) (20)
The The

deafening
wounded

dash

angrily.
the

soldier and

fought bravely.
elevates kissed
are

(19) Learning expands

The child
ran

mind.

forth

and
moon

its mother.

(21) The earth and the (22) Socrates, Plato,

philosophers
of

planets.
were

and

Aristotle

the

most

distinguished
his

antiquity.
became governor of

(23)
defeat.

Lord
-

Comwallis

Bengal

after

disastrous

DIAGBAMMIKG.

251
the Indians and the whole

(24)
island

Peter

Minutes

traded for

with

bought
and

of

Manhattan

twenty-four dollars.
the Atlantic with

(25)
San

Columbus

crossed

ninety

men,

landed

at

Salvador.

635.

Sentences and

the illustrating
"

use

of

participles, tives, adjec-

phrases :
is

(1) Gambling

stealing.

Gambling

I is

"

stealing*

Gambling
a

has
noun.

the

construction
are saw

of

subject

noun,

and

stealing that

of

predicate

They
I

both the

participles.
wounded

(2) Stooping down,

death.

serpent, writhing in agony

of

(2)

H
Mtooping dawn.

(3)

habit

of

sincerity in acknowledging

faults

is

guard against

Committing

them.

(3)
habit I is" AJs.

guard

A}
of"9ineerity

^
in
"

against

"

eonvmitting
them*

aehnwifledging fauUB

(4)

He

comes

attended

by

his friends.

(4)
He

comes

"

attended
by"fHend"9

his]

252

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

IBeing'i attended
predicate adjective.

is

passiye participle with

the
as or

the

constraction

of

(6)
This after

saw

the

man

hung by ambiguous, hung him,

first

mob. it may
mean

sentence

is had

either the

that

saw

the If

man

the

mob conveys is

that
man

I witnessed is the

execution.

the

sentence

the

meaning,

object of "ato, and

This would

[having
be the

been"]hung having
the
"

transitive, passive participlein the present perfect tense,

of
an

construction

adjective limiting man.

diagram:

(6)

""r

[having been] hung

hy"nu"b.

the\
636. Analysis.
sentence,
"

(6)
man

saw

the

man

hung by
the

the mob

is

simple
; of

clarative de-

of which the

/ is the

simple subject by
mobj
man

unmodified

which
;

sentence, also, saw

saw

hung
the first

is the

complex
the

predicate
a plex com-

is the

simple

predicate,modified
of

by

the

hung
man, first

by the mob^

objective element by the,

the mob,
a a

class,of
of of

which the

fied base, is modi-

simple adjective element adjective

element the

class,and class,of complex

the noun,

by hung
adverbial

by
ment ele-

complex
second

the

first
a

which

[having

been']hung,
of the

base,

is modified

by by
is the of the
to

the m^b,

cla43S ; by mob

base, mob,
first class. I witnessed
man

is modified

by the, a simple adjective element (a)

But if the is
a

sentence

means

say

the

execution, then

[to be] hung objective case.

would be the

and present, passive infinitive,

is its be

subject by
the

in the

The

abridged clause,
of
saw.

the

man

to

hung

mob,

object having

(6)

War

been

declared, we

all prepared to

fight

(6)
we

prepared
to

fight.

War

having

been

declared.

War
to

having

been

declared

is

but logically,

not

grammatically, related

prepared.

DIAGRAMMING.

253

637.
is
a

Analysis.

"

War

having

been

declared^

we

all prepared

to

fight
It

simple

declarative
to

sentence,
also

etc.

Prepared^
element been

the of

simple predicate, is
the second class.

modified

by
is
a

fights a simple by

adverbial

is logically modified

war or

having

declared^ which,
element of the
a

ically, grammat-

complex independent
the

attendant

first

class,of

which

war,

base, is modified
first class. in the

by having

been

declared,

simple adjective
the

element War is been

a

of the
noun

nominative has the

case, construction

subject
of
an

of

participle

having
war.

declared, which

adjectivelimiting

638. attention

Analyze orallyand
to

hy diagram^ giving particular

words.
a

the
grassy

italicized
bank stood

(1)
core.

On

tall,waving

ash,

sound

to

the

very

(2)
Red

God's

balance,
one

watched for the

by angels,is hung other, they

took

across a

the

sky.
called

(3) Mistaking Billy, for

me.

him,

little fellow

(4) (6) (6)

There There The

is is

no no

harm harm of the

in children's in children governor with sword

a

playing by
playing

the

roadside.

by

the

roadside.

pardon
horse
a

prevented
blanket.

his

being hanged* doing

mischief
cannot

(7) I saw a (8) Taking

be

covered

madman's him.

to

prevent

his

regarded (10) (11)

All Her her Ha We We

as

robbing

(0) Scaling yonder peak,

bloodless chief time
1

saw

an

eagle wheeling
snow.

near

its brow.

lay

the

untrodden
was

business in idle

sauntering

about

the

neighborhood
f

and

spending (12) (18) (14) (16) (17)

gossip.
vision the
to
scorn

laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my

the the rain

heard
saw

beating

upon

doorstep,

package opened stealing,

tree

by mistake.

(15) Gambling
Did The you horse
see

is

the hitched of

struck

by lightning?
sold for
a

to the

carriage was
weeping
the

thousand

dollars.

(18) The burning (10) Have you not (20) Having sold
farm
near

the

capital was
strong
men

outrageous.
f
man

seen

his

residence

in

city, the
the

moved

to

his

the The The The I

lakes.

(21)

general having been captured,

writer writer's heard

army

was

defeated,

(22) (23)
(24)

being
of

scholar
a

is not

doubted. doubted. for office.

being

scholar
man

is not

never

that

running

254

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

heard of that man's (26) I never (26) The child stood toeepfn^. limping. (27) The dog came (28) The philosopher sat buried

running

for

office.

in

thought.
a

(29)
turbulent

No

one

ever

saw

fat

men

heading giving

riot

or

herding together

in

mobs. way,

(30) The bridge at Ashtabula robed in (81) Spring comes the send can (32) A word
many

the train fell into the river.

silken crimson

green. color

hurrying

to the

cheek

with

meanings. Infinitives and

To A We It is He The live is not desire
are

639. (1)

Subjective Elements.
whole of life.

the

(2) (3)
(4)

to excel

in any

worthy
time.
sun

work

is commendable.

ready

to

go at any
to see

impossible
birds

the
a

at

midni^t.

(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

is too

gentle to
are

hurt

fly.
to

beginning
come,

migrate.
a

William She For

is yet to
me

deshred him

to

become

Mason. company truth is evidence

to be
an

to be

found
men

in such

of his

guilt.

I believe for

some

to tell the

impossibility.

(1)
To live

(2)
^

I is

whole

desire

A
of -life.
the
~

\ ^
toexeel

is

"

commendable^

in"worh

(3)
worthy

to

go
at"

time.

any

It

I is"impo88ihle

(5)
STe lisis I
"

I
see

gentle
to too

to

hurt

the\
fly.
at"

midnight.

IT

DIAGBAHMma.

255

(6)
birds
The to

(J)
are

beginning
migrate.

WiUiant

lis"

to

come.

(8)

^heXdesired^
to beeofne"Maeon,

fJPor)

(9)

(10)
-

to he found

Iia

eviOence

i\Sm^

(For)

(a)
(b)

To To To To To

live in

(1) has
(2) has

the

construction

of
of of of

a an

noun,

subject of

is.

excel in go in
see

the construction

adjective limitingdesire,
adverb

(c)
(d) (e)
too,

in

hurt

(3) has the construction (4) has the construction in (5) has the construction
in

an a

limiting ready,
in

noun an

apposition with
of

it

of

adverb

ing degree, limit-

(/)

To

migrate
in

(6) has
the
me

the

construction

of

noun,

object of

are

beginning,

(g)
(h)
i

To In

come

(7) has

construction
a

of

predicate adjective.
has the construction of

(8) the clause,

of desired, in in

to become

Mason^

noun,

object
For

(i)
\o be

(0)

is

an

and introductory expletive,

has the construction

the of

clause,for
a

him

found
In

such

company^

noun,

subject
sibility^ impos-

)f is.

(J)

(10), the clauise, for

the construction of
to tell the

some a

men

to tell the truth

to

be

an

has
some men

noun,

object of

believe.
a
noun

The

clause, for

truths has

the

construction Men

of

in the

objective

case, of the

subject

of the

infinitive to be.

is in the

objective case, subject

infinitive to tell,and

for is

an

introductoiyexpletive.

256
640.
declaratiye which

GBAHMAB

OF

THE

BNGLISH

SBNTENGB.

Analyalft.

"

(8)

She

desired

me

to

become

Mason

is

simple
; of

sentence, of

which
me

She

is the

simple subject
a

unmodified

sentence,
of which
a

also, desired
desired is the

to become

Mason

is the

complex predicate,
me

simple predicate, modified

element
to

by
is the
a

to

become
a

Mason,

complex

objective
is the

of

the

second Mason

class.

It is also

simple abridged sentence,

of which element of the
to become

of which

become modified

simple predicate^ by simple

copula,
the

by

me,

simple subjective
a, a

first class ; Mason, of the

men

attribute,is modified
I believe / is the truth is be
an

adjective element

first class.
to

(10)
is
a

For

some

tell the of
to

truth which tell

to

be

an

impossibility impossibility

simple
the

declarative

sentence,
men

fied. simple subject unmodito

Believe is

for

some

the

be

an

complex

predicate,
some men

of

which

believe truth
to

the

simple predicate,
plex com-

modified

hjfor
of

to tell the

a impossibility, a

objective element
sentence,
the which
to

of be

the second

class ; it is also the

complex
;

abridged bility, impossiof the

impossibility is by
an,
a

simple predicate by
For

attribute,is
to

modified the

simple adjective element

some men

first class ; and

be,

copula, is modified

to tell the
a

truth, a complex

subjective element

of the second
to

class ; it is also

simple, by
is tell first

abridged,
the truth, modified is

subordinate
a

sentence, of which

tell,the base, is modified

first class ; truth, the of the first class. of

complex
a

objective element simple adjective

some

of the element

base,
To the

by the,

modified, also,by
men, of the

men,

complex
is

subjective element by
some,
a

class, of which
element

the

base,
For

is modified
an

simple adjective

first class.

introductory expletive.
to the

641.

Diagram
words
:

and
"

attention analyze, givingspecial

italicized

(1) (2)
(3)

These He For

apples

are

not

to be

eaten.

remained you

to assist
a

in the

work. will

to become

gi-ammarian

require much

study.

(4)
(5)

It is hard He thinks desire task

work it

to

plow.
teach grammar.

delightfulto
is
now

(6) My
(7) My (8)

to teach

satisfied.

to

teach
to

is
a

pleasant.
I wish
to be
a

I wish What
a

you is the

be

teacher, but
of the

preacher.

(a)
(6)

case

subject of (1)
of

finite verb,

(2) an
?

tive, infini-

(3)

participle?
what
case

In

is the illustrate

complement
three
use

copulative verb

(c)
have

Name

and
to

general
?

uses

infinitives and

participles

in addition

their

verbal

DIAGRAMMING.

257
difference
one

(d)
with
noun

The

(6)

and

(7)
of
an

illustrate

the

between the

an

infinitive
of
an a

the in

construction

adjective and
sometimes it
or

with
a

construction When

apposition, which
is in
sentence

troubles the

beginner.

finitive inbe
;

apposition, either
that task is

substantive

it modifies
same

may

omitted, leaving a
as

expresses To teach

essentiallythe
is

thought
two terms

in

(7), My exchange
to teach

pleasant, or,
without in

pleasant ; meaning
do
not

or

the

may

places
But

changing
desire and which

the

; as, To
mean

teach, my
the
same

task, is pleasant. thing;

modifies has

(6)

to teach

merely designates
like of
an an

desire,
"

desire, not

appositive,but adjective.

like

an

for teaching. It adjective. It therefore

desire

the construction

642. (1) (2)

Analysis of Complex
He He When He That His that has lacks time
to
mourn

Sentences.
lacks I had time
to mend.

lost the book he had

that

given
the

to him. went out to

(3)
(4) (5)

completed
that the

his task train had

boy

play.

announced

arrived.

he is the thief is evident.

(6) (7)
(8) (9)

objection was
been claimed is taller than

that

the

boy

was

too

young.

It has She It
was

that Lord sister.

Bacon

wrote

Shakespeare's works.

her

so

cold

that

the mercury the

froze. his friends should

are

(10) The Indian (11) He demanded

(12)
As We These When up. Blticher the The I
was

knows

place
where the
comes.

where Christ

buried.

of them
so

be bom.

is the

boy

will be

man.

(13)
(14)

will work exercises my

till Jesus
are as

profitableas they
my mother forsake

are

interesting.
then the Lord will

(16)
take
me

father

and

me,

(16)
meeting

arrived

on

the

field of Waterloo

just as Wellington

was

last onslaught of Napoleon.

wiser he grew when the humbler how he became. he had

(17)
(18)

grieved
his

I heard

obtained

the

reputation

that he bore among

neighbors.

(1)

258
643.
mend
mourn

QBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

8ENTBNGB.

Analysis.
a

"

(1)

He

that

lacks

time

to

mourn

lacks that lacks

time
time

to
to

is

complex
time

declarative

sentence, of which
the

He

is the

complex
to mourn,

subject ; He,
a

simple subject,

is modified third that the

by
;
.

that

lacks
a

simple adjective element

subordinate its
mourn

of the

class is the

it is also

simple, declarative, subordinate

that
to

sentence, of which

simple subject ;
that lacks time

is also

connective, joining
of which

clause,

mourn, time

to

antecedent, He;
is the

subordinate of which jective ob-

sentence,
lacks

also, lacks
of the

to

complex
time, the

predicate,
a

is the

simple predicate, modified

first

by time

to mourn,

complex

element
to mourn,
a

class,of

which of mend

base, is modified
class ; of which

by
cipal prinof

simple adjective element

also, lacks
time
to

the

second is the

sentence,
which

complex
time
to

predicate,
mend,
a plex com-

lacks, the

simple predicate,
of the first

is modified which

by
of the

objective element by
to mourn,
a

class,of

time, the
second

fied base, is modiclass.

simple adjective element

644. simple
which

AnsdyaiB,

"

Book

is modified

by

that

had
a

given

to

him,

adjective element
sentence,
of

of the third which /

class ; it is also

simple declarative
; of
;

subordinate

is the
to

simple subject, immodified

is the

sentence,

also, had

given that

him

complex predicate
him,
a

had

given, the
element the of

simple predicate, is
the second also the

modified

by
a

to

simple

adverbial of its

class ; also by that, subordinate

simple objective element connective, joining

that I had
to

first class ; it is the

"

antecedent, book,

subordinate

sentence,

given

to

him,

(3)

taek

DIAGRAMMING.

259
simple
ordinate sub-

645.
adverbial subordinate

Went

is modified of the of

by
third which

when

he

had

completed
a

his

task,

element

class ; it is also he is the

simple, declaratiye,
of which is the

sentence,

simple subject ;
when is modified which

sentence, also,had
had

completed
of the

his task

complex predicate; by
his

completed,

the

simple predicate,
first

task,

complex
modified

objective
by his,
a

element

class,of

task, the

base, is
pleted com-

simple adjective element

also

of the adverbial

first class ; had element of the he

is modified class ; it is also

a

by when,

simple

first had

subordinate

connective, joining the clause, when

completed

his task, to the

verb, went.

He

I announced

tthafj train
the

had

arrived.

646.

Analysis.
sentence,

"

He

announced He

that

the train

had

arrived

is

plex com-

declarative of which

sentence, of which

is the

simple subject,unmodified
had arrived is the
plex com-

also, announced
which announced
a

that

the train

predicate, of
that the train
a

is the

simple predicate, modified

of the third

by

had

arrived,

simple objective element

the train is the

class ; it is the which of

is also

simple, declarative, subordinate expletive, and

which

sentence, of which

that

introductory
the train', the

complex also,

subject, of
had arrived

simple

subject, is modified
subordinate unmodified. clause

by ^he, a simple adjectiveelement

sentence,

first class ; of

is the

simple predicate,

(a)

substantive

needs

no

connective.

(5)
iJChaf) he

ia-^hief
the

\ Js-^^JdenL

647.

AnalysiB.

"

T?Mt That

he is the he

thief is

evident the

is

complex
That

tive declaraIt iS

sentence, of which
also
a

is the

thief is

simple subject.
of which is the thief is the

simple, declarative, subordinate expletive, he the

of which
is

sentence,

is the
plex com-

introductory unmodified,
element of

simple

subject, and simple

predicate,
and the

thief is the
Of the

predicate, is the
a

copula,
is the

thief,the
first class. which

attribute, modified

by the,
and

simple adjective
is evident the attribute.

principal sentence, copula

evident

simple predicate, of

is is the

260

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(6)

648.
of attribute

Analyais.
whicl)
was

"

Was
is the
a

that

the

boy
and

was

too

young

is the
was

simple predicate,
too

copula,

that

the

boy

young

the

; it is also

simple, declarative,
the

subordinate

sentence,

of which
;

thctt is the the

introductory expletive, and

modified

boy^

the

complex

subject
is the

bop^

simple subject, is
; of

by the, a simple adjective element

sentence,

of the first

class

which
was

subordinate young is the

also,

was toas

too

young

complex

predicate,
and the young

simple predicate, by too,

a

the

copula, unmodified,
adverbial
element of

the

attribute, modified

simple

first class.

(7)
It

I has

been

eiatmed

Ziord fifccig)

Baeon

wrote

uforhg.

Shakespeare's

\
of which of

649.
R that

AnalysiB.
Lord Bacon

"

This
wrote

is

complex
modified element

declarative works is the Lord

sentence,

Shakespeare's

complex
Bacon

subject,

which

It, the

simple subject, is
a

by

that of of

wrote

speare's Shakea

works,

simple adjective

the which

third

class ; it is also
is the tory introduc-

simple,

declarative, subordinate
Lord Bacon the
wrote

sentence,

tJmt

expletive. (a)
in That

simple subject, etc. Shakespeare^

"

Lord

Bacon it.

works

is a substantive

clause

apposition with

(8)
She

is^-taUer

ihttn stater.

0"-f"g|^_

DlA(iRAMMmG.

261

650.
adverbial

Analysis.
element

"

Taller

is modified

by

than
a

her sister is tall,a

simple

of the

third

class

it is also

ordinate simple, declarative,sub-

sentence, of which

than

is the

connective, etc.

(10)

(9)
Indian It

\know8_
ptacB
aretuvUd,

I waa"coid

:?
that

'
Mb

fnereury\ fro9B.

where

(a) So (5)

in

(9)

is

an

adverb element

of

degree,
where

modified class.

by

tJiat the

mercury

froze, a simple
Place

adverbial

of the third

in (10) is modified of the

a

by

his

friends
; it

are

buried, a simple
buried and

adjective element

third

class. limits
are

(c) WJiere
joins its clause

is

relative
noun

conjunctive adverb
place.

to the

(11)

(a)
or

Demanded

is modified of the third

by

ijohere Christ
a

should

be

born,

simple

objective element (6)

No remember Where is

class ; it is also

tive, simple, indirect-interrogabut

not

responsive, subordinate
a

sentence,
substantive is

etc.
a

simple, interrogative adverb,

for
a

connective. be well
to

connective that

is needed
no

clause.
ever a

It

may

interrogative word

connective.

262

GBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SBNTENCB.

(12)
man.

ItttUhe^so

the

(a)
either

As
, .

80

are

correlative,or
cannot

descriptive, responsive, indefinite,

be

predicate adjectives. They

sentence,
Is
80 IB

regarded

as

adverbs,

for

is, in

is the

copulative,not
predicate
So
of the is modified

attributive.

(6)
80,

principali^ntence, by As
is As is

is, the copula, and

a

the

attribute. of the and

the

boy,

simple

adverbial

element

third class,of which

the attribute.
sentence

is the the

simple predicate, is, the

subordinate

copula, joining

As,

As
to

is also
80.

connective,

its subordinate

(13)
We

}w^fvork^

(a)
element

Will

work

is modified

by
the

till Jesus till Jesus

comes,
comes a

simple

adverbial

of the second Jesus

class,of which
comes,

is the

the base, till,

preposition, and
subordinate

object;
is the

it is also

simple, declarative,
comes

sentence, of which

Jesus

simple subject, and

adverb in such

the

simple predicate.

(5)

Till must

not

be

parsed

as

conjunctive

sentences.

(14)

DIAOBAMMINO.

263

{d)
is
a

As
.

as

are

correlative and limits and

or

responsive adverbs
The second

of
a"

degree.
is
a

First

a"

simple adverb,

profitable.

conjunctive

adverb

; it limits intereaing

joins its

subordinate

sentence

to the first as.

(15)

(a)

Then

is modified

by When

my

father
sentence,

and

my

mother

forsake
a

me,

partial-compound, compound,
mother member of the is the
;

adverbial

element

of the third

class ; it is also my

partialand my first

declarative, subordinate

of v^hicb my

father

compound,
the

complex
is the

subject, of which by
my,
a

father

is the

father,

base,
mother my,
a

is modified

simple adjective element

of which of the

first class ; my

second

member,

mother^
of

the

base, is modified

by
. .

simple adjective element

correlative
; it limits
or

first class, etc. time.

(6)
When
sentence

When
.

then

are

responsive adverbs
and

is

conjunctive
then, which

adverb is
a

forsake,
and

joins its

subordinate

to

simple

adverb

limits

will take.

(16"
Blucher

orHixed

Iof~JWkte"lDO

W^J^ngf"n

I waenweting
om/iauffht

of-J^jgp"leonm
taet

jjsd

264
ilf

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

(a)
(6)

is

conjunctiye adverb
sentence adverb
to

of

time

; it limits

vj"ib

meeting^

and

joins its

subordinate is
a

arrived,

Just

simple

of

degree,

and

limits

a$.

(17)
he

\heeanie.''hunMer
the

*g

yrcift-fgtoer

The

(a) (b)
Humbler verbs. wiser.

The

first theS"d,

conjunctiveadverb
to the

of

degree degree,
became

; it limits wUer^

and

joins its subordinate

The and The second wiser

sentence

second adverb

the, of and and

the
are

is

simple
became

limits humbler.
grew,

predicate adjectives; is,He

humbler

copulative
fie grew

meaning

to the

degree to

which

(a) (b)

When

is

conjunctive
to
was

adverb

of time

; it limits

heard, and

joins

its subordinate How is

sentence
an

grieved,
adverb of manner, is not connective.
as

indirect

interrogative or responsive
a

had limiting

obtained. is
a

How

(c)
clause

That
to

relative

pronoun,

used

the

object

of bore ; it

joins its

reputation.
"

651. AnalysiB.
reputation
that he

J bore

was

grieved when
his

I heard

how is
a

he had

obtained

the

among

neighbors

complex

declarative

DIAGRAMMING.

265

sentence,
was

of

which when I

is heard

the

simple
how the he

subject,
had

unmodified the of how

of

which that
was

sentence,
he bore is the

grieved
his

obtained

reputation
which he had adverbial

among the

neighbors predicate,
that class is the he
;

is

complex^predicate,
by
his
a

grieved
obtained element

simple

modified among also

when

heard
a

reputation
of of the which third /

bore it is

neighbors,

complex

complex,
unmodified had

declarative,
;

subordinate which subordinate that is the

sentence,
tence, sen-

simple
when

subject,
how he

of the of

also,
among his

heard

obtained

reputation
which heard of

he

bore

neighbors
modified

is the

complex
a

predicate,
adverbial

the first

simple
class clause the
;

predicate,
it to is also

by

when,

simple

element the

the

subordinate heard he
;

connective,
is among is also is the had
a

joining also, neighbors, by

complex
how he

adverbial had obtained

loas

grieved;
that class of which

modified,
his

reputation
of the third

bore it he

complex

objective

element

complex, simple

indirect-interrogative, subject,
unmodified
;

subordinate of he which bore is the the first dinate suboramong

sentence,

sentence,
his

also,
is the

obtained

how

the of

reputation
which had element

that obtained of
a

neighbors

complex by
how,
that first he

predicate,
a

simple class, tive objec-

predicate,
also

modified

simple
bore
;

adverbial his the also third Ae

by

the

reputation
of the

among

neighbors, base, by
is

complex by
among
a

element

class of

reputation,
first

modified he it ; bore is also

the,
his

simple

adjective
a

element

the

class,
of of the which

that

neighbors, declarative, unmodified, complex

that,
a

simple

adjective

element

class is

simple, subject,
is the

subordinate
of which of

sentence,
sentence,
which

the his

simple neighbors

also,
bore of bore his which is

bore the the

that

among

predicate, simple
its

simple
first class his

predicate,
;

modified the
tive, connec-

by

objective clause, also,

element
that he

it is

also
to

joining
bore is of

among

neighbors,
a

reputation
ment eleand of the

modified,
the the second

by

among of

neighbors,
among

complex
is

adverbial the element

class,
is

neighbors

base,

neighbors,
first class.

noun,

modified

by

his,

simple

adjective

266

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

ABRIDGMENT.

Simple Sentence may be changed to one that is complex by expanding any one of its words or phrases into A ivise man will always be sought a proposition. Thus,
652.

'*

by
the

those

thxU

if simple sentence ; but and the phrase desiringto learn, be exword panded mse^ shall have into propositions, the complex senwe tence, A man that is tvise will always be sought by those which the same desire to learn^'* thought. expresses

desiring

to

leam^'^ is

"

653. 654.

Expanflion.
"

This
Sentence

process may

may be

be

called

expansion.,

Complex

is

simple by contracting
or

its

that changed- to one into subordinate propositions

the. Franklin, wh" was phrases. Thus, "Dr. bred a printer,'*: was useful institutions, of many projector "f^Because the truths are some of corr^prehension, difficult He guished that he might see the distinweak came rejectthem,"
words
"

are statesman,^'*

complex

sentences;

but

we

may

make
clauses

them
:
"

simple by
Dr.

was

contracting their subordinate stitutio Franklin, the projectorof Tttany useful inbred a printer," Some truths being difficult
"

the weak of comprehension, the statesman.^^ distinguished

rejectthem,"
process

"

He

came

to

see

655. clauses called

Abridgment.
are

"

77ie into

changed

by which equivalentwords or

subordinate

phrases

is

abridgment.
SENEBAL FBINOIPLES OF has ABBIDailENT. the
same

656. in

(1)
that

The

Abridged
sentence
as

Part

construction

the

simple

the

clause

in the

complex

tence; sen-

is, it is either

or substantive, adjective,

verbial. ad-

ABRIDGMENT.

867
the construction
or

'

(a)

The the

best

way

to

determine of the the clause word

of

clause it may

is

to

observe

construction And
to

phrase
of

into
a

which
or

be serve ob-

abridged.
the

determine of the

construction into which

word be

phrase,

construction

it may

expanded.

657. that that

(2)

It will

be

observed

from

it is
are

only the PrincipalElements

example above (Buhjectand predicate)

clause. The form

the

changed
are

in

elements alteration. 658. clause

two Kinds

abridging joined to the

nate subordiwithout

abridged
Since the

of be of

Abridgment.
a

"

may

kinds

expressed by abridgment:
of
a

word

or

thought phra%e^there
and

of

arise Phrase

Word

Abridgment
be

Abridgment.
659. The Basis word

abridgment

may

noun^

an

be seen from as a participle^ adjective^ ox abridging may the following: The our Jones, who was doctor^ died." "The who is plat/boy that is studious will learn." man, ing with the children^ is my uncle."
" "

(a)
and
our are

Clauses

denoting time
and
"

or

reason
"

are

abridged by using participles

the because
sun

their

subjects absolutely. Thus, journey,"

We
were sun we

When

had the

risen
was

we

sued pur-

in time

train

late," ney," jour-

the

same

in
**

thought
train

as

*^The

having risen, we
were

pursued

our

and

The

being late, of
a

in time."

660.

The
or an
"

Basis

phrase abridgment may

" "

be

tional preposi-

that is man infinitive phrase. Thus, "A He lied that he of generosity; and generous^'* A man "He lied to escape punishment,'** might escape punishment^'' (a) (h)
clauses money which
"

The

inflnitive

phrase phrase
a

is

employed
also
a
^^
=

chiefly to abridge clauses

to

introduced The

by

thaU is used and

iniiiiitive

abridge

certain
^*

adjective
me some

introduced with
to

by
I may

preposition buy
^

relative,as
**

Send

which

my

dinner which

Send

me
**

some

money
to

with

buy my
to

dinner.^

*'For

to

strive,"

At

which

shoot,"
is its ante-

On

which
a

found

or abridgments depend," etc., are contractions does that is,it not join peculiar use of the relative,

in which
to

26S
cedent
its the

GRAMMAR

OF

THA

fiKGLIfiH

SfiKTfilKCfi.

limitingclause.
but of does the

The
not

relative in such

cases

relates the
not

or

refers

to

antecedent,
antecedent
to

join anything
an

to it ; for

infinitive limits

and relative, word that

infinitive The

does

require

nective con-

join it

to the

it limits. limits the

relative
as

itself is the
an

object
element,

in

the

prepositionalphrase (e) Certain

Indirect the

infinitive claoaee the

adverbial
as

interrogative

used

substantives
to
an

are

abridged by omitting
and may whtU
etc.

subject, changing
v3hom
to oaky to

predicate
the
to

infinitive,
whom
we

placing
cLsk
**
=

before
*^

it the
not

interrogativeword;
In

as, **I know

same manner

not

I know

have

to dOi where

to look, whom

send, when
the words

begin,

how

to

proceed, abridged

But

it must
not
no

be

understood

that either

whom,

what, where, when,

or

how, etc., are sentence, for

connectives

in the
a

expanded
connective.

in the

interrogativeword

is ever

OASE 661.
same
as

OF If the the

SUBJECT

DT

ABBIDGED

FBOFOSITIOITS. the
tained re-

in the
Ex. I and
"

clause refers to subjectof a subordinate subject of the principalclause, it is not abridgment.

that I may learn
" = **

"I

desire

I desire

to learnt

(See

Rules

II.)
When the

clause does subject of the subordinate not refer to the same as the subjectof the principal clause, is in the nominative it is retained in the abridgment, and the objective absolute case, the possessive, or ; as : 662.
"

**

When

shame

is lost, all virtue **I heard money,

'''^

is had

gone"
stolen he

*'

Shame
money

being lost,
=

all of

virtue his him

is gone.** the

that

he

the be
a

"I
=

heard

stealing
to be
a

**I desire Rules

that

merchant'^

I desire

merchant,'''^

(See

I, II, and

III.)

OASE 663.

OF The

OOMFLEMENT

IN

ABBIDOED
a

FBOFOSITIOITS. is either
an

complement
a

of

copulative verb

adjectiveor
664. If

noun^
an

or

some

expression so used.
a

it will remain adjective, adjective and modify the subject of the abridged proposition.

it is

predicate
in

verb

the

ABRIDGMENT.

269

665.

If it is

noun

or

pronoun,

its

case

will

always

be

used as the or governed by Rule VI : A noun pronoun its case complement of a copulativeverb is in the same as When the subjectof a copulative subject. Exception. is possessive, the complement is nominative. participle
"

(a)
She
me

niaatration
sentence

of

Rulo." is

**If

were so

shej^^
is /, the

**

I wished
**

to

be

"/ie/*

in either
to be

nominative,

sabject.
him his

He

wished

her,''^ Me,

the
*^

sabject being
a

of to be, is

objective,and
asked

her, the complement,

is the the
same or

objective.
of the

He

scholar,
in the
case.

we

opinion/'
be used either for

He,

subject

is participle, is in the
as same

nominative
If
a

absolute, and
should it to be appears the

'scholar,
in the tive nomina-

complement,
construction nominative

pronoun show
reason

scholar, its form

; and

would
no

absolute
to the

since

supposing
of all

this such

an

exception
In
a

general rule stated

nominative

above,

complements
is
a man

are participles

in the

absolute

case.
*'

(")
called

abridging certain
thief,
form
same
^^

adjective clauses, like

is
;

Here

that in

is

the take

relative its
as

dropped,
but upon read and the which
:
**

and
noun

nothing
that the is the clause is
a man

appears

the is

abridged
put in the
the Man above is

to

place
word

complement
called

case

the

depends.
a

Thus,
^^ thief,

sentence

abridged
nominative
to

would case, Rule

Here

in is

the
no

thief
for
man,

is also the the

nominative.

This,
finite
a

however,
the and verb I I
am am

exception
A

VI,

subject

of

is, is also
of
a

subject
an or

of called,

substantive
same

may

be
;

subject
be the

both the
same

in-finite verb

in the and have the

sentence
a

or

it may

object of
sentence.

preposition
that
we

subject of why
And

participlein
the the
not

aware

good authority opposing

a noun

last statement,

but verb the time

unable the

to understand

may

be

object

of

one

and

subject
the

of another.
to be

it is

certainly not
a man

inconsistent be at the

with
same

realityof
the I may

thought

conveyed
action while he

; for

may

objector recipient
strike
**

of

one

and is my

the agent of another.

For which

ple, exam-

thief the be that

taking
of

my

money, The verb have

may that

be say of

expressed,
that
**

I struck cannot

thief taking
both
^*

money."
one

authors the

word say
or

the

object

and
a

subject
In

another," expressed
above for A and
no

also

every which
not

participle must
statements
are

subject

either the

understood,"
if be

inconsistent. it has
no

sentence,
word
can

thief is supplied

the
a

subject
that

of

taking,

subject,
sentence.

for

subject

without

destroying
the be about consulted

the

little the he

reasoning
be

will make

it clear

thief is both
doubts

object of struck
in the the
ter, mat-

subject of taking ; for, if the thief could

would found
to

entertain

no

being

identical

270
oljeet that

GBAHMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

6ENTENGE.

was

struck,

and the

the

only

reason

that he
was

could the

give
of

for the

making
taking, (e)
of

him

the

object of
it is evident
must

striking

is that

agent

But

while

that

noun

or

pronoun it
can

may

be found

in two bat Me
one

constructions, it
them.

be

remembered in the

that

be

governed by
to

For

example,
the

sentence,
the

**He

wants

learn/'
not
^*

is

nominative,
it is the
man

because

it is the

subject of
to learn.

finite verb And in the of

saw

wants,

because I
saw a

subject of
a

infinitive

sentence,
aiid of the

called

man thief,**

is both

the

object
it is the

subject
But
man,

of

called, but
the

is

objective only
of

because

object

saw.

thief,
the

complement
of called.

called, is
of In

objective tq agree
**That

in case

with

subject
been the is

(d) Explanation questioned/* complement

Bxcoption.

"

h^ is

scholar clause But

has

never

this,the subject

of the subordinate nominative the the

case.

is he, and the clause

is scholar, both

in the

abridged by dropping that, changing

the nominative Then the
we

finite verb

is to the

participle leaving
been but

scholar

being, changing unchanged.

Jie to

possessive
a

his, and
has
never

have,
of

^*

His

being
is

scholar

questioned.** His, why

is scholar, the

subject

being,
nominative the

evidently possessive;
f
was

complement,
nominative taken

(1) Scholar
(2)
any become No

was

before

clause process

abridged. abridgment general

to
cause

change
in

has

place

in the

of

change

its case,

unless the

it should

follow

the

rule

and

possessive when
It is not it denote

subject becomes
it does
not

possessive.
the

(3)
does

possessive,for

have

possessivesign,neither
all such is nomi-

possession.
or

(4) Therefore, scholar,

native.

the

complement

in

cases,

666.

Diagram

and
"

attention giving particular analyze^

to

italicized words:

(1)
(2)

The There The

belief is
no

that need

stars

are

suns

is held

by

astronomers.

that the

she soul

be

present.
has been

(3) (4)
(6)

opinion

that

is immortal

almost

universally longer.
put
his

entertained. Let The it be understood

man

that I will pursue

this course his

no

that the fire.

cannot

put

fire into

speeches
the world

should

speeches

into

(6)
the

The

sumptuous
are now

cities that beheld

have in

lighted
the

since the

the

ginning beof

of time

only

pictures of

historian

past.

ABRIDGMBNT.

271

(7)
star

The

smallest in

dewdrop
endeavor the reins ruins
to

that

lies

on

the

meadow

at

night

has

sleeping (8)
We His in

its bosom.
secure

should hands

the

friendship place
loved
that

of

the

Being
been

that

holds

of

the

universe. the had the

(9) Black, smoking

hesitation of Nature This her children. did house
a man

marked

(10)
(11)

never

betray
that in

the

heart

that

her.

is the
was are

that J AckhmM. the

(12) (13)
of

Webster There

country
a

will

remember

with will

pride.

occasions in
a

life in which

great mind

live years

rapt enjoyment

moment.
to combat
was

(14)
knight
the

The

challenge
the
a

given by touching
to encounter.

the shield

of

the

whom Not of The

challenger
Atlantic

wished that

(15)
winds

single region
fan. crime such

the

Indians

can

now

call their

own

do

the

(16)
attempt

atrocious has with

to

of

being
to

young

man,

which upon

the

honorable
I shall

gentleman

spirit of
nor

decency

charged

me,

neither The

palliate

deny.
tJiot honor feels.
one

(17) (18)
to

jingling of the guineas helps the hurt

It is not

always
whose

easy

to

make

one*s

self

just

what

wishes

be.

(19) He,
prisoner (20) (21) (22) (23) (25)
on

beneath the

proud
isle of made
as

footstep Europe
St. Helena. what he
as

trembled,

became

rock-bound
to have

God A He We

seems

him

was.

has

three
me

times what I

much

money heard you of

B.

told
are

never

before.

here

to hear

what

shall say. for what he had it takes

gives nothing (24) Infidelity

The Such As The thief
as are as

in return what

away.

refused

to divide
are

stolen.

(26)
(27) "2S) (29) (30)

virtuous
came were same

happy.
satisfied.

many
son

has wins

the

indications

a"

his father.

Whoever Whatever Whoever He

may

laugh.
heart of also fortifies it. others will himself be blest.

purifiesthe
seeks the
to shoot

(31) (32) (33)

his

good

threatened

whoever

tried to stop him. walked

over

Toward

night

the

schoolmaster

to the

cottage where

little friend

lay sick,
was a

(34) (35) (36)

There Youth

time time

when when

was

free to roam. of

is the

the seeds

character

are

sown.

It is the hour, when Seem

sweet

lovers'

vows

in every

whispered

word.

272

OBAMMAE

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTBNCB.

(37) At midnight,In
The Turk

his guarded tent,

When

laydreaming of the hour Greece, her knee in suppliance bent,

at his power.

Should tremble

(38) Deep (30)

There

in the

wave

is a coral grove
rove. gold-fish

Where the purplemullet and the

is a land of pure Where saints immortal
a

delight, reign.
farewell shot
we

(40) Not (41) And

Save

soldier

his discharged
our

O'er the grave wJiere all the air where

a

hero

buried.

solemn

stillness holds, his

the beetle wheels

droningflight.
a

(42) (43) I
(44)

She has sent for the knew

saw

lady she believed to be

the believed
was

governess.

the man, whom the man, who we

general appointedcaptain.
sick. darkened train
was

(45) The boy (46) He reached the station justas the (47) Gather roses while they bloom. (48) Smile whenever you can.
(49)
While there is

closed the shutters, which

the

room.

starting.

(50) The (51) You may wait tillthe train arrives. (52) You cannot reap until afteryou sow. moment as it flies. (53) Improve each shining (54) He has been here ever since his brother came. ascend. (55) Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude (56) He was just about to start when I called him back, (57) She has not been here since you came.
(58)
When
me.

there is hope. life the sun rose. shipsailed before

I look upon and

the tombs

of the great every emotion be used

of envy

dies within seasoned.

(59) Knowledge

timber

should

not

much

tillthey

are

(60) On Linden, when (61) Oh,

what
a

the

sun

was

low,
snow.

All bloodless lay the untrodden

When

web we weave tangled firstwe practise to deceive ! him.

torrents

wherever nightovertakes (62) He sleeps (63) He builds a palaceof ice where the

fall.
hath He removed

(64)
our

Where

there^s
as

will there^s is from

(65) As far

the east
us.

way. the west, so

far

from transgressioiis

_-^i

ABRIDGMENT.

278

(66) (67)
which riven

Man

cannot

act

more

perfidious part
to deceive.

than

to

use

his utmost

efforts to obtain No
axe

confidence had

in order

levelled the
forms

giant

progeny limbs with

of that the

the had

crowded been

grove blasted

in and of
a

the

fantastic

of withered

by lightning growth
Whilst the

contrasted

strangely
of all these

verdant

freshness

younger.

of branches. authors evils

were

(68)
on

idly

and

stupidly gazing
it

this menacing

meteor,
the

which whole

blackened of its contents

their

horizon,
the

suddenly
the

burst, and
Camatic.

poured

down

upon

plains of
and who

(69) Grod, by
all

whose

kindness

we

live,whom
he

we

worship,

ated cre-

things, is eternal.
I knew

(70)
to

why
he

he

was

sent

there, how
who when the

is to

manage, home with

when him. away,

he

is

leave, where (71)

When either
true

is to go

next, and
comes,

is to return

misfortune hand
a

first prospects fade away

to the

and do

when
we

on

listless desert

stretches

sky,
of
"

then

realize

friendship.
and affairs have of the shown
me

(72)
loose

The

world

that writer^s

one

half

history
Wendell

is

conjecture, and

much

rest

is the

opinion.

Phillips.

(73)

On

the

bosom the
sun

of

river.
his

Where And

unloosed

quiver, forever, free.

the

starlightstreamed
a

Sailed

vessel,light and
the Greeks

(74)

Once As

again
in their

arise.
noblest hours.

country's

667.

Discuss

the italicized words.

Diagram
to

and

analyze

the sentences^ (1)

ocean.

attention givingspecial
was now

the clauses.
the

The

sun

resting his huge disk upon

edge

of the

level

(2) (3)
were

The

heavens

declare the glory of God, and

the firmament

showeth

his handiwork. The

howling
in

of

the

wolf

and with

the the

shrill

screaming
of the

of

the

panther

mingled (4) (6) (7) (8)

We

nightly
not

concert

war-whoop

savages.
to

ought
the
or

to

the sacrifice

sentiments

of the soul

gratifythe

appetites of
You

body.
he is in has that
no

fault
blossoms
autumn

(6) If spring
Th)B He
man

will have

no

fruit.
without

neglects his

business

will

soon,

be

business.

reads all

whatever
our

is instructive. is ourselves
to Jrsuiw

(9)

And

knowledge

274

OBAMMAB

OF

THB

BNGLISH

SENTENCE.

(10) Milton Shdketpeart, (11) The

The The The

has

fine

deBcriptionBof morning,

but

not

so

maxiy

as

woods

are

husked^ the
and
sent

waters

rest,

lake is dark
to Oxford
no

stilL
a

(12) (13) (14)

(16)

king

troop of horse;
but force.

tories own

argument
you the

The

bounding
with

steed

pompously pleasure

bestride,
the

Shares

his lord who he

us was.

and

pride.

I told you Aristotle Tell

me

tells

that

statue

lies hurUd

in

block

of marble.

(16)

not, in mournful
an

numbers,
dream.

Life is hut

empty
"red.
a" ever.

(17) (18) (19)

(21)

He She Qood

looks is
as

as

"r

hateful

morning^ gentlemen.
thanks
to

(20) Many
As

for

your

kindness. lustre

night

stars, woe

gives to

man.

(22) (23)

Favors Oft Maud Raked she

to none^

to all she
never

smiles
once

extends

but rejects,
on a

offends.

Muller the this he fittest

summer^s
sweet
a

day
with

meadows shares

hay.

(24)

For The

felon^s

cell.

earthly type

of hell.

(25) Liberty taught

The

Demosthenes

eloquence.

(26) was a foot deep, (27) The snow (28) They painted the house white, (29) She is without a home, (30) He made the axe sharp, (31) It is possible that we are wrong, this course that I will pursue no longer. (32) Let it be understood s Progress is that peculiarity of the Pilgrim'' (33) The characteristic
was

pole

six

feet long,

it

is the

only

work

of

the

kind
a man

that

possesses soul
so

strong human

interest

(34)

Breathes Who
never

there
to

with hath my

dead.
?
a

himself own,
to

said,
land ills

This

is my the

native

(35)

HI

fares

land,

hastening

prey^

Where

wealth

accumulates the

and

men

decay.
have

(36)

Poets Were

lose half it but

praise they
what

would

got

known

blot they discreetly

ABRIDGMENT.

275

(37)
than outside.

I have
men

observed
to

that the

in

all ages

women

have that
we

been

more

ful care-

adorn

part of the

head

generally call
About

the

(38)
of
be
an

How

long
end

was

it

before the
has

man

came

to

three-quarters might

hour, The

(39)
(40) (41)
lose his

why

God

ordained

faith

is that his free grace

glorified.
But For
own

the what soul

Son

of

Man

hath

not
man

where if he

to

lay his head.

shall it ?

profit a

gain

the

whole

world

and

(42)
with of

The

alarmed

colonists

believed wind that

that

the

yells of
the

the

savages

gled minests for-

every WesU

fitful gust of

issued

from

interminable

the

(43)
embossed

From

beneath

the flap of
ornamented

au

enormous

pocket
martial

of

soiled

vest

of

silk,heavily
which, from

with
seen

tarnished

silver^ace,projected an
company, of
war.

instrument,
been

being
some

in such

might

have

easily mistaken
The fashion that

for

mischievous the

implement
bear

(44)
to the

plates of
we

magazines
street.

resemblance ];^ostriking

humanity
A proper all the

meet

in the the the

(46)
themselves

description of
of

habit

of

chewing
and

tobacco the

would

haust ex-

filthyadjectives
further
ever are use.

language,

spoil

adjectives
made

for
Did it

(46)
and

occur

to

you

what

you

are, what

you

were

for,

whither

you of

going
of

?
to

(47)
disasters

One is the Let You

the

greatest benefits
a

be

reaped
men.

from

great financial

saving
man

large crop by
your all sorts of

of young what

(48) (49)
must

no

know receive

dress

your

business

is.

will

the most

excellent you

remember
starves

that, if
those

you

follow gave you

it,and
the

it leads advice

advice, but you into a profession

feel bound
to

that you

you,

that

never

give

any

money. You
to
are

(60)
are

worth

to

yourself what
you xchere

you
are

are

capable
of

of

enjoying ;

you

worth

society the
Indian know

happiness
when

capable
are

imparting.

(61)

The We

knows
not

his friends

buried.

(62) (63) (64)

(66)

his life the money

departed.
office.
so soon

I heard How That you

why

he

declined
the

obtained
man

is

mystery
no

to

me. was

the

confessed
court.

his

guilt
is
is

when

evidence

found

against him

surprised the
he he gave

(66) (67)
(68)

When Where The The

the

fatal blow the

a a

matter

of

uncertainty.
discussed.

concealed
was

body

subject
was was

that is much

decision

that the prisoner is that

guilty.
murdered.

(69)

general opinion

Morgan

276 (60)
your

OBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

8ENTBNGE.

It Ib

surprising that you question, Are

the
moon

care

so

liUU

for

the

unproyement

of

mincL
The
we a

(61) (02)

nation

f is
and

now

answered.

Bursts

through gUde
zephyrs play,

greenwood,

Soft the
And
the Sweetest

herald

vtaving birches
incense
on our

sprinkle
way.

(03) I hear that the young prince is an excellent scholar. (04) To see you here on such a day surprises me. know love them. who (65) Animals whom we worship. (06) We know God is the Lord. whose (07) Blessed is the man (08) He accepts what others reject. in dignified displeasure. (09) After denying the charge he withdrew continued the march. sun rose we our (70) After lies under monument dec"hmarble a (71) Many a despicable wretch
rated with
2i,

flatteringepitaph.
Dante stood before the gates of All

(72) When loftyarch the

668.

Hell,he

read

over

portal's
here.

awful

inscription: from

hope abandon,
on

ye who

enter

Sentences

Pope's Essay
I.

CriticiBm.

'Tis with Go

our

judgments
each

as

our

watches,
his
own.

none

just alike,yet

believes
II.

In

poets

as

true
as

genius

is but

rare,

True

taste

seldom

is the
III.

critic's share.

Some And

are some

bewildered made

in the

maze

of

schools.
but

coxcombs
IV.

nature

meant

fools.

Some Turned

have

at first for

wits, then

poets, passed.
fools
at

critics next, and

V.

proved plain

last.

Nature And

to all

things

fixed

the

limits

fit.

wisely

curbed

proud
VI.

man's

pretending wit

Where The

beams

of warm soft

imagination play,
away.

memory's

figures melt

SELECTIONS.

277

VII*

Hear
When

how
to

learned repress,

Greece and when

her

useful rules
our

indites,

indulge

flights.

VIII. Be Bead Homer*s them

work's your

study
meditate

and

delight.

by day

and

by night

IX.

Of
'

all the

causes

which

conspire
and with

to blind

Man's What Is

erring judgment,
the weak head

misguide

the

mind, rules.

strongest bias
of fools.

pride, the

never-failingvice
X.

Trust Make

not
use

yourself;
of every

but

your
"

defects and every

to

know,

friend

foe,

XI.

little learning is

dangerous thing
not

;
:

Drink There And

deep,
shallow

or

taste

the

Pierian

spring
the

draughts

intoxicate
us

brain,

drinking largely sobers

XII.

again.

perfect judge
the
same

will read

worl^of

wit writ.

With

spiritthat
XIII.

its author

Whoever Thinks

thinks what

faultless
was,
nor

piece to is,nor

see, e^er shall be.

ne^er

XIV.

Poets,
The With And

like

painters, thus, unskilled

nature

to trace

naked

and

the
cover

living grace.
every their

gold
hide

and

jewels

part,
of art.

with

ornaments

want

XV. But
true

expression, like improves

the

unchanging
it shines
none.

sun, ;

Clears It

and

whatever

upon

gildsall objects,but

it alters

278

GBAMMA"

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

XVI. Some

by

old in

words

to fame
mere

have modems

made

pretence,

Ancients Such Amaze

phrase,

in their sense.
a

labored the

nothings, unlearned,

in

so

strange
the

style,
smile.

and

make

learned

xvn. Be
not

the

first

by
to

whom

the the old

new

are

tried.

Nor

yet the last

lay

aside.

xvni. True As
ease

in
move

writing

comes

from have

art,

not

chance,
to dance.

those

easiest

who
XIX.

learned

We Our

think wiser

our

fathers
no

fools,^

wise

we us

grow
so.

sons,

doubt,
XX.

will think

Some

valuing

those

of their the honor

own

side

or

mind.
:

Still make

themselves
think but
we

measure

of mankind

Fondly
When

we
we

merit

then.
men.

praise

ourselves

in other

XXI.

When
It draws

first that up

sun

too

powerful
obscure

beams

displays,

vapors

which

its rays.

XXII.

Be His

thou

the

first true

merit

to befriend

praise

is

lost,who

stays till all commend.

XXIII.

All As

seems

infected

that
to

the

infected

spy. eye.

all looks

yellow

the

jaundiced

Sentences

from

Pope's Essay
I.

on

Han.

Awake,
To

my

St. John and

1 leave

all

meaner

things

low

ambition,

the

pride

of

kings.

SELECTIONS.

279

II. Let Than

us,

since

life can

little more
us

sapply
to

just

to look

about

and
scene

die,
man

Expatiate
A A Or

free
maze

o*er all this

I

of
a

;
:

mighty wild,

but

not

without flowers forbidden

plan

where

weeds

and with
ni.

promiscuous shoot,
fruit.

garden, tempting

of God Say first, What

can we

above,
but

or

man

below,
what
we

reason

from IV.

know

Of man,
From

what

see

we

but
or

his station
to

here.
refer ?

which

to reason,

which

Through
'Tis
ours

worlds
to trace

unnumbered him

though
in
our

the

Grod

be

known,

only
VI.

own.

He,
See

who worlds

through
on

vast

immensity
compose
one

can

pierce.

worlds

universe.
runs.

Observe
What What

how other varied

system

into system circle other every

us

planets
heaven

suns,

being peoples
has

star,
as we are.

May

tell

why

made

VII. When His

the proud steed

shall know
him he

why
breaks

man

restrains

fierycourse,
the
a

or

drives

o*er the

plain ;
the

l^en
Is
now

dull ox,

why
now

now

clod.

victim, and
man^s

EgypVs
and dulness

Grod ;

Then His

shall

pride

comprehend why

actions',passions\ being's, use and end ; Why doing, suffering,checked, impelled ; and This hour a deity. a slave, the next
VIII.

Heaven
All From Or who but

from the

all creatures page what

hides

the

book

of

Fate,
:

prescribed
men,

their present state

men

brutes could

from here

what ?

know spirits

suffer

being

below

280

QSAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

IX. Bat From When Towns

em

not

nature
suns

from when

this

gracious end, descend,

tempests
to the

burning
to one

livid deaths
or

earthquakes swallow,
grave, whole

when

sweep ?

nations

deep

X.

As

much

that

end

constant
as

coarse

requires
desires ;

Of showers
As As much
men

and
eternal

sunshine,
temperate,
XI.

of man^s cloudless and

springs, and

skies,
wise.

forever

calm,

Shall he alone, whom

Be

rational if not

we

call.
with

pleased

with

nothing,

blessed

all?

XII.

Why
For

has this

not

man

microscopic
man

eye
a

plain reason,

is not

fly.

XIII.

If nature And How The

thundered him he

in his with the

opening
music had

ears,

stunned
would

of the

sphprps.
still

wish

that

heaven and

left him

whispering zephyr,

the purling rill I

XIV.

Who Alike

finds

not

Providence it

all

good

and

wise,

in what

gives, and
XV.

what

denies?

And,
Alike The That

if each

system

in

gradation roll.
whole
not ;

essential to the amazing

least confusion but but in one, the

all

system

only,

whole

must

fall.

XVI.

All

are

but

parts of
nature

one

stupendous whole,
God the souL

Whose

body

is,and
XVII.

Know The

then proper

thyself,presume study
of mankind

not

God

to scan

is Man.

SELECTIONS.

281

XVIII.

Could

he

whose
or

roles the rapid comet

one

bind,
?

Describe,

fix

movement

of his mind

XIX.

Two

principlesin
to urge,
a

human and
reason

nature

reign

'

"

Self-love Nor Each this

to restrain

good,
its

nor

that
to

bad,
or

we

call ;

works
to

end,
; to

move

govern

all ;

And,
Ascribe

their proper all

operation, still
their

good

improper,

ill.

XX.

the spring Self-love, Season's

of motion, balance

acts

the

soul;

comparing

rules

the

whole.

XXI.

Modes

of self-love the

passions
moves

we

may them

call ; all.

*Tis real

good,

or

seeming,
XXII.

As On
The Wild

fruits savage
surest

ungrateful
stalks virtues

to the

planter's care,
to

learn ini^erted, thus from

bear.
root.

passions shoot,
at their

nature's

vigor working
XXIII.

Vice

is

monster

of

so

frightfulmien.
but
to be
seen

As,
Yet We

to be
seen

hated, needs
too

oft ; familiar then

with

her

face.

first

endure,

pity, then

embrace.

670.

Seleotions from

Gary's Dante's

Inferno.

In

the

midway
me

of this
a

our

mortal

life,
e'en wild its
to tell

I found Gone It
were

in the easy

gloomy wood, astray path

direct
:

from
no

and

task, how
robust

savage and

That Which

forest, how
to remember

rough

growth,
Line

only, my
not

dismay
death.
"

Renews,

in bitterness

far from

1, canto

1.

282

GBAMMAB

OF

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

n.

Tet to diflooone

of what

there

good befell,
there.
"

All else will I relate diacoTer'd

in.

Line

How Such

first I entered

it I scarce in that the

can

say,

sleepy
senses

dolness

instant
trae

weigh'd
I left,

My
But The

down,
a

when

path
heart

when

mountain's had
saw

foot I reach'd, where

clos'd

that valley,

pierced
that

my

with broad

dread,

I lookM

aloft,and
with

his shoulders

Already vested
Who
leads

planet's beam.
safe

all wanderers

through

every

way.

"

Line

10.

IV. Those

things alone proceed

;
"

Are
None

to be

fear*d, whence
none

evil may

else,for

are

terrible beside.
V.

Line

87,

canto

2.

As
Bent Rise So And That
was

florets, by
down and

the

frostyair
their

of

night
has

clos'd,when
on

day

blanched
;

their

leaves.

all unfolded
my
to my

spiry stems
new

faintingvigor
heart
one

restor'd.
courage ran.
"

such

kindly
soon

as

undaunted

replied.

Line

127.

VI.

Straightway in silence fell the shaggy cheeks

Of him, the boatman Around
whose eyes o'er the livid

lake.
Line

glar'd wheeling flames.

--

91f canto

^.

VII.

One

stillanother

following, till the bough

on

Strews E'en Cast Each

all its honors in like

manner one as

the

earth

beneath

Adam's

evil brood down from the

themselves
at
a

by
falcon

one

shore.
"

beck,

at his

call.

Line

105.

VIII. This So

said, the gloomy region trembling shook

with

that yet terribly, chills my brow.

clammy

dews
"

Fear

Line

121.

SELECTIONS.

288

IX. Broke Of As the

deep slumber
that main

in my I shook

brain

crash

heavy thimder,
one

myself,
"

by

force rous'd.
X.

Xt'nel,

canto

4.

We,
Those

while

he

spake,

ceasM

not

our so

onward I
name

road,
Line

Still passing

through

the wood

; for

thick spirits

beset
XI.

"

61.

So

I beheld

united

the

bright

school song.

Of him, the monarch

That o'er the others

of sublimest like
an

eagle soars.

^Line%9.

XII. Another way that air serene,

:

My
Into And

sage
a

guide leads
ever come

me, vez'd

from with
no

climate

storms

to a

part I

where
xin.

lightshines.

^Line

145.

There

Minos
:

stands
of all

Grinning
Who Giyes

with

ghastly

feature

he,

enter, strict examining sentence, and

as

the

crimes, beneath,
:

dismisses him

them around the

According
For when

he

foldeth him
; and

before

comes

ill-fated
severe

soul,

It all confesses Of

that

judge place

sins,consideringwhat
the

in hell
so

Suits

transgression,with
it to descend. XIV. As

his tail

oft

Himself
He dooms

as encircles, degrees beneath

"

Line

4, canto

6.

in

large troops
reigns.
borne

And
The

multitudinous,
on starlings

when

winter
are

their

wings

abroad,
"

So bears

the tyrannous

gust those
XV. Soon
as

evil souls.

Line

40.

the

wind my

Sway'd
**0 With

them

toward
I spirits

us, I thus come, and

fram'd hold

si)eech:
Line 77.

wearied us, if

discourse
"

by

none

else restrain'd."

284

QBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

XVI. As doyea

By
And

fond

desire

invited, on
sweet

wide
nests

wings returning home,

will

firm, to their
the issuM

Cleave Thus

air, wafted
from
the that

by

their

along
Dido

troop, where

ranks.
such force
"

They through My
cry

ill air

speeding

; with

by strong prevail'd
XVII.

affection

urg^d.

Line

80.

"

gracious
the
a

creature

and

benign

! who

go*st

Visiting,through Us,
Our Since who world

this element with

obscure,
stain imbru'd
;

bloody
of for
our

If, for

friend, the King

to him

all,we thy
evil

own^d, arise,
"

pray*r
thou

should
on

peace

hast

pity

plight."

Line

87.

xvni.
"

Love, that in gentle heart

him

is

quickly learnt,
from
me

Entangled
Ta*en

by
cruel

that
sort

fair
as

form,

in such

grieves me

still.*'

"

Line

99.

XIX. No Of

greater grief than

to

remember
I

days
"

joy,

when

mis'ry

is at hand

Line

118.

XX.

We,
Of

o'er the

shades

thrown

prostrate by the brunt

our

the

heavy tempest
their

passing, set
that

feet seem'd.
"

Upon

emptiness,

substance

Line

33,

canto

6.

XXI.

Consult

thy knowledge
each

; that

decides

That,

as

thing

to

more

perfection grows, good

and

It feels

more

sensibly

both

pain.

"

Line

108.

XXII.

So On

'tis will'd

high,

there

where
on

the

great archangel pour'd

first adulterer

Heav'n's

vengeance

the

proud.
"

Line

10,

canto

7.

SELECTIONS.

285

xxm. Thus we,

on

descending
the dismal

to the

fourth

steep ledge,
all the
woe
"

Gain*d
Hems

shore, that

in of all the

universe.
XXIV.

Line

16.

Not Or

all the
ever

gold that
rest

is beneath

the

moon, souls
"

hath

been, of these
for
one.

toil-worn

Might purchase

Line

65.

XXY.

My
We Its We

theme reachM

pursuing,
the

I relate that

ere our

lofty turret's
where afar
remote

base,

eyes

height ascended,
marked,
the and

two

cressets

hung

from

another that

light
scarce
"

Return The eye

signal, so
catch

could

its beam.

Line

1, canto

8.

XXVI.

There
How Who many here
now

above

hold

themselves shall

mighty kings
in the

like swine them

wallow

mire,
"

Leaving

behind

horrible

dispraise 1

Line

47.

XXVII.

The

hue,

which when from

coward I
saw

dread my

on

my
turn

pale
had

cheeks

Imprinted,
ChasM And that

guide

back,
worn.
"

his which it.

newly they

inwardly

restrained

Line

1, canto

9.

XXVIII. As Before their foe the

frogs

serpent through the wave,

the

Ply swiftly all,till at

Lies
on a

ground
a

each

one

heap
so

; more
saw

than

thousand
one

spirits
sound.
,

Destroyed,
Who

fleeingbefore
feet the

passed

with

unwet

Stygian

"

Line

?"

XXIX.

Upon By
And

the

utmost rocks

verge environ'

of d

high bank, round,

cruel
we

craggy
woes

came.
were

Where

beneath
to

more

yet

stow'd

here

shun

the

horrible

excess

286

6RAMHAB

OV

THB

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

Of

fetid exhalation,
the

npward
we

cast

From

profound abyss,
monament

behind

the

lid

Of

great

stood
:

retirM,
**

Whereon

this scroll I mark'd whom

I have

in

charge
Line

Tope Anastasius,
From the

Fhotinus

drew
"

right path."
XXX.

1,

canto

IL

The
We Such

place
came,

where
was

to

descend
as

the and

precipice
on

rough

Alp,
eye

its verge shun.

"

objectlay,as

every

would

Line

1, canto

12.

XXXI. Ere r farther the second the thou

proceed,
and
:

know shalt

thou

art

now

round,
sand and

be, till thou

well

come

Upon
Around As

horrid

look

therefore thou

thee,
my

such

things

shalt behold.
"

would

speech

discredit.

Line

19,

canto

13.

XXXII. Men
once
were

we,

that

now

are

rooted

here.

"

Line

38.

XXXIII.

My
Just

soul, disdainful
in death I was, from

and

disgusted, sought
and I

Refuge
as

scorn,

became.
"

unjust

toward

mysell

Line

72.

XXXIV. And If any Clear Yet

to

of you,
return

the from

world wrong

indeed my

he

memory, cruel

that blow.

lies
"

prostrate under

envy's
XXXY.

""ne

77.

When The

departs
seventh wood it

fierce soul
torn

from

the
to

body, by itself
the the

Thence

asunder

gulf falls.
chance of

By
No

Minos

doom'd,

into but

place assigned,
it,there
a

wheresoever
as a

Hurls

sprouting,

grain
thence

spelt,
Line 9a

It rises to A savage

sapling,growing

plant

"

'

SELECTIONS.

287

XXXVI. Attentive We A The Of

yet

to listen to the

trunk
,

stood, expecting
noise wild

farther when hunt

a

speech,
man

when

us

surprised,as
hoar and

perceives
his and

the who

approach
heasts

place boughs
"

BtationM

watch,

of the hears.

Loud

rustlinground

him

Line

112.

XXXVII.

Soon

as

the

charity

of native

land leaves
now
"

Wrought
Was

in my

bosom,
to him

I the scatterM

Collected, and
hoarse

restor'd,who

with

utterance.

Line

1, canto

14.

XXXVIII. To We
X

the third

limit the

thence second

came,

which and

from of

the

round

Divides,

where

justiceis display*d
"

Contrivance

horrible.
XXXIX.

Line

4,

Things
A

then

first
next

seen

Clearlier to manifest, I tell how

plain

we

reachM,

that

from

its sterile bed

"

Each

plant repelPd.
XL. The mournful

Line

7.

wood
round the

waves

round

Its

garland on
the

all

sides,as
XLI.

wood
"

Spreads

sad

foss.

Line

10.

Of naked
All

spirits many

flock

I saw, laws
"

weeping piteously, to different

XLII.

Subjected.

Line

IS,

O'er Dilated On

all the flakes

sand of

fell

slowly wafting
fiakes the of wind
snow

down

as fire,

Alpine summit,

when

is hushM.

"

Line

26.

XLIII.

Unceasing
Now The

was

the that

play of
way

wretched

hands.
off
^

this, now

glancing, to shake
'

heat, still fallingfresh.

Line

37.

288

OBAliMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

XUV. he himself, who Straight exclaimM My guideof him, dead such now When living,
was
:
'*

aware

I ask'd
as

Such

I waB
"

I am.**

Line

46.

XLV.

kingswas one, Who and held, the Theban walls with siege, girt As stillhe seems to hold,God in disdain. And sets His highomnipotence at naught.
seven

This of the

"

Line

64.

XLVI.
on Silently from the gushes
we

pass'd
yet lifts
^-Line 72.

To

where

there

forests^ bound
wave

A little brook,whose

crimson'd

My

hair with horror.

XLVII.

Of all that I have shown We enter'd whose first,

thee,since

that gate
none

threshold is to

Denied,naught else so worthy of regard. As is this river, has thine eye discerned, 0*er which the flaming all is quenched. volley
XLVIII. So That The

"

Line 81.

spake my guide; and I him thence besought, to know. havinggiv*nme appetite food he too would give, that hunger crav'd.
"

Line 86.

XLIX,

A mountain

rises there, ^-Line 92.

Call'd Ida,joyousonce with leaves and streams, Deserted now like a forbidden thing.

Lethe But
not within

thou shalt see,

this

hollow,in the

Whither Whose

to lave themselves the

place. spirits go.

"

blame

hath been

by penitence remov'd.

Line

131

SELECTIONS.

289

LI,

One

of the

solid in the

margins
o'er, and
water.

bears from

us

now

Enveloped Arising,
Both

mist, that

the from

stream

hovers

saves

fire

piers and

-"Line
LII.

1,

canto

15.

They
One And As
an

each eyes

one

ey'd

us,

as a

at eventide
new

another
us

under

moon,

toward

sharpened

their

sight as
eye.

keen
"

old tailqr. at his needle's

Line

17.

Lin.
**

son

I"

said he,

"

whoever
a

of this hundred the fire

throng
years,

One No

instant fan

stops, lies then

to ventilate

him,

when

Smites

sorest.'

'
"

Line

37.

LIV. This That Do

only
so

would

I have

thee have

clearly note
no

my

conscience
as

plea against me prepared.

;
"

fortune

she

I stand list,

Line

101.

LV. Thus Yet Of forward that

on

alone
I

th'

extremity

pac'd
mournful
"

seventh

where circle,

the

tribe Line

Were

seated. LVI.

41,

canto

17.

And A

when

amongst
I
saw

them with

looking round
azure

I came,

yellow
wore

purse
a

wrought,
and

That

lion's countenance

port.

"

Line

56.

Lvn.

Pursuing Among
^

thus

our

solitary way
and

the
not
our

crags

splintersof
the

the

rock,
"

Sped

feet without

help

of hands.

iine

17.

Lvni.

So

were

mine

eyes

inebriate whom

with

view wounds weep.

"

Of the vast

multitude,

various
to

Disflgur'd,that

they longed

stay and

Line

1,

canto

29,

290

QBAMMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

UX. But pass each

we

on,

nor

waste

Our As

words
his to

; for

so

language
by

is to

him,
"

others, understood
LX.

none.

Line

72,

canto

31.

O'er better
The Well And

waves

to

speed

her

rapid

course

lightbark pleas'd
the

of my
to leave

genius
so

lifts the
sea

sail,
;

cruel

behind

of that second human

region

will I

sing,
sinful blot

In which Is

spiritfrom
to

purged, and

for ascent

Heaven
"

prepares.

Line

1,

canto

1, Purgatorio.

LXI. The Which I dawn had chasM the that matin from
ocean

hour afar
stream.

of

prime.
Line 114.

fled before the

it,so

spy*d

trembling

of the

"

LXII.

My
Hath All

sins

were

horrible

; but

so

wide

arms

that goodness infinite,

it receives
"

who

turn

to it. LXIII. O power

so

Line

118,

canto

3.

divine

If thou That Trac'd Thou Come

to

me

of thine

impart
the I may of

much.
form
to

of that in my Shalt

happy
behold

realm

shadow^
set

thoughts
me

forth

view,
leaves.

thy

favor'd

tree

to the

foot, and

crovm

myself
"

with

Line

20,

canto.

1, Paradiso,

LXIV. Much Since Who he

more

than
not

vainly
such

doth
as

he
set

loose

from

shores

returns

he

forth,
skill.

fishes for the truth

and

wanteth

^Line
LXV. Let As Or The
not
one ere

116,

canto

13.

the who the

people be
reckons crop frown be

too
on

svdft

to

judge.
in

the

blades

field,
seen

ripe.

For

I have winter

thorn

rudely all

the

long

REVIEW

OF

SENTENCES

AND

ELEMENTS.

291

And And Ran E*en

after

bear that

the

rose

upon way

its top ;
across

bark,
in the

all the

the
at the

sea

straight and

speedy, perish

last,
"

liayen^s mouth.

Linel2Q.

LXVI. That To all the world

no

should

have

been

tum*d

Christian, and
rest not

miracle
a

been

wrought,
great
"

Would The

in itself be such
were an

miracle,
part
so

hundredth

Line

104,

canto

2i.

671.

Seview
the

of Sentences
value of

and

Elements.
Of Diagrams.

(1)

Discuss

Analysis.

Outline

of mements

(Simple {Adjective {First

Compound Complex

(a)

(6) (c)

Substantive

(d) (e) (/)

Adverbial

Class

(g), word. (Q,

Second

Class

(h), phrase.
clause.

Third

Class

(2) (3)

Define
Define

and and

(A), (0illustrate, (a), (6), (c),(d), (c), (/), (flr),

"

illustrate:

"

adg, adh,
aeg,

adi; aei;

hdg, bdh,

bdi;

cdg, cdh,
ceg,

cdi,

aeh,

beg, beh, bei;

ceh, cei.

afg, afh, afi; bfg, bfh, bfl; cfg, cfh, qfl.

(4) Referring to

article 75, illustrate

"

ad,

ae,

af, cf,

ag

bd, be, bf, bg ; cd,

ee,

eg.

(5) Referring to

articles 03 and

04, illustrate

"

ad, bd, cd ;
ae,

be,

ce

of, bf, cf.

292

ORAHMAB

OF

THS

ENQLISH

SENTENCE.

PREFACE

TO

THE

FIRST

THOUSAND.

672.

Apology.
has for

"

The

only apology
to

the

author
list of the

of

this

book

having
Sentence
and

for

adding another their object the

fifteen years the

the

long
of

books

Grammar

English
ject, sub-

is that in

spent in studying the

pupils of every grade of the beginning classes of the country from advancement, from of logic, six to twelve school to the collegestudent classes a day, months in the year, with from to four one and in a class, ought to result in to three hundred one teaching
an

it to

experience useful
With

to

the

student
that

and
a

the

teacher may

of

grammar.
realized 673.

the
has

hope
been
"

such

result

be

this work
Claim of the

prepared.
It is not much

Book.

put forth wholly

of the matter
merit.
one

as

product
new;

of

originality. Not
this is

itself is

and book

the

contains

possibly its greatest one new thing^that

the student.

Indeed, if
be
cepted ac-

should

most

by reluctantly
the writer of its

But

while

claims, as the best recommendation

of his book, that much

thought
and

has

been

in substance also to

expressed by great
have

authors
a

teachers, he claims

modified, and variety of sources, arranged what, it is hoped, is the most valuable text-book for advanced students, high schools, normal schools, and collegesthat has yet been published on this subject. is claimed The author wishes to emphasize what by some that and of the greatest educators denied by others is a science and should be taught as such. English grammar and grammarless tongue^^^ English has been styled the in the light of other languages. justlyperhaps,if viewed
"

accumulated

from

''

PREFACE

TO

THE

FIRST

THOUSAND.

293
is without that

If
a

grammar grammar
;

means

inflection only^our
if it is founded
sentence

language
the

but

upon

idea

the

thought expressed by a by, the relative language

can

determines, and
its excelled

mined is deterour

positions of
a

parts, then

by none. It has been urged against 674. Objection to Orammar. that it never the study of grammar produces good speakers This is partlytrue. and writers. Language must precede sponding precede its correjust as any other art must grammar,
grammar
"

boast

of

science; but
remain

without is

the

science

the

art

would

that the mostly by imitation in child language, ai;id his only gets his first lessons teachers. his parents, playmates, and tation books are By imialone, with surroundings, he may acquire proper the most forcible style; but, with more elegant and most probable surroundings, he will acquire by imitation also

imperfect.

It

the

most

objectionable brogue, barbarism,

How

or

slang.
of
as

675.

Language
formed

is Learned.

"

If

our

habits
be

guage lan-

helpless that receives with equal facility the blank the as page faultless expression and the grossest vulgarism. By most imitation we good speakers and writers, might become
were

by

imitation

we only,

would

and
and

more

hear

easily than in any other way only the best of language.

do
not

if But

we

could

see

such

tunities oppor-

exist. such

Even
a

in the mixture

finest fields of literature of

may wheat careful A

as

be

found

the

tares

and

the the

will

require
to

the

discriminatinganalysis of
it clear that
two
we

student

separate them.
will make
to

little

thought
we

acquire
which

rect cor-

language
be called the
one

must

perform
rejection
"

processes,
must

may

and acception
our

learn

to imitate

language of
can

best
we

speakers and
must cast

writers; this any

from the

do

and

then
can

away

it its imperfectio

this

be

done

only by

thoughtful

294

GBAHMAB

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

student
in every

of

language,
there

and
is
an

after he

has

fully realized
in every
%entence

tliat
a

ward

idea^ and

thought*
676. Other Use its of Orammar.
"

But
a

it must
means

not

be understood

that

practicalutilityas

of

acquiring'

language

the greatest^ benefit to be anly^ or even derived from drill in grammatical study. As a mental evident thinking,it is unexcelled. Nothing is more logical than that carelessness in expression indicates carelessness in thought. Careless thinking can be avoided only by This can be done only caref ullyanalyzing thought itself. it is expressed. No by analyzing the language in which power

is the

superior to that of analysis, that and one is well can analyze the English sentence prepared to analyze anything else. "Briefly," says Leslie Stephen, "to teach a child to it for association with it, to prepare speak is to educate
others, to lay it open
it with
to
a

of the

human

mind

is

to all

manner

of influences, to

start

knowledge already elaborately organized, of thinking and uate teach it methods imagining, to insininto its mind philosophicaland religiousprinciples,
mass

of

and
must

to

inoculate be

it with

innumerable in the

associations, which

important

elements

development

of

its

character."
677.

Diagrams.
the

"

The

system
not

of claim

diagramming
as

used
It

in
was

this book

author

does

his

own.

originated by

Professor
the
most

W. credit

F.

L.

Sanders,

and

he

is

certainlyentitled to most ingenious, the

and
The

of

having originated the

most

attractive, the
methods
has made of in

complete,
Sanders's
its

yet the simplest of all the

diagramming.
Mr,

only change
is in the

the

author

system
It

arrangement
somewhat

of the

and infinitive

tive objec-

Bvhject.
has been
common

for

certain

class of

PREFACE

TO

THE

FIRST

THOUSAND.

295

educators
reasons a

to condemn

being, that
before
of his he
use

the

diagramming pupil must

do

their only altogether, how know to diagram

if he
can

sentence
no

can

it,and
The of

knows
see

how, there
how the foolish stration demon-

is

doing
he

it.

reader

such

talk is when
of

thinks

applying

it to

propositionsin geometry, to and algebra,and problems in arithmetic

attempt
the that when the
to exhibit to
a

the

solutions
to

of

indeed

every

the

eye

what

mind. mind

It

is is

well-known

by psychological principle
more

has been

conceived

more

deeply
any
two

and of

clearlyimpressed
senses

reached

reached

through through either

to

the

than
a

when

of them.

To

diagram
of its
to to

sentence

is to exhibit the
most

the

eye

the relations

parts.

This
a

is
a

for a teacher satisfactory way correct or understanding of a sentence is no misunderstandings of it. There do not make we use study in which there
used the any of is
no

give

class

correct

their of
and

other
of

branch

branch

of

study

in

which

diagrams, diagrams can

be

advantage than in English grammar ; and that teacher adopts and thoroughly understands of diagramming will find it a source good method
interest in
to

to better

and
any

enthusiasm
other way. "There

in

his

class

not

to

be

aroused

Here is
an

President
effort

Bascom

speaks
made
to

the

point,

present all the difficult

offered
to the

matter

diagrams, models, anything

the
most

experiments,
eye is

and

constantly of science through specimens ; since

more

thought of comprehensive description."

"

avail than

678.

Analysis.

This,

so

far the

as

the

author
ever

knows,

is the

only complete analysis of

was

sentence

originated by
must

President
as

Alfred
to

given, and it Holbrook. Every

as

element
as

be

described

structure,
and

to

use,

and

to

base; this makes

very

careful

accurate

ing think-

indispensable.

296

GRAMMAR

OF

THE

ENGLISH

SENTENCE.

679. will

Sjrntax.
approve

The
"

author
method is

feels of

confident

that contained his

teachers in this

of it the

the

syntax
to
use

book.
of

By

pupil

compelled
and also

knowledge
in

grammatical
them. 680. Selections.

principles

his

judgment

apply

ing

The
"

selections

used

have

been of the

taken
most

from

more

than works view the

to

hundred of

grammars, literature. Two such

and

many

prominent

objects
sentences
as

have will

been best

kept

in

firsts
greatest

to

collect

illustrate

possible
that is

variety
will be the

of

constructions
to

second^

make that he

selections while also he learn

attractive

the the its

pupil,
language
literature. If

so

learning
to

grammar the

of of

may

appreciate

beauty

this

book

shall

aid

some

of

those

it

may

reach
and

in shall

acquiring
create

careful,
an

thoughtful
interest for those

discrimination,

in which

them

higher
allied,
it

thought
will then

studies have

to

grammar its

is work.

so

closely

accomplished

JONATHAN

RIGDON.

Centrax

Normal

College,

August

6,

1890.

INDEX.
Abridgment,
Accasative
652-667.

(see Objective). Action, 48-60. 286-329. Adjective, 25, 26, 37 (c), Classes of, 288-309. Definitive,290, 295-298. Descriptive, 289, 291-294. and Resultant, Direct, Predicate
302-309.

Objective, 159-174, 254, 255, 268,269(2).

Possessing
Glasses
-

261-

155-158, 277-279.

Of Adjectives, 288-309. 446-465. 0/-4rfi;e7-6", Of Infinitivesand Participles,633535.

of, 320. Parsing of, 318, 319. Property of^ Comparison,

325-327. Review Remarks

Outline

310-317,

0/-yo?*7W, 117-123. Of Prepositions, 478. 186-250. Of Pronouns, 333-^8. 58-65, Of Verbs,

Clause

92-102,583-587.

of, 329.
07i, 299-301.

Classes

of, 93-101.
and

Restrictive
237.

Explanatory,

232-

Syntax of, 321-328. 440-474. Adverb, 27, 28, 37 (c), Classes of, 445, 465. Outline of, 469. Parsing of, 467, 468. Property of" Comparison, 466. Review of, 474. Syntax of, 470-473.
.

Comparison, 41, 42 (8),44 (6).

Of Adjectives, 310-317, 325-327. 0/^dt;cr6",466,467. Complements, 56, 63-65, 151, 269-272,
1363-666.

Agent,

48-50.

574-671. Analysis, 36 (cQ,36 (e), By diagram (see Diagram). Form of, 676-578. Sentences for, 666-670. Value of, 676. Written, 676, 632, 633, 636, 637, 640, Construction
643-651.

(c). Conjunction, 31, 32, 37 {d),498-621. Classes of, 603-513. Outline of, 616. Parsing of, 514, 515. Review of, 521. Syntax of, 517-520. Connectives, 37 (d), 240-242, 623-626.
44
"

Conjugation,

Nominative Nominative

Animal, 5. 156 (2), Apposition, 149 (3), 152, 154 (7), 160(5), 161, 172,273-276. Attribute, 14, 15, 51, 62, 54-^57. Capitals, 103. Case, 42 (4),125, 126, 145-181. Nominative, 146-149, 251,
274.

Absolute, 163, 164, Dependent, 147-162.

159.

Objective, 15^181. Possessive, 156, 156, 277-279.

Nominative

Declension, 44 (a). Of Nouns, 176. 198. Pronouns, Of Personal 269 (1), Of Interrogative Pronouns, 206. Of Relative Pronouns, 228. 269 Diagram, 577, 627-629, 631, 635, 636, Absolute, 153, 154,
639,642-660.
207

(3),280.

298

INDEX.

Btmanti,
Outline

001-022.

Language,

4-10, 12, 14.

of, 671.

Logic,
][an,4.

17 (a).

Stymolofy, 36 (6). Bzplaiiatory see (Glanse). XzplotlyM, 35, 37 (e). XzprMiicm, 10, 36 (a).
FaotitiYe

Mode, 42 (6). Xodiflcation, Houn,

38

(see Property).

(see Besaltaiit).
42 (3), 125, 126, 133-144, 282-

19, 20, 37 (a), 116-181. Classes, 117-123.

a""dtr,

Declension

284.

Granutiar, 36. "nd of, 36 (a). 527. Difficulty /Xtn"to?Mo/, 36(6). Q^ of Aer languages, 528. Grammatieal Form, 38 (see Property). Idea, 3, 15, Impreuion,
Inflnitiye
17. 11.

of, 175. Parsing of, 176-180. Properties of, 124-176. Case, 125, 126, 145-174.
Gender, Nomber, Person.
Review

126, 126, 133-144. 125, 126, 128-132.

125-127.

of, 181.

Number,

39, 42 (2), 125, 126, 128-132; 282-284, 421.

(see Infinitiye
and

and

ple). Partici-

Object, 1, 2, 14, 19, 48-60.

Direct, 162. Indirect, 166.

InflniUve
37 Are Are

Participle, 23(a),
526-^72.

(6),337, alike, 661.

0/ Of

an

ac", 48, 49.

a

urUike, 562.
548.

of, 533-^$35. Complement of, 647,

Claeeea Constructions

of, 549^554, 567.

Difficultdistinctions of^ Participles, 565^659.

Infinitives, 660.

thought^ idea expressed by the object of a verb. Of a transitive verb, 48, 49, 53, 6567, 62, 162, 261-264. Of an intransitive verb, 163. Of a preposition, 160 (2), 165, 265268.

Of
536.

the

verb
or

**

May May

express

what,

Resultant

teach,** l"T, Factitive, 169.

be

modijied
537.

by adverbial

ment, ele-

Objective,"
Adverbial, 168. By enallage, 174, 258. copula, ComplemerU of an infinitive
164.

Parsing of, 668-571. Participle becomes

A A

"

Noun,
Direct

555.

Adjective, 556. A Predicate Adjective, 557. A Resultant Adjective, 558. of finite Progressive form
559.

verb,

Properties of, 538-541. Review of, 572. 563, 564. Sign of ir^nitive, Subject of, 542-546. What part of speech, 629-572. Inflection, 43, 131-181. Of Verbs, 423-426.

Constnictiora, 160. Cognate, 164. In apposition, 160(5), 172. 160(3), 170. Subject of an infinitive, Without a governing word, 168. 36 (c). Orthography,
Outline
"

Interjection,33, 34,

37

(e),522^25.

Of Of Of Of Of Of

Substantives, 260. Adjectives, 320, Adverbs, Am. Conjunctions, 516. Prepositions, 4m, Verbs, 430.

INDEX.

299

Parsing, 46,
Of Of Of Of Of Of Of Of Of

47.

Prosody,

36(c).
104-^113.

Adjectives, 318, 319. Adverbs, 4ffl,468. Conjunctions 614, 615. Infinitives and Participles, 668f

Punctuation,
Relation Bestriotive Beview"

671.

Words, 37 (d). (see Clause).

Interrogative Pronouns, 216, 216. Nouns, 176-180. Prepositions, 483-486. Personal Pronouns, 199, 200. Relative nouns, or Conjunctive Pro247, 248.
427-429.

O/Fcrfta, Participle (see Infinitiye

Parts
of

and

ciple). Parti-

Speech, 18-47,115-^73. Person, 42 (1),125-127, 282-284, 421. Predicate, 17, 23(c).

Predicate Predicate

Of Of Of Of Of Of Of Of Of Of

Adjectives, 329. Adverbs, 474. Conjunctions, 621. Introduction, 114. Infinitivesand Participles, 672. Nouns, 181.
Pronouns,
Sentences
286. 497.

Prepositions,
and

Elements,

671.

Verbs,

432-439.

Besultant"

Adjective,
AUributes,

302-309.

64, 289-272.
Predicate

Adjective, 302-309. Object, 169. 61, 62, 64-67, of Syntax, 673. Bules

Noun, 161, 162, 269-272. Preposition, 29, 30, 37 (d), 476-497. Classes of, 478. List of, 482. Outline of, 486. Parsing of, 483-485. Beview of, 497. Syntax of, 487-496. Terms of, 479-481. Use of, 488-496. Phrase, 80-91. Pronoun, 21, 37(a), 182-285.
Classes

Sentence,
Classes
Parts

66-74.

of, 579-600.
of, 17.

Sex, 126, 13.'^144.

Subject, 17, 4"n50. Of an act agent, 48, 49. idea expressed by the Of a thought subject of a verb, 17. Of a finite verb, 48, 49, 261-263. Of an infinitive,170, 254, 265, 642"

==

645, 661, 662.

of, 186-260.

Of

participle, 154 (5),156 (3),256-

260. Personal, 186, 188, 192-201. Subjective, 614. Interrogative. 186, 189, 202-217. Relative or Conjunctive, 186, 190, Substantive, 19(6), 37 (a),116. 218-260. Classes of, 251 (d). Antecedent Outline of, 260. 221. of, 191, 220, Declension Substance, 14, 16. of, 198, 206, 228. Parsing of, 199, 200, 215,216,247,248. Synopsis, 44 (c). Properties of, 197. Syntax, 36 (6),36(d). Review of, 286. Of Adjectives, 321-329. Property, 38-46. Of Adverbs, 470-474. Of Adjectives= Comparison, 310-317, Of Conjunctions, 617-621. 326-327. Of Substantives, 251-286. Of Adverbs Comparison, 466. Of Interjections^524, 526. Of Infinitives and Participles, 638Of Prepositions, 487-497. 541. Of Verbs, 431-439. Of Pronouns, 197. Rules of, 573. 379-426. Of Verbs, Synthesis, 36 (d),36 (/).
"

300

INDEX.

Teiuie,40,

42(7).
3^ 13,
16.

Transitive

and

Intransitive,
338-341.

52,

53^

Thooglit,

58,

59,

63,

65,

Inflection Ytrb,
23,
150

of, of, of, of,

430.

423-426.

24,
330

37
ASH

(6),

4fr^,

S8-61,

60-

Outline

Parsing
160,
333-378. Review

427^29. 432-439.

Classes

Of,

57-65,
and
342-344.

Attributive 64,

Copulative,

60,

61,

Style Syntax

of,

422.

65,

of,

431.

Complete
Finite and

and

Incomplete,
150,

57,
334-337. 345-359. 360-378.

62.

Properties
Mode,
Person

of,
391-398. and 399-420. 42

379-426.

Infinite,
and and

Regular Principal

Irregular,
Auxiliary,

Number,

150,

421.

Tense,

Strong

and

Weak,

356

\d

and

e).

Voice,

(6),

387-590.