CHAPTER 8 : DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

8.1 - THE ABIOTIC & BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

ECOSYSTEM : A system formed by the interaction of living organisms with one another & with

their environment.

Eg. : forest, grassland, pond, field, river, lake & sea

Consist of 2 components : ____________________(non-living components) &

______________________ components (living components).

Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem

Physical factors such as _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(physical @ chemical composition of the soil).
All these factors affect the lives & distribution of organisms.
The pH value of the soil & water affects the distribution of organism.

Most organisms live in a neutral @ nearly neutral environment (pH6.0-7.5).

Maize, pineapple, grows well in acidic condition, coconuts grow well in an alkaline condition.

Temperature affects the biochemical reactions in the organism

Poikilotherms _________________________________, their body temperature varies with

the environmental temperature.

Homoiotherms __________________________________ more widespread.

Plants & animals have specific characteristics to help them adapt to areas of extreme
temperature.

Light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis.

The distribution of green plants will be more extensive in areas with

______________________.

All organisms that live in the soil prefer a ___________ environment.

Humidity of air affects the ______________________ (plants) & the ______________________

(animals).

Some organisms can control (have an extensive distribution), some cannot control such as frog,
snails, earthworms & moss are more suited to live in damp places.

Topography shape of the earths surface.

Altitude high, ___________________ temperature, atmospheric pressure & air humidity

are low. Different plants are found at different altitudes.

Gradient/slope affect the rate of water flow. In steep areas, the swift flow of water causes soil
erosion. Flat areas, the water is stagnant both not suitable for plants & animals.

Aspect the direct facing or opposing the wind & sunlight. Areas facing not suitable, less
organisms.

Microclimate the climate in a small habitat (climate in soil, climate below tree trunk).

Has specific ___________________________________________ .

Biotic Components of an Ecosystem

The living organisms in the ecosystem.
3 groups ______________________________________________ .
Producers green plants, can carry out photosynthesis to produce food.
Consumers feed on plants @ other organisms (1o - herbivores, 2o - carnivores, 3o
carnivores/omnivores).
Decomposers bacteria & fungi that break down dead plants & dead animals into simple
substances.
A feeding relationship between the biotic components food chain obtain energy
Each level of food chain ____________________ .
Grass

(producer)
1st trophic level

grasshopper
(1o)
2nd trophic level

frog

snake

(2o)

(3o)

3rd trophic level

4th trophic level

Several food chain interact to form a network food web energy transferred from 1 trophic to
another trophic level.
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to another trophic level as much as 90% of the
chemical energy in the food consumed is used for its metabolic activities and lost as heat,
excretory products and undigested matter.
Only 10% of the energy in an organism is passed on to the organism at the next trophic level.
The numbers of organisms in each level in a food chain can be represented by a pyramids of
numbers.
The 1st trophic level (producer) at the base of the pyramid.

Interaction between Biotic Components in Relation to Feeding

Symbiosis

An interaction between two organisms of ______________________ that live together.

Three types :
1. __________________ (commensal receive benefits, host neither received benefit nor harmed).
2. ________________ (parasite receive benefits, host is harmed).
3. _________________ (both side receive benefits).

Commensalism

An interaction between two different organisms where only one organism benefits from the
relationship. The other organisms neither __________________________________ .

Commensal ___________

Epiphytes green plants which grow on other plants to _________________________________

Example : pigeon orchid, staghorn fern, birds nest fern, money plant.

Epizoites animals that live on the ______________________________________

Benefit for commensal transport, protection, leftover food from the mouth of the host.

Examples : remora fish shark, protozoa Cyclops sp. (water flea), barnacles shells of crabs /
snails

Parasitism

An interaction between two different organisms where one organism (parasite) benefits & the
other organism (host) is harmed.

2 types : ectoparasite ________________________________

endoparasites __________________________________

Ectoparasites depend on their host for food, protection & transportation.

Examples : flea, lice that feed on the blood of the host. Barnacles & aphids (ectoparasites on
plants), suck cell sap from plants.

Endoparasites are the various types of worms that live in the alimentary canals of their host &
absorb nutrients from the intestines such as tapeworm.

Parasitic plant Rafflesia sp.

Mutualism

The interaction between two organism in which both organisms benefit.

Examples :

algae (obtain water, minerals & protection) & fungi (obtain food) in lichen (both plants).

Hermit crabs (obtain protection from its predator) & sea anemones (obtain transport &
leftover food) (both animals).

Rhizobium bacteria (fix nitrogen in the atmosphere nitrate) & legume plants (provides
food & protection) (one animal & one plant)

__________________________ in the alimentary canal of herbivores.

Saprophytism

An interaction whereby an organism lives & feeds on __________________________ .

Two types :

Saprophytes : plant (types of fungi mushroom, bread mould, bracket fungus).

Saprozoits : microscopic animals (Paramecium sp. & Amoeba sp.).

Prey-Predator Interaction

An interaction between two population of organisms in which 1 organism (predator), hunts,

captures & kills the other organisms (prey), for food.

Size of prey is usually ______________ than the predator, but the number of prey is always
____________ than the predator.

Interaction Between Biotic Components in Relation to Competition

The interaction between 2 organism @ 2 population to obtain the common basic needs of life that
are limited (space, water, minerals, sunlight, food & mates).

Two types : intraspecific & interspecific competition

Intraspecific competition : ________________________

Maize plants, seedlings, Paramecium Aurelia.

Interspecific competition : ________________________

Stronger species will survive.

Maize & paddy plants, Paramecium aurelia & Paramecium caudatum.

8.2 : THE PROCESSES OF COLONISATION & SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem, Community & Population

Ecosystem : natural system formed by the interaction of plants & animals between one another &
also with their environment.

Interaction between ____________________________ components balanced ecosystem

balanced environment.

One of components is disturbed whole ecosystem upset not in balance.

Ecosystem = niche + habitat + population + community

Niche : the status / role of an organism in its environment.

Each species has its own niche in an ecosystem.
The types of food it consumes & the activity it carries out.
Examples : aphids, grass, ringed plover (kedidi gelang) - picked food from the surface of the
shore, curlew probe deep into the mud (long, curve beak).

Habitat : the natural place in which an organism lives.

A Population : a group of organisms from the ________________ living in certain area.

A community : the plants & animals that live in a certain habitat.

Process of Colonisation & Succession

The process of colonisation : plants start to inhabit an uninhabited place & form a colony in the
place.

Pioneer species 1st plant species to inhabit a new place.

Has special adaptive characteristics to adapt to the new environment.

Change the new habitat gradually to make the habitat more suitable for another
species New habitat not suitable for the pioneer species replaced by another
species succession begins.

The process of succession : a certain dominant plant species in a habitat is gradually replaced
by another plant species (successor species).

Proceed stage by stage until a stable & matured community ____________________ (Eg. :
tropical rain forest in Malaysia).

Process of Colonisation & Succession in a Pond

In an unused mining pond.

The plants involved :

Submerged water plants (pioneer)

Floating water plants

Amphibious plants

Land plants

Colonisation by pioneer species

Unused & abandoned mining pond is ________________ & not suitable for any

organism to live.
Pioneer species : phytoplankton (microscopic algae), submerged water plants (Hydrilla

sp., Elodea sp., Utricularia sp., Cabomba sp.).

These pioneer organisms carry out photosynthesis to provide food for other organisms.

Pioneer die & ________________ organic substance produced will be deposited at

the bottom of the pond.
The banks of the pond are eroded & the soil settles the bottom of the pond

___________________, not suitable for the submerged water plants, phytoplankton.

Succession by floating water plants

the successor replace the pioneer species 1st succession occurs.

Duckweed (Lemna sp. kiambang), water lettuce (Pistia sp.), water hyacinth
(Eichornia sp. keladi bunting) & lotus (Nelembium sp.) grow rapidly cover the
surface _________________________ from penetrating into the pond.

Succession by land plants

2nd successors are replaced by land plants shrubs & woody plants.

The process of succession continues to occur until a ____________________ is

formed (tropical rain forest) take long time to complete.

Colonisation & Succession in a Mangrove Swamp

Mangrove swamp can be found at river mouth that are sheltered from strong wave.

The mangrove swamp environmental condition (unsuitable for habitation) :

___________________________

Waterlogged soil which lacks of _______________

Seawater with high ______________ (high salt content)

Strong ________________& extreme heat.

3 types of mangrove trees are involved in the process of colonisation & succession :

Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp. (pioneer)

Rhizophora sp. (successor)

Bruguiera sp. (successor)

Mangrove trees adaptive characteristics to overcome the problems it faces in the environment :

A root system that spread out widely provide support in soft muddy soil

Pneumatophores _____________________, protrude out of the soil enables

gaseous exchange (waterlogged soil lack of oxygen).

The roots of mangrove trees can withstand the highly saline seawater by having the
___________________________ of the cell sap than the surrounding water
osmosis occurs [hydathode in the epidermis of leaves secrete excess salts from the
plants to control the osmotic pressure].

Leaves : have thick cuticle & sunken stomata to reduce ________________, thick
& succulent to store water.

Have viviparity seeds begin to ________________ while still attached to the

parent tree. the seeds will get sufficient ______________ from the atmosphere
during germination & will not suffocated for lack of air in a waterlogged environment.
Also prevent dehydration of seed.

Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp. Zone

The adaptations of pioneer :

A root system that _________________________

Have asparagus-shaped _____________________ very spongy & take air for

respiration of the root system

The widely spread roots trap mud accumulate the bank slowly raised,
__________________.

More suitable for Rhizophora sp. As the successor.

Rhizophora sp. Zone

Higher & less waterlogged.

The adaptations :

Has ________________ to support & anchor the tree in the soft muddy soil.

Has ___________________ to ensure the seedlings can grow, not carries away by
the seawater.

The prop roots are able to ________________. The pioneer species & the Rhizophora sp. die &
decay, adding _____________ to the soil.

The banks are raised up even higher more solid/ compact, fertile & less saline.

Not suitable for Rhizophora sp. replaced by the Bruguiera sp.

Bruguiera sp. Zone

Grow well in ________________________

Have buttress roots for support & knee-shaped pneumatophores for __________________

More sedimentation of decayed substances new bank are being build up seawards, old banks
move further inland, away from the sea soil becomes harder, dry land is formed

Bruguiera sp. are replaced by other types of plants (coconut trees, Pandanus sp.) climax
community (a few hundred years).

8.3 : POPULATION ECOLOGY

Sampling Techniques

Is used to study the population size of an organism.

Collecting, counting, & making observations on the organism studied.

Done at random & systematically.

To estimate the population size of an organism in a habitat

_______________________________________________________________________

To determine the distribution of plants in a habitat

__________________________________

Capture-Mark-Release & Recapture

To estimate the population size of animals in a community.

1st sample : # of a certain animals that is caught mark released.

A few days, 2nd sample is taken & recorded the number of individuals marked in the recaptured
sample is counted & recorded.

Population size = # of 1st sample x # of 2nd sample

# of marked in the 2nd sample

A few assumption to be made for this technique :

The organisms that are marked can freely mix with the unmarked organisms

The organisms are caught randomly

The marker not be poisonous / affect the activity of the animal & not easily removed

The death rate & birth rate are the same

The rate of animal migration is equal to the rate of emigration

Quadrat Sampling Technique

To investigate the distribution of plants.

Uses quadrat of specific size.

A quadrat : a square frame made of wood, string or metal.

The area covered by the quadrat is the sample to be studied.

The size of the quadrat used depends on the size & type of organism to be studied.

10 cm x 10 cm : to determine the distribution of Pleurococcus sp. on the stem of a tree.

1 m x 1m : to determine the distribution of plants grass.

Many samples, at least 10 quadrats, have to set up to get an accurate result.

The distribution of plants in a habitat being investigated is based on :

Density : the # of individual plant species per unit area in the habitat

Density of the species =

Total # of individual species in all quadrats
Total # of quadrats x area of the quadrat

Frequency : the plant species that appears most frequently

% frequency of the species =

# of quadrats that have the species x 100%
Total # of quadrats

Percentage coverage : the aerial area covered by a species per unit area of the habitat :

Percentage coverage of the species =

Total area of coverage of the species in all the quadrats x 100%
Total # of quadrats x area of a quadrat

The plant species that has the highest value of density & % coverage is the most dominant
species in the habitat.

The plant species that has the highest frequency is the plant species that appears most widely &
is easily found in the habitat.

Correlation of Population Distribution of an Organism with Abiotic Factors

pH value

Changes in the pH value of a habitat affect the growth of organisms aquatic & land
organisms.

Most organisms live in a neutral / nearly neutral habitat (pH7-7.5).

Too acidic/ alkaline will inhibit the population.

Temperature

Any changes will cause a change in the population distribution of organisms in the ecosystem.

Animals : homoiothermic, poikilothermic.

Plants : xerophytes (can adapt to hot, dry).

Light intensity

Affects the rate of photosynthesis.

More plants in areas with higher light intensity.

Aquatic ecosystem more aquatic plant on the surface because higher light intensity.

Also affects the population distribution of animals.

Humidity

Affects the rate of water loss from the animals & plants by evaporation.

Air humidity high, the rate of water loss is low.

The cave & the forest, the air humidity is high many animals & plants.

Animals & plants that can control their water loss can live in areas with low air humidity
camels & cactus.

8.4 : THE CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY : the wide variety of species of organisms on the Earth

The sea, lake, forest, grassland, tundra & desert is inhabited by various types of animals &
plants that interact with one another.

Various types of ecosystems are formed.

Classification of Organisms

The Earth consist of millions of different organisms.

A system for classification of organisms is necessary to facilitate the research & as reference
at international level.

Organisms are classified & grouped into kingdoms based on their common characteristics.

5 kingdoms : Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.

Kingdom Monera

Consist of bacteria.

Unicellular organisms.

Has cell wall, no true nucleus because there is no nuclear membrane.

Can move.

Examples : bacteria coccus, bacillus, vibrio & spirilium.

Kingdom Protista

Consists of protozoa & algae.

Mostly unicellular.

Has nucleus membrane & simple cell structure.

Examples : Amoeba sp., Euglena sp., Paramecium sp., Spirogyra sp.

Kingdom Fungi

All types of mushroom & other fungus.

Plants without chlorophyll.

Consists of filaments called hyphae produces spores.

Examples : Mucor sp., Saccharomyces sp., Agaricus sp.

Kingdom Plantae

Multicellular plants.

Mostly plants with chlorophyll & are autotrophs.

Examples : moss, ferns, conifers, monocotyledon plants & dicotyledon plants.

Kingdom Animalia

Multicellular animals.

Able to move & are heterotrophs.

Examples : fish, snake, bird, monkey, insects, garden snails.

Hierarchy in the Classification of Organisms

Classified from kingdom (the largest) to species (the smallest) in the hierarchy system of

classification.
Kingdom phylum class order family genus species

Linnaeus Binomial System

Introduced by Carl Linnaeus (Swedish botanical) [1707-1778] to name the organisms scientifically

The LBS is a system of naming the organisms scientifically at international level.

Using two Latin names :

1st name is the generic name.

2nd name is the specific name of the species.

Both names must be in Latin.

The generic name begins with a capital letter while the specific name / species name begins
with small letter.

Both are printed in italic, if handwritten, each name is underlined separately.

The LBS allows discussion at international level to be carried out with accuracy & to avoid
confusion.

Examples :

Tiger

Panthera tigris

Leopard Panthera pardus

Lion

Panthera leo

8.5 : THE IMPACT OF MICROORGANISMS ON LIFE

TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

Protozoa

Fungi

Algae

Bacteria

Virus

PROTOZOA

Aquatic unicellular microorganisms.

Can be seen under low power microscope.

Has nucleus, cytoplasm, surrounded by a p. membrane.

Takes in food (feeding), removes excretory products & reproduces (sexually & asexually).

Lives in the river, pond, fresh water, soil @ on another organism. Some live as parasites.

Heterotrophs.

Examples : Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp., Plasmodium sp. (parasite).

Kingdom : Protista.

FUNGI

Unicellular plant (yeast) @ multicellular plant (mushroom & Mucor sp.).

Low power microscope, magnifying glass.

Without chlorophyll.

Reproduces by budding & formation of spores.

Lives as saprophytes & parasites.

Heterotrophs.

Examples : yeast, Mucor sp., mushroom.

Kingdom : Fungi.

ALGAE

Exists as unicellular, in a colony, in filaments (multi).

Sea, pond, river, paddy field, tree stem, damp soil.

The most simple green plants (has chlorophyll).

Carries out aerobic respiration.

Sexually & asexually.

Eg. : phytoplankton, Pleurococcus sp. Spirogyra sp.

Kingdom : Protista.

BACTERIA

Unicellular organisms.

High power microscope.

Has cell wall.

Genetic material scattered in the cytoplasm (no nuclear membrane).

Asexually binary fission.

Form spores when conditions are not suitable.

Eg. : Lactobacillus sp., Staphylococcus sp.

Kingdom : Monera.

VIRUS

Microscopic microorganism (can be seen under electron microscope).

Consist of DNA or RNA.

Has a layer of protein for protection.

No cytoplasm, nucleus @ p. membrane.

Exists as crystals outside host cells, no sign of life.

Can only reproduce when in living cells of hosts.

Various forms, all are parasites.

Eg. : Bacteriophage, tobacco mosaic virus, influenza virus.

Kingdom : no kingdom.

Abiotic Factors Affecting the Activity of Microorganisms

Temperature

pH level

Light

Nutrients

Role of Useful Microorganisms

Decomposition

The nitrogen cycle

The alimentary canal of termites

The digestive system of humans

DECOMPOSITION

Saprophytic bacteria & fungi play an important role in the process of decomposition to obtain
food & energy.

Complex organic substances simple substances.

Saprophytic bacteria breaks down solid waste into simple substances dried form
___________________

Minerals are released into natural cycles such as the

_________________________________.

NITROGEN CYCLE

To maintain the balance of nitrogen content in the water, soil & atmosphere.

Bacteria, fungi & algae play important roles.

The main process are :

Nitrogen fixation

Decomposition

Nitrification

Denitrification

EFFECT OF HARMFUL MICROORGANISMS

Harmful microorganism _________________ .

Diseases are caused by 2 ways :

Pathogen attack & destroy cells @ body tissues.

Pathogen release toxins into the body of the organism.