Types of Filters by colonel.

dr bahaa badr chemical consultant Screening will remove the larger suspended solids form water, and sedimentation following chemical coagulation will remove most of the residual suspended matter. However, there will usually remain some fine floc particles and other suspended matter. To remove them, to reduce still further the bacterial content of the water, and to ensure the production of a clear and attractive water, filters are used. Essentially a filter consists of a bed of granular material to remove suspended solid form the water, with devices to maintain a uniform rate of flow through the bed and with provisions for reversing the direction of flow of water periodically to wash accumulated solids from the filter medium. In municipal water-treatment practice, sand filters are employed almost e clusively, though some plants utili!e finely crushed anthracite coal instead of sand for the filter medium. There are two general types of sand filters in use for water purification. They are classified as slow sand filters and rapid sand filters. They differ primarily in the rate at which they operate, but there are also essential differences in theory and in operation. The rapid sand filters are further classified as gravity filters and pressure filters. In rapid sand filtration, the water is passed downward through the sand at a relatively high velocity, usually at a rate of " to # gpm per s$uare foot of filter area, and the rate is carefully controlled. %fter passing through the sand bed and a supporting layer of gravel, the water is collected by an underdrainage system and discharged into a clear well from which it is drawn for consumption. &retreatment by coagulation and sedimentation is essential in order to remove as much as possible of the suspended matter, thus lessening the load on the sand bed. 'ecause of the high rate, the sand bed tends to clog rather $uic(ly and must be washed fre$uently. This accomplished by reversing the flow of the water through the gravel layer and the sand bed. )lear water for washing is stored in and elevated tan( or supplied by a special pump. The main elements of a gravity-type rapid sand filter are shown in the figure below* The water from the sedimentation basin enters the pipe gallery through a main and its distributed to the filters units through valved pipelines. The water in each filter unit is maintained at a depth of + to , feet over the sand by means of controls, the total depth from water surface to underdrains being - to ./ feet. The rate of passage of the water through the sand is controlled to ensure a uniform rate of

filtration. 0hen the sand becomes dirty, as indicated by an e cessive loss of head for the water passing through it, the feed to the filter is cut off, the bed is drained down, and wash water is forced upward through the gravel and sand. The dirty water resulting from washing overflows into wash-water troughs and is discharged through drains into a sewer for disposal. %fter the sand is washed, the filter is again placed in operation, but the water first filtered is wasted because wash water must be removed from the interstices of the filter and a surface mat must be allowed to form again on the sand. This mat is composed mainly of floc particles, not all of which settle in the sedimentation basin. It is effective in removing very fine particles as well as bacteria during the filtration process. Filters are usually rectangular in shape and are built of concrete but in smaller plants circular units, built either of steel or of concrete, are used. &ressure filters have the same general characteristics as rapid sand of the gravity type filters and operate in the same way. The filter media and the underdrains are contained in a steel tan(, and the water is pumped through the filter. &reliminary treatment is essential if the water is turbid or contain appreciable amounts of suspended matter. % variation of the pressure filter employing sand is the diatomite filter, which utili!es diatomaceous earth as a filtering medium. In a slow sand filter the water is passed through the sand layer at a low velocity, normally at the rate of /./, to /.., gpm per s$uare foot. &retreatment is often advantageous but is not essential unless the water is turbid* slow sand filters will not satisfactorily handle waters with turbidities above , mg1l. )leaning is re$uired only at long interval of time if the water is relatively clear. It is accomplished by removing a thin surface layer of the sand. 2%TES 3F 3&E2%TI34 The standard rate of operation of rapid sand filter is .", mgd per acre of filter area or " gpm per s$uare foot. 0ithin the past few years there has been a decided trend toward increasing this rate. Filters in a number of plants are being operated at # gpm and a few at + gpm, per s$uare foot. In many recently designed filters piping and controls have been installed to permit future operation at the + gpm rate, even though the initial rate will be " gpm. &ressure filters operate within the same rate ranges as do gravity-type rapid sand filters when used for community water treatment. 'ecause pretreatment may be less effective for pressure filters than for standard-type filters, rates should be (ept comparatively low. 5ifficulty in pretreatment arises from the fact that plants with pressure filter are usually small and lac( s(illed operation, and also because facilities for ade$uate coagulation and settling are not always provided.

3perating rates for slow sand filters may range from # to 6 mgd per acre, but usually are between , and 7 mgd. The character of the applied water, especially its suspended-matter content, is usually the governing factor. 0hen the filter medium is diatomaceous earth, the container is a steel tan( and support for the layer of earth is provided by a porous septum of tube. In starting a filter cycle, the diatomaceous earth is added to the incoming water until a layer of the desired thic(ness is deposited over the septum. The feed of earth is then discontinued, and filtering starts. 0hen the filter needs cleaning, the flow of water is reversed and the sued coating of diatomaceous earth is wasted. %nother coat is then applied, and filtration is again started. 3peration may be at rates as high as ., gpm per s$uare foot of surface, but normally it is between " and # gpm. The length of run depends on the suspended matter content of the applied water. In some cased the feeding of diatomaceous earth is continued at a lower rate during the filtering process. 8nder some conditions longer runs between washings are obtained with a lesser amount of filter medium by this means. THE S%45 'E5 In a rapid sand filter the depth of the sand bed is usually at least "+ inches and may be more. In a slow sand filter, the depth is generally about #7 inches, but occasionally is as little as "+ inches. Sand for filers must be free from clay, loam, organic matter, and lime particles. %lso the sand particles must be fairly uniform and of proper si!e. Fine sand tends to clog $uic(ly and re$uires fre$uent washing. 9ery coarse sand permit the passage of some suspended solids and perhaps also more bacteria. )rushed anthracite coal, when used, conforms generally to applicable specifications for sand. Filter sand is classified in regard to its si!e and uniformity by means of two properties called the effective si!e and the uniformity coefficient. The re$uirements in regard to these properties apply also to anthracite media. EFFE)TI9E SI:E 3F S%45 %s a basis for comparing different sands, the effective si!e is ta(en as the si!e of the grain that is larger than ./ percent by weight of all the particles comprising the sand. It is assumed that sand composed entirely of grains of this effective si!e would offer the same frictional resistance to the flow of water as will the actual sand. The effective si!e is determined by passing standard sieves arranged in order, the one having the largest mesh being used first. The material retained on each sieve is weighed separately, and the total weight larger than each si!e is also determined. These total weights area e pressed as percentages of the weight of the entire sample.

The re$uired effective si!e is determined by inspection of the results or by first plotting a graph with the si!es of sieves as abscissas and the percentages as ordinates and then determining the abscissa that corresponds to an ordinate representing ./ percent. Sand for rapid sand filters should have an effective si!e of /.#, to /.,, mm* for slow sand filters the effective si!e is usually /."/ to /.+ mm. In rapid sand filters, there is a tendency to sue coarser sand and to utili!e chlorination for final removal of the bacteria. )oarser sands permit longer filter runs and can be washed more efficiently. 84IF32;IT< 3F S%45 The effective si!e of the sand merely indicates the minimum si!e of 6/ percent by weight of the sand. It gives no information about the degree of variation in the si!es of the particles or about the si!es of the largest and smallest grains. )onsiderable variation in individual grain si!e will affect the efficiency of the filter and therefore undesirable. The degree of variation is e pressed by the uniformity coefficient. This value is obtained by finding the si!e of that particle which is coarser than 7/ percent by weight of the sand and then dividing that si!e by the effective si!e of the sand. Thus, if a sand has an effective si!e of /.+ mm. and 7/ percent of the sand passed a /.,6 mm. screen, the uniformity coefficient is= /.,6 1 /.+/ > .., For rapid sand filters a uniformity coefficient of .., to "./ is preferred* for slow sand filters ..7 to "., or #./ is satisfactory. THE ?2%9E@ @%<E2 The gravel layer in a filter has practically no part in the purification of water. Its principal function is to support the sand layer and, in a rapid sand filter, to distribute the wash water. The gravel layer is usually ." to "+ inches deep in a rapid sand filter, and perhaps is slightly less in a slow sand filter. The particles should be well graded and place in courses of about # inches thic(. The coarsest particles, which are " to # inches in si!e should be at the bottom. The top layer, which is directly beneath the sand, may be /../ inches in si!e. 5istribution of the wash water is the critical function of the gravel layer, and careful grading of material and e$ually careful placement are important. %22%4?E;E4T 3F 84ITS The primary function of a water-treatment plant is to produce a safe, palatable, and

attractive water and everything in design should consider this function. The general features of design that should be followed are based on e perience. In some plants the layout consist of a pipe gallery with filters on one side and mi ing basins and sedimentation basins on the other side. In many installations the filter units are located on both sides of the pipe gallery. @ocal conditions, including topography, si!e of plant, and climate are influencing factors. %n operating floor in a building forms the roof of the pipe gallery and is elevated slightly above the tops of the filters. &umps are usually grouped at one end of the building. )ontrols must be located on the operating floor. &rovision must be made for chemical storage and for feeding e$uipment. % tan( for wash water should be located nearby, or pumps of sufficient capacity must be provided. %n office and a laboratory are essential. % clear well should be provided to store the filter water. It should be large enough to supply the needs of the community for from # to "+ hours. Its capacity depends on whether the filters are to be operated 7, .7, or "+ hours per day and on how much distribution storage is to be provided. The clear well may be under the filters or elsewhere if another location is more convenient. &rovision should be made in the design for additional filters and sedimentation basins at some future time. Filters and sedimentation basins are sometimes covered with a roof, but often are open. In a cold location, a cover will usually be desirable to prevent ice formations and in a warm location algae growth should be prevented by a cover. 5ESI?4 3F FI@TE2 84ITS The si!e of a filter unit is determined by the re$uired capacity of the plant, the number of units Audge necessary for fle ible operation, and the number of hours per day that the plant will operated. The latter factor is and economic one that balances the cost of storage against the e tra e pense of building a larger plant and of operation for .7 to "+ hours instead of - hours. Fre$uently, the capacity of the clear well, which is the plant storage, does not e ceed onethird to one-half the daily capacity of the plant. Therefore, distribution storage is needed to provide water for periods when the plant does not operate. @arge plants are normally operated "+ hours per day* small plants, - to ." hours. In larger plants, each filter unit has a capacity of . to # mgd* dimensions of a .-mgd unit are normally .- by "/ ft. 8nits in small plants vary in si!e from 6 to ./ ft to ./ to .- ft. % 6 by ./ ft unit will filter ",/,/// gallons in "+ hours or about -#,/// gallons in - hours. %n e$uation, which may be used as a guide for the number of filter units, has been developed by ;orrell and 0allace.

4 > ".B C D EFG where 4 > number of filter units D > plant capacity, in million gallons per day. There should be at least two filter units in any plant. In a plant whose capacity is greater than " mgd, no simple unit should have a capacity e ceeding one-fourth of that of the plant. E tremely large filter units may create problems in the design of the underdrainage system, because uniform distribution of wash water may then be difficult. In designing a filter, consideration should be given to several factors. To prevent possible contamination of filtered water by raw water, there should be no place in the plant where raw water and finished water area separated only by only a single wall. In the influent pipe or channel carrying flocculated water, the velocity should be more than . to " fps, to prevent eddies and currents and possible comminution of the floc. If the wash-water discharged from the filter flows to a sewer, an air gap should be provide to prevent contamination of the water in case the sewer should bac( up because of clogging or storm-flow condition with flooding. 5E&TH 3F FI@TE2 The depth of a filter is the sum of the following= The height of the underdrainage system* The total depth of the layer of gravel and sand* The depth of water over the sand* and The freeboard, or clear distance above the water level. 0ith a freeboard of . ft, a water depth of , ft, a combined sand and gravel depth of #., ft, and an allowance of . ft for underdrains, the filter shell will be ./., ft. deep. 845E252%I4%?E S<STE;S The system of underdrains in a filter unit must collect the filtered water. It must also be capable of passing the wash water at a rate of ., gpm per s$uare foot or more, depending on the design, while applying it evenly over the under portion of the gravel or sand bed. 9arious types of construction are used for underdrainage systems=

% grid of pipes into which strainers are tapped* 9itrified clay bloc(s with perforations at intervals* &orous silica plates mounted on supports, a gravel layer not being re$uired* and 3penings in the floor shaped li(e inverted truncated pyramids and space ." inches apart filled with concrete or earthenware balls of various si!es, the largest at the bottom. 'ecause the rate of application of the wash water is so much higher than the rate of filtering, underdrain design is governed primarily by the necessity for even distribution of wash water. Such even distribution may be obtained by (eeping head losses in the orifices high or by using a double bottom of porous plates or clay bloc(s. For satisfactory distribution of the wash water when using the pipe-grid system, the pressure at the strainers or orifices should be about ., psi and the velocity of flow should be not greater than - to ./ fps. @aterals must be spaced 7 to ." inches on centers but ma imum length of a lateral should not e ceed 7/ times the diameter in order to have uniform pressure and distribution throughout the length. The total area of orifices in the strainers or laterals should be /." to /.# percent of the surface area of the filter. The orifices in perforated pipe underdrains are usually /.", to /., inches in diameter, and spacings may vary from # inches for /.", in. openings to - inches for /., in. openings. The cross-sectional area of the laterals should range from twice the total orifice area for /.", in. orifices to + times the orifice area for /., in. orifices. The header feeding the underdrainage system should provide the re$uired amount of wash water at a velocity of 7 to - fpc. % basis for design is to provide a cross-sectional area in the header .., times the total area of openings in the strainers or in the orifices. )@E%2-0E@@ )%&%)IT< The desirable capacity of the clear well of a filter depends on factors both within and without the plant. The principal factors within the plant are the number of filter units and the number of hours that the plant is operated daily. 0ith "+-hr operation of a plant that contains several filter units, less clear-well capacity is re$uired. 4ormal repairs and maintenance will not materially affect production. However, the provision of storage capacity in the distribution system is the principal factor affecting clear-well si!e. If this distribution storage is ample to care for pea( loads, fires, brief plant shutdowns, and other such conditions, less clear-well capacity is indicated. 0here there is amle distribution

storage, the clear well should have sufficient capacity to meet the normal demand for at least # to 7 hours. )onsideration should be given to the relative costs of providing storage in the clear well and in the distribution system. @3SS 3F HE%5 %s water is passed through a filter, suspended material is deposited on top of the bed and in the upper layers of the sand. This material increases the resistance to the flow of water through the sand. 0hen a filter unit is first put into service, the loss of head is comparatively small, whereas, after an operating period of "/ to #/ hours it may be $uite large. 0hen the losss becomes too great, the filter is washed. In operation, loss of head is indicated by gages which measure the difference between the surface of the water over the filter and the pie!ometric pressure on the filter outlet. 0hen a filter is operated under a suction, the pie!ometric level of the water leaving the filter is lower than that of the bottom of the sand layer, and it is said that the head is negative. %lthough this condition permits operation of the filter with a relatively high loss of head, it also tends to release gases dissolved in the eater and may cause air binding in the filter. 3peration under negative head is considered undesirable. The loss of head caused by the passage of the water through the sand can be computed appro imately, but water temperatures, sand characteristics, and many other factors introduce uncertainties in the results. In a clean filter, the initial loss of head ranges from .., to "., feet under normal operating conditions. The loss of head increases as the filter is continued in operation. It is desirable to be able to operate a filter with head losses up to -., feet. To do so, careful design will usually be needed. To the loss of head through the filter itself must be added that in the underdrainage system and the flumes or pipe carrying the water to the clear well. The water level in the clear well, when filled, should be ." to .# feet below the surface of the water over the filters. &rovision of this amount of head, which is especially necessary when higher rates of filtration are sued, introduces problems in design. If and allowance of # feet is made for losses through the mi ing and settling units and .# feet for losses through the filter and the following piping, the clear-well, when full, will be .7 feet below the inta(e level. % clear-well depth of .+ feet then re$uires an over-all head through the plant of #/ feet, and it is often difficult to obtain this head without e cessive cost. 0%SHI4? THE FI@TE2 % filter unit is washed when the filtering medium has become so dirty that the ma imum

gravity head is re$uired to force the water through the bed. %lso, in plants operated only part of the day, the filters are sometimes washed at the end of each operating period. However, this practice is wasteful of wash water, which is filtered water. For instance, washing when dictated by loss of head re$uirements may use perhaps + percent of the water that is filtered, whereas washing at the end of each - hour operating period re$uires ./ to ." percent of the water filtered. The purpose of washing is to remove from the filter bed all suspended matter that has collected on and in the sand. 0ashing is accomplished by reversing the flow of water through the filter, but using a much higher rate. In most plants an upward rate of flow of "+ inches per minute is used* in a few plants, higher rates are employed occasionally up to 7/ inches per minute. % "+-in rate is attained by applying the wash water at the rate of ., gpm per s$uare foot filter area. The filtered water used for washing may be supplied from an elevated tan( or by a pump drawing from the clear well or other source. %t least .,/ gallons and preferably more, should be available per s$uare foot of filter area to be washed. The e pansion of the sand or anthracite bed re$uired to suspend the entire layer depends on the grain si!e and the specific gravity of the material. The specific gravity of sand is about ".7, and that of anthracite is about ..,. % greater rate of rise is needed for the sand than for the anthracite. In any case, if the variation in si!e between top and bottom grains is considerable, the top of the sand must be lifted materially before the bottom grains are suspended. %n e pansion of about ,/ percent represent good practice in washing. The rate of wash necessary to accomplish this varies with the viscosity of the water, which is a function of the temperature. 5epending on the sand si!e, the re$uired wash-water rise for e$ual e pansion of the bed will be from .., to ..7 times as great at B/ F as to #" F. From , to ./ minutes may be re$uired for washing. %fter a unit has been washed, it is again operated normally, but the water from it is allowed to run to waste for # to , minutes. 0%SH-0%TE2 T238?HS 0ash-water troughs serve to collect and carry to a main gutter the dirty water resulting from washing the filter. Troughs may be s$uare, 9-shaped, 8-shaped, or semicircular. They should be set at such elevation that the overflow lip will be at, or somewhat above, the top sand rise* otherwise, sand may be washed out of the filter. % desirable height of the bottom of the trough above the top of the sand during operation Cnot during washingE is appro imately one-half the depth of the sand. Thus for a sand-bed depth of "- inches the bottoms of the troughs should be clear the sand by about .+ inches. Flat-bottom troughs with clearance above the sand less than about one-half the depth of

the sand bed cause eddies during washing, and sand boils and other operating problems may result. Troughs are spaced , to 7 feet apart. This spacing limits hori!ontal water travel to "., to #., feet, and the water surface during washing is therefore maintained as nearly as possible at a uniform level. The re$uired si!e of wash-water troughs can be computed only appro imately. 'ecause of the overflow over both lips for the entire length of the trough, the surface of flow in the trough is not level and flow is not normal. Si!es have been standardi!ed by manufacturers to correspond to the si!e of the filter and the rate of washing. The ;iller or Ellms formula, as stated by the &ermutit )ompany, can be used for computing the re$uired width of the trough. 0hen a level bottom is used, the formula is= D > ..B" b y #1" 0here, D > total water received by the trough, in gallons per minute* b > width of the trough, in inches* y > depth of water at the upper end of the trough, in inches. S82F%)E-0%SHI4? ED8I&;E4T The upper layer of the sand bed of a filter naturally intercept most of the suspended material in the water. %lso, through repeated washings, the finer sand tends to stratify at the top and it is difficult to wash this finer sand with water alone by conventional methods. Surface-wash e$uipment increases the ability of the operator to clean this upper layer and tends to prevent the formation of mudballs and dead or clogged areas. 3ne type of surface-wash e$uipment, which is mounted Aust above the sand surface, delivers Aets of water to brea( up the filter surface and scour the san particles. In most cases, these Aets operate under pressure heads of +/ to 7/ feet, but higher pressures are sometimes employed. 5esign should provide for the delivery of + to - gpm per s$uare foot of filter surface. ED8I&;E4T F32 )34T23@@I4? FI@T2%TI34 For each filter unit, the flow of the influent, the effluent, the wash-water supply, and the wash-water waste must be controlled by valves. 'ecause these valves are operated fre$uently, they should be durable, heavy-duty types. Hydraulic operation is generally preferred, but electric motors are sometimes used. To ensure a uniform rate of filtration, irrespective of the head loss through the filter, rate controllers are necessary. These rate controllers are usually of the venturi type. Similar controllers should be placed on the wash-water supply lines. Indicating and recording gages should also be provided for

each filter unit, to show the rate of flow and the loss of head at all time, and they should be so located that they can be easily seen and read. %&&@I)%TI34 %45 3&E2%TI34 3F 2%&I5 S%45 FI@TE2S 0ith proper pretreatment of the water, rapid sand filters are applicable for treatment of any surface supply. Such filters are effective even for highly polluted waters. Howerver, when the monthly average ;&4 Cmost probable numberE of coliform organisms in .// ml of the raw water e ceeds about ,///, additional pretreatment such as presedimentation or prechlorination is necessary. Even relatively large variations in bacterial pollutional loads can be handled in a welldesigned and well-operated plant. 2apid sand filters are also effective in the removal of turbidity, if preparation of the water for filtration has been ade$uate and they are effective for algae removal. 8nless special treatment such as activated carbon or pre-chlorination is provided, such filter will not ordinarily remove tastes and odors. In lime-soda softening plants, rapid sand filters may be used after coagulation and sedimentation. However, some structural and operating modifications are necessary. '%)TE2I% EFFI)IE4)< The percentage of removal of bacteria in a well-operated filtration plant preceded by flocculation and sedimentation is dependent on several factors, the most important of which is the concentration of organisms in the raw water. 0hen the treatment Aust described is followed by chlorination, it will be ade$uate for average ;&4 coliform counts not grater than ,,/// for .// ml C provided that not more than , percent of the samples tested contain this manyE. For ;&4 counts from ,,/// to "/,/// per ml Cprovided that not more than , percent of the samples show over "/,///E au iliary treatment such as prechlorination, pre-settling, and post-chlorination is re$uired. For ;&4 counts e ceeding "/,/// per .// ml, prolonged storage and other aids will be necessary. In lower ranges of bacterial loadings, removal by rapid sand filters is high, from 6/ to 66 percent of the average number of bacteria in the applied water are removed. However, monthly averages may conceal poorer results obtained when there are occasional applications of water with a high ;&4 count. In all cases, filtration should be followed by chlorination. &2ESS82E FI@TE2S &ressure filters are rapid sand filters contained in an airtight cell. 'ecause the container is tight, this filter may be placed on a pressure line. Hence, the only loss of head is that re$uired to force the water though the filter. 2epumping is not re$uired, as is the case with gravity filters.

&ressure filters are used principally for swimming pools and for small installation for public water supply. The principal obAection to their use for public water supplies is the difficulty in providing ade$uate space for coagulation and sedimentation. It is, therefore, impractical to use a pressure filter where turbid water is to be treated. However, where the water is regularly clear and chlorination is provided after filtration, a pressure filter may be used. 2ates of operation for pressure filters depend on the $uality of water being filtered. 0hen a pressure filter is used for a public water supply, the rate should not e ceed .., to " gpm per s$uare foot of filter surface. To calculate how much water will be filtered during - hours, operating a pressure filter at the rate of .., gpm per s$uare foot and a diameter of ." feet. The surface area of the circular filter is= ." H ." H /.B-,+, or ..# s$uare feet. %t the rate .., gpm1ft", the water filtered will be= ..# H .., H 7/ H - > -.,+// gallons S@30 S%45 FI@TE2S Slow sand filters do not normally utili!e coagulation to prepare the water for filtration. 8sually they are employed only for relatively clear waters and have a low bacterial count of that have been clarified by storage or sedimentation. 8nder such conditions, good results are obtained with operation at rates of + to B mgd per acre. 'acterial removals are of the order of 6- percent. Slow sand filters are efficient in removing tastes and odors. % slow sand filter has and additional advantage, it is simple to operate. The filter consists of a basin with a collecting system for the filtered water at the bottom of it. The water collectors are covered with a ."-inch layer of graded gravel. The drains are stopped about .- inches form the wall, and this space is filled with sand. The thic(ness of the sand bed above the gravel is .- to #7 inches. The effective si!e of the sand is /."/ to /.+/, and the uniformity coefficient is ..7 to #./ ?enerally, two to four units should be provided for even the smallest installation. To prevent algal growths in the summer and ice formation in the winter, cover should be provided. It is desirable to maintain the level of the water on the filter within relatively narrow limits, the depth of water being between # and , feet. 9alves that are automatically controlled are provided at the inlet and outlet. %lso a meter to measure the flow and a gage to measure loss of head are usually installed. 0hen the loss of head reaches about + feet, cleaning is accomplished by removing sand from the tops of the layer to a depth of /., to . inch. )leaning is repeated as often as necessary until the sand depth is reduced to ., to .-

inches, then more sand is added.