PRIVATE Running Head: THEORY OF MIND AND DIVERGENT THINKING Theory of Mind and the Origin of Di ergent Thin!

ing Tho"a# $uddendorf and %&aire M' F&et(her)F&inn De*art"ent of P#y(ho&ogy +ni er#ity of Au(!&and Au(!&and, Ne- .ea&and *h: /01)2323411 e)"ai&: t'#uddendorf5au(!&and'a('n6

A7#tra(t The de e&o*"ent of a 8theory of "ind9 "ay not on&y 7e i"*ortant for under#tanding the "ind# of other# 7ut a&#o for u#ing one9# o-n "ind' To in e#tigate thi# #u**o#ition, forty (hi&dren 7et-een the age# of three and four -ere gi en fa&#e) 7e&ief and (reati ity ta#!#' The nu"7er# of a**ro*riate and of origina& re#*on#e# in the (reati ity te#t -ere found to (orre&ate *o#iti e&y -ith *erfor"an(e on fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!#' Thi# a##o(iation -a# ro7u#t, a# it (ontinued to 7e #trong and #ignifi(ant e en -hen age and er7a& inte&&igen(e -ere *artia&&ed out' The re#u&t# #u**ort the hy*othe#i# that the "etare*re#entationa& #!i&&# in o& ed in theory of "ind a&#o affe(t the -ay (hi&dren (an a((e## and #(an their o-n "enta& re*ertoire 7eyond the area# of (urrent&y a(ti ated (ontent :i'e' di ergent thin!ing;' <ith the ad ent of theory of "ind a 7a#i( (ogniti e #hift ta!e# *&a(e in hu"an de e&o*"ent, and *o##i7&y too! *&a(e in (ogniti e e o&ution'

Theory of Mind and the Origin of Di ergent Thin!ing Introdu(tion Theory of "ind :ToM;, or the a**re(iation of the re*re#entationa& nature of "ind and it# re&ation to 7eha ior, ha# 7e(o"e the #u7=e(t of "u(h re#ear(h in de e&o*"enta& and (o"*arati e *#y(ho&ogy :e'g' %heney > $eyfarth, ?11@A Go*ni!, ?112A Perner, ?11?A Pre"a(! > <oodruff, ?13B;' A&though e iden(e ha# a((u"u&ated that great a*e# :e'g' Cyrne > <hiten, ?11DA Pre"a(! > <oodruff, ?13B; and ery young (hi&dren :e'g' Go*ni! > $&aughter, ?11?A <e&&"an, ?11?; ha e #o"e under#tanding of their o-n and other#9 de#ire# and intention#, neither ha e 7een #ho-n to under#tand infor"ationa& #tate#, #u(h a# tho#e of !no-&edge and 7e&ief :e'g' Pre"a(! > Da##er, ?11?A <i""er > Perner, ?1B2;' Thi# &atter a7i&ity a**ear# to 7e re#er ed for hu"an# o&der than a7out three year#, and on&y then (an a re*re#entationa& ToM 7e a(ertained' Ta#!# in o& ing the attri7ution of fa&#e 7e&ief# ha e 7e(o"e the #tandard too& for a##e##ing the a(Eui#ition of ToM' The attri7ution of a fa&#e 7e&ief i"*&ie# an under#tanding of the fa(t that "enta& #tate# are attitude# to re*re#entation# of the -or&d rather than attitude# to the Frea& -or&dF it#e&f' $in(e the re*re#entationa& (ontent# of true 7e&ief# (orre#*ond 7y definition to a(tua& #tate# of the Frea& -or&dF, on&y

*redi(tion# of #o"e7ody9# 7eha ior -hen it i# 7a#ed on a fa&#e 7e&ief uneEui o(a&&y #ho- an a**re(iation of the re*re#entationa& nature of "enta& #tate#' ToM i# e ident, for eGa"*&e, -hen the (hi&d under#tand# that *eo*&e "ay #ear(h for a de#ired o7=e(t at the *&a(e -here they thin! it i# rather than at the *&a(e -here the (hi&d !no-# it i#' The indi idua& thu# ha# to a(!no-&edge that a re*re#entation (an 7e fa&#e -hi&e the "etare*re#entation re"ain# true :e'g', it i# true that the other *er#on ho&d# a 7e&ief that i# fa&#e; :e'g' Caron)%ohen, He#&ie > Frith, ?1B4A Dennett, ?1B3A F&a e&&, ?112A Go*ni!, ?112A Go*ni! > A#tington, ?1BBA <i""er > Perner, ?1B2;' Fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!# "ay a&#o in o& e an eGe(uti e (o"*onent 7e(au#e the indi idua& i# reEuired to di#engage fro" the (urrent re*re#entationa& (ontent in order to a##u"e #o"e7ody e&#e9# :or one9# o-n for"er; different 7e&ief# :e'g' Ru##e& > Iarro&d, in re ie-A $uddendorf > %or7a&&i#, in *re##;' <hen thi# &e e& of under#tanding ha# 7een a(hie ed :i'e' ToM ha# 7een a(Euired;, the (hi&d (an i"*ute "enta& #tate# e en -hen the#e (ontradi(t hi# or her o-n (urrent "enta& #tate#, and the di er#ity of the heterogenou# "enta& -or&d 7e(o"e# a((e##i7&e' Thi# "enta& feat ha# o7 iou# #ignifi(an(e for the de e&o*"ent and e o&ution of #o(ia& inte&&igen(e and "o#t re#ear(h ha# fo(u#ed on the#e #o(ia& effe(t# :e'g' A#tington > Ien!in#, ?114A Caron)%ohen, ?114A Caron)%ohen, He#&ie > Frith, ?1B4A Cyrne > <hiten, ?11DA Dunn, Cro-n, $&o"!o-#!i, Te#&a > Young7&ade, ?11?A <i""er > Perner, ?1B2;' At the #a"e ti"e, ho-e er, it ha# 7een (&ai"ed that ToM i# i"*ortant a&#o for #e&f)under#tanding, #e&f)"onitoring and #e&f)regu&ation :e'g' Hu"*hrey, ?1B/A Perner, ?11?A Po ine&&i, in *re##A $uddendorf, ?110;' On&y -hen the re*re#entationa& nature of "ind i# under#tood "ay one tru&y ref&e(t and intro#*e(t, that i#, for" 7e&ief# a7out 7e&ief# :e'g', I "u#t 7e right -ith "y ie- that''';, attitude# a7out !no-&edge :e'g', I don9t -ant to !no-;, #e(ond)order "oti e# :e'g', I don9t -ant "y de#ire to *&ay to interfere -ith "y -or!;, and #o forth' It "ight thu# 7e eG*e(ted that #!i&&# that a**arent&y de*end u*on "enta& a((e## to one9# o-n "ind :e'g' !no-ing that and -hat one !no-#; i"*ro e dra"ati(a&&y -ith the a(Eui#ition of ToM :i'e' -hen fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!# are *a##ed;' Di ergent thin!ing "ight 7e #u(h a #!i&&' $e era& re#ear(her# ha e identified "etare*re#entation a# an i"*ortant fa(tor in (reati ity' Deter"ining -hether *o##i7&e #o&ution# fu&fi&& the (riteria of the *ro7&e", for eGa"*&e, "ight 7e a fun(tion of "eta(ognition :e'g' E7ert, ?110A Fe&dhu#en, ?114;' Di ergent thin!ing 7y it# ery definition a**ear# to reEuire the indi idua& to #ear(h hi#Jher o-n !no-&edge 7a#e 7eyond the (urrent&y a(ti ated do"ain of "enta& (ontent' Thi# "ay entai& the #a"e 7a#i( *ro(e## of eGe(uti e (ontro& or di#engage"ent fro" (urrent *er(e*tion# and !no-&edge a# i# reEuired for a##u"ing a 7e&ief that i# e ident&y fa&#e' On a higher *&ane :at a &ater age; di#engaging fro" a (urrent *aradig" and Fin e#tingF in di#regarded area# i#, of (our#e, the !ey to (reati e ne- in#ight# :e'g', $tern7erg and Hu7art, ?11?;' Further, a(ti e #(anning of one9# !no-&edge 7a#e in #ear(h of a**ro*riate an#-er# a**ear# to i"*&y the a7i&ity to "etare*re#ent :i'e', to !no- -hat one !no-#;' Kno-ing -hat other# !no- :a# in ToM ta#!#; and !no-ing -hat one#e&f !no-# "ight 7e ery (&o#e&y re&ated #!i&&#' Indeed, #o"e "ight #ugge#t that the for"er i# an eGten#ion of the &atter :(f',

Harri#, ?11?;' Thu#, if it i# true that di ergent thin!ing and attri7ution of fa&#e 7e&ief# dra- on the #a"e "enta& de e&o*"ent#, one #hou&d eG*e(t to find #trong (orre&ation# 7et-een ta#!# that "ea#ure the#e #!i&&#' In other -ord#, (hi&dren -ho *a## fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!# -ou&d 7e eG*e(ted to do "u(h 7etter on di ergent thin!ing ta#!# than (hi&dren -ho do not, 7e(au#e they #hou&d 7e a7&e to #(an !no-&edge fro" di er#e, other-i#e unre&ated, do"ain# in the *ro(e## of generating ne-, di ergent an#-er# that fit the *ro7&e" (riteria :(f' <a&&a(h, ?13@;' Kar"i&off)$"ith :?11@; de#(ri7ed the de e&o*"ent of f&eGi7&e a((e## to origina&&y do"ain)#*e(ifi( !no-&edge in a #tudy of (hi&dren9# (reati e dra-ing#' $he, too, argued that (hange# in (hi&dren9# i"aginati e *o-er (o"e a7out 7e(au#e they de e&o* eG*&i(it re*re#entation# of !no-&edge they a&ready *o##e## i"*&i(it&y' In other -ord#, her finding #u**ort# the idea that the a7i&ity to "etare*re#ent :and to di#engage fro" (urrent re*re#entation#; i# (riti(a& for generating di ergent #o&ution#' The *re#ent #tudy -a# de#igned to addre## -hether or not (hi&dren -ho ha e a ToM are in fa(t 7etter at #ear(hing their o-n "ind# for (reati e an#-er#' <e ad"ini#tered fa&#e)7e&ief and (reati ity ta#!# to three) and four)year)o&d (hi&dren' Further, -e in(&uded a er7a& inte&&igen(e te#t to (ontro& for the *otentia&&y (onfounding inf&uen(e of "enta& age on (orre&ation# 7et-een ToM and (reati ity' Method $u7=e(t# Forty (hi&dren, D2 gir&# and ?3 7oy#, a&& of -ho" too! *art in a 7roader #tudy on the re&ation 7et-een (o"*uter#, gender, and #o(ia& thin!ing, -ere te#ted' The "a=ority of the (hi&dren -ere of "idd&e $E$ and the "ean age -a# 4@ "onth# :rangeK 2/ to 4B "onth#;' The (hi&dren -ere re(ruited fro" three *&ay(entre# :on <aihe!e I#&and, Ne- .ea&and;, -ith the (on#ent of *arent#, #taff and the (hi&dren the"#e& e#' Indi idua& te#ting too! *&a(e in a Euiet roo" in ea(h of the#e (entre#' Ta#!# %reati ity Ta#!' The (reati ity ta#! (on#i#ted of t-o #u7ta#!# of <a&&a(h and Kogan9# :?1/4; (reati ity te#t' <e fo&&o-ed <ard9# :?1/B; ada*tation of the ta#! for *re#(hoo&er#' In the in#tan(e# #u7ta#!, the (hi&dren -ere a#!ed to de(&are a&& the thing# that they (ou&d thin! of that -ere round, or had -hee&#, or -ere red' In the u#e# #u7ta#!, they -ere a#!ed to de(&are a&& the -ay# in -hi(h they "ight u#e, or *&ay -ith, a ne-#*a*er, a (u*, a ta7&e !nife, and a (oat hanger' In a *er"i##i e te#ting #ituation ea(h #ugge#tion -a# fo&&o-ed 7y &i7era& *rai#e and the (hi&d -a# en(ouraged to thin! of "ore an#-er# 7y *hra#e# #u(h a#: F<hat e&#eL, %an you thin! of #o"ething e&#eL'''F' Coth te#t# -ere *re#ented a# ga"e# and the ti"e #*ent on ea(h Eue#tion (ontinued unti& the (hi&d #aid that #Jhe had no further idea#' To #tandardi6e the *ro(edure the eG*eri"enter offered en(ourage"ent at &ea#t three ti"e# 7efore #ugge#ting that they "o e to the neGt ite"' Ho-e er, -hen the (hi&d -a# un(o"forta7&e the Eue#tioning -a# #to**ed and either the neGt ite" -a# introdu(ed or te#ting -a# (o"*&eted on another o((a#ion' Perfor"an(e -a# #(ored on t-o different "ea#ure#: f&uen(y and uniEuene##' Fir#t, ho-e er, a&& uniEue re#*on#e#, that i#, idea# that -ere *ut for-ard on&y 7y one (hi&d, -ere

gi en to t-o inde*endent rater# and tho#e that 7oth dee"ed ina**ro*riate :e'g' M: -hat i# redL A: An orange; -ere e&i"inated and not #(ored' Identi(a& re*&ie# fro" t-o or "ore (hi&dren -ere auto"ati(a&&y (on#idered a**ro*riate' The re"aining re#*on#e# -ere then #(ored for ea(h indi idua& a; 7y adding u* the a7#o&ute nu"7er of idea# :f&uen(y)#(ore;, 7; 7y adding u* the tota& nu"7er of uniEue idea# :uniEuene##)#(ore;' For further detai&# of the *ro(edure #ee <ard :?1/B;' Fa&#e)Ce&ief Ta#!' The fa&#e)7e&ief ta#! -a# ad"ini#tered in three tria&#, the fir#t t-o fo&&o-ing Prior, Dah&#tro" and $Euire#9 :?11@; de#(ri*tion :fro" a *aradig" origina&&y de e&o*ed 7y Caron)%ohen, He#&ie > Frith, ?1B4; and the third i"*&e"enting a #ugge#tion 7y Ru##e& and Iarro&d :in re ie-;' T-o do&&#, $a&&y and Anne, -ere introdu(ed to the (hi&d and, -hen the na"e# -ere &earnt, the fo&&o-ing #tory -a# to&d and ena(ted: F$a&&y ha# a "ar7&e and #he *ut# it into her 7a#!et and (&o#e# the &id' $he #ay# good)7ye and goe# out to *&ay' No- 8naughty Anne9 ta!e# the "ar7&e out of the 7a#!et and *&a(e# it into the 7oG and (&o#e# 7oth &id#'F The (hi&d i# then a#!ed a "e"ory and a rea&ity Eue#tion: F<here did $a&&y *ut the "ar7&eLF and F<here i# the "ar7&e no-LF' :In the eG(e*tiona& (a#e of a (hi&d fai&ing on the "e"ory or rea&ity Eue#tion, the (hi&d -a# re"inded of the true #ituation and the *ro(edure -a# re*eated fro" the #tart'; Then the fa&#e)7e&ief Eue#tion i# a#!ed: F<hen $a&&y (o"e# 7a(! -here -i&& #he &oo! fir#t for her "ar7&eLF The #e(ond tria& i# identi(a& to the fir#t eG(e*t that the hiding *&a(e i# the te#ter9# *o(!et rather than the 7oG' After the#e t-o tria&# the *ro(edure :u#ing the 7oG a# the *&a(e -ere Anne hid the "ar7&e; -a# fo&&o-ed on(e "ore 7ut the 7e&ief Eue#tion -a# a&tered :fo&&o-ing Ru##e& > Iarro&d9# #ugge#tion; to: F<i&& $a&&y &oo! at the right or at the -rong *&a(eL Nright and -rong -ere (ounter7a&an(edOF, fo&&o-ed 7y: F$ho- "e the right *&a(e, and #ho- "e the -rong *&a(e Na#!ing for the indi(ated, either right or -rong *&a(e, fir#tOF' %hi&dren re(ei ed 6ero *oint# for no (orre(t an#-er to the fir#t t-o 7e&ief Eue#tion#, one *oint for one (orre(t an#-er and t-o *oint# for an#-ering 7oth Eue#tion# (orre(t&y' The third tria&, the ariation #ugge#ted 7y Ru##e& and Iarro&d, -a# #(ored #e*arate&y -ith a 6ero for an in(orre(t and a one for a (orre(t re*&y' A re*&y -a# on&y (on#idered (orre(t -hen the an#-er Fat the -rong *&a(eF -a# fo&&o-ed 7y *ro"*ted (orre(t *ointing to the :e"*ty; 7a#!et' Ver7a& Inte&&igen(e Te#t' The Criti#h Pi(ture Vo(a7u&ary $(a&e :CPV$A Dunn, Dunn, <hetton > Pinti&&ie, ?1BD; -a# introdu(ed to the (hi&dren a# a *i(ture 7oo! ga"e and #tandard for"at -a# fo&&o-ed' The ra- #(ore# -ere (on erted into IM and "enta& age' Re#u&t# The "ean IM of the #a"*&e -a# 13 :#d: ?D;, ranging fro" 30 to ?D@ :Note that Criti#h nor"# -ere a**&ied to Ne.ea&ander#, -hi(h *o##i7&y a(ount# for the #&ight de iation at the &o-er end of #(ore#;' <hen (on erted into "enta& age the "ean tran#&ated into 0B "onth# :#d: ?2; and ranged fro" D4 to 34 "onth#' Fa&#e)Ce&ief Ta#!# T-enty)#e en (hi&dren an#-ered 7oth fa&#e)7e&ief Eue#tion# (orre(t&y and ?@ fai&ed on 7oth, -hi&e 2 ga e one (orre(t and one in(orre(t an#-er' The Ru##e& and Iarro&d er#ion re ea&ed a #i"i&ar di#tri7ution -ith D/ *a##ing and ?0

(hi&dren fai&ing the te#t' Ho-e er there -a# a di#(re*an(y 7et-een the t-o "ea#ure"ent#' Four (hi&dren -ho *a##ed 7oth Eue#tion# of the (&a##i( er#ion fai&ed -hen a#!ed -hether $a&&y -ou&d &oo! at the right or the -rong *&a(e' And three (hi&dren -ho fai&ed at &ea#t on one of the fir#t t-o tria&# an#-ered thi# third Eue#tion (orre(t&y' Of the three (hi&dren :3'4P; -ho *erfor"ed a"7i a&ent&y :i'e' one (orre(t and one in(orre(t an#-er; on the t-o (&a##i( tria&#, one *a##ed the Ru##e& and Iarro&d er#ion and -a# therefore (&a##ified a# ha ing a ToM :re(ei ing D *oint# in tota&;, -hi&e the other t-o fai&ed thi# ta#! and -ere (&a##ified a# not yet ha ing a ToM : QD *oint#;' The #ing&e ToM "ea#ure re#u&ted therefore in DB (hi&dren -ith and ?D (hi&dren -ithout a ToM' %reati ity Ta#!# Ten uniEue re#*on#e# :ite"# "entioned on&y 7y one (hi&d in the #tudy; -ere =udged ina**ro*riate 7y t-o inde*endent rater# and thu# -ere eG(&uded fro" further ana&y#i#' Thi# (on#tituted 0'BP of a&& uniEue ite"#' The re"aining ite"# -ere then #(ored a# f&uen(y :tota& nu"7er of re#*on#e#; and uniEuene## :nu"7er of uniEue re#*on#e#; a&ue# for the in#tan(e# and u#e# (ondition#' The to* of Ta7&e ? *re#ent# the "ean# and #tandard de iation# of the#e "ea#ure#' RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR In#ert Ta7&e ? a7out here RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR Re&ation#hi* Cet-een Fa&#e)Ce&ief and %reati ity Ta#!# A t)te#t to eGa"ine the effe(t of ha ing or not ha ing a ToM on the *erfor"an(e on the (reati ity ta#!# -a# *erfor"ed' A #ignifi(ant effe(t -a# found on 7oth, the tota& f&uen(y #(ore# Nt:2B; K 0'B4, * Q '@@?O and the uniEuene## #(ore# Nt:2B; K 2'00, * Q '@@4O' Ci#eria& (orre&ation# 7et-een ToM and tota& f&uen(y and uniEuene## #(ore# -ere '/D and '0B re#*e(ti e&y, a((ounting for 2B and D2P of the arian(e of *erfor"an(e :#ee Ta7&e ?;' Menta& age :(hrono&ogi(a& age and IM (o"7ined; (orre&ated #ignifi(ant&y -ith the (reati ity "ea#ure# :f&uen(y: r K '03, * Q '@?A uniEuene##: r K '0@, * Q '@4;, a&though <a&&a(h and Kogan :?1/4; #*e(ifi(a&&y de#igned the te#t to "ea#ure (reati ity inde*endent&y of genera& inte&&igen(e' Thu#, the a##o(iation 7et-een ToM and (reati ity "ight ha e 7een (au#ed 7y the "ediating aria7&e# of age and inte&&igen(e' In order to deter"ine -hether thi# -a# the (a#e, -e (a&(u&ated *artia& (orre&ation# (ontro&&ing for the#e aria7&e#' Neither *artia&&ing out (hrono&ogi(a& age :f&uen(y: r K '4B, * Q '@@?A uniEuene##: r K '04, * Q '@@4; nor CPV$ #(ore# :f&uen(y: r K '4D, * Q '@@?A uniEuene##: r K '0@, * Q '@?; redu(ed the a##o(iation 7et-een ToM and (reati ity 7e&o#ignifi(an(e' In fa(t, the (orre&ation# re"ained #ignifi(ant and re&ati e&y #trong :f&uen(y: r K '4?, * Q '@@4A uniEuene##: r K '0@, * Q '@?; e en -hen age and #(ore# on the CPV$ -ere *artia&&ed out' Thu#, re#u&t# #ho- a ro7u#t a##o(iation 7et-een ToM and (reati ity' Di#(u##ion Thi# i# the fir#t de"on#tration of a re&ation#hi* 7et-een the attri7ution of fa&#e 7e&ief# and the a"ount and uniEuene## of (reati e re#*on#e# in *re#(hoo&er#' The f&uen(y #(ore# (an 7e regarded a# a Euantitati e "ea#ure of the #u((e## of "ind #ear(h' The uniEuene## #(ore#, -hi&e not inde*endent fro" f&uen(y #(ore#, *ro ide an e#ti"ate for di ergen(e of the

#ear(h' That no other (hi&d *rodu(ed the ite" #ugge#t# that it i# #e"anti(a&&y re"o ed fro" (&o#e a##o(iation in "o#t *eer# :*erha*# e en -ithin the (hi&d9# o-n #e"anti( net;' Produ(ing "any uniEue ite"# therefore #ugge#t# either that the indi idua& ha# a ery di#tin(t #e"anti( net-or! fro" tho#e of the other (hi&dren or, *erha*# "ore *&au#i7&y, that the (hi&d retrie ed the ite"# fro" a -ider #ear(h :i'e' di ergent thin!ing;' Ce(au#e the (reati ity ta#!# did not in o& e any o7 iou# !ind of "enta& attri7ution, thi# finding *oint# to another fa(tor under&ying 7oth "ea#ure#' The *ri"e (andidate#, #in(e the re&ation#hi* ho&d# e en -hen inte&&igen(e and age are *artia&&ed out, i# i"*ro ed "etare*re#entationa& (a*a(ity and the a7i&ity to di#engage fro" the i""ediate *re#ent' +nder#tanding fa&#e 7e&ief# in other# reEuire# the indi idua& to di##o(iate fro" the i""ediate #ituation and to for" a re*re#entation of the other9# re*re#entation' $i"i&ar&y, one "ay argue that the (reati ity ta#! reEuire# the (hi&dren to di##o(iate fro" the i""ediate #ituation and to re*re#ent one9# o-n !no-&edge, #(anning it for ite"# -ith a *arti(u&ar feature' Thi# theoreti(a& argu"ent i# (on#i#tent -ith the infor"a& o7#er ation that during the te#ting *ro(edure younger (hi&dren tended to &oo! for an#-er# in their i""ediate en iron"ent :e'g' eye#Kround, #hirtKred;, -hi&e o&der (hi&dren ga6ed at the (ei&ing, a**arent&y &oo!ing Fin#ideF for a**ro*riate re#*on#e#' The data #u**ort the hy*othe#i# that a genera&, rather than a #*e(ifi(a&&y #o(ia&, re*re#entationa& i"*ro e"ent ta!e# *&a(e 7et-een age 2 and 0' Ho-e er, -e (annot ru&e out that other fa(tor# that -e did not "ea#ure, and thu# did not *artia& out, "ight ha e 7een re#*on#i7&e for the a##o(iation -e o7#er ed' %ontro&&ing for differen(e# in age and er7a& inte&&igen(e "ay (o er the "o#t &i!e&y interfering aria7&e#, 7ut other# are *o##i7&e' Future re#ear(h ha# to addre## the#e *o##i7i&itie# and *refera7&y ta(!&e the de e&o*"enta& (hange# in a &ongitudina& #tudy' De#*ite the *re&i"inary nature of the finding, if #u**orted 7y other re#ear(h, the a##o(iation 7et-een ToM and (reati e thought "ight ha e far)rea(hing (on#eEuen(e# on the -ay -e ie- not on&y the ontogeny 7ut a&#o the *hy&ogeny of the hu"an "ind' %reati e thought, &i!e &anguage, reEuire# infor"ationa& a((e## to aried do"ain# of !no-&edge in the generati e *ro(e## of (o"7ining and re(o"7ining ite"# into irtua&&y infinite nu"7er# of no e& #eEuen(e#' Meta!no-&edge "ay 7e e##entia& for thi# *ro(e## to *ro*er&y unfo&d' %or7a&&i# :?11?; (&ai"ed that generati ity i# uniEue to the hu"an #*e(ie#' %on#idering the fa(t that to date there i# no (on in(ing e iden(e for "eta!no-&edge in ani"a&# :%heney > $eyfarth, ?11@A Heye#, ?112A Pre"a(! > Da##er, ?11?;, the *re#ent data #u**ort thi# (&ai"' %heney and $eyfarth :?11@; eGa"ined the e iden(e for ToM in nonhu"an *ri"ate# and noted that "on!ey# *o##e## -hat they (a&&ed a &a#er 7ea" inte&&igen(e' That i#, "on!ey# a(t a**arent&y inte&&igent&y in one do"ain, -hi&e 7eing una7&e to tran#fer that !no-&edge for a**&i(ation in another' Hu"an# are ery #!i&&ed at #u(h tran#fer' <ith "etare*re#entation the do"ain #*e(ifity "ay ha e 7een o er(o"e' E o&utionari&y, the de e&o*"ent of ToM -ou&d then ha e 7een an i"*ortant fa(tor not on&y in the #o(ia& do"ain and in under#tanding the #e&f, 7ut a&#o in the uti&i#ation of "enta& (a*a(itie# through

"etare*re#entation, a# in the (a#e of di ergent thin!ing' In thi# -ay #o(ia& inte&&igen(e, -hi(h a((ording to the Ma(hia e&&ian inte&&igen(e hy*othe#i# :Cyrne > <hiten, ?11DA Hu"*hrey, ?13/A Io&&y, ?1/3; ga e ri#e to hu"an inte&&e(tua& e o&ution, "ight ha e *a ed the -ay for ne- -ay# of u#ing the "ind' F&eGi7&e tran#fer of !no-&edge 7et-een different do"ain# i# one of the ha&&"ar!# of hu"an#9 re&ent&e## (reati ity and in ention' $u""ary Pa##ing fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!# ha# 7een found to (orre&ate *o#iti e&y -ith the a"ount and origina&ity of an#-er# *rodu(ed on the (reati ity ta#!' The a##o(iation -a# found to 7e ro7u#t a# it re"ained #trong and #ignifi(ant e en -hen age and er7a& inte&&igen(e -ere *artia&&ed out' Thi# re#u&t -a# ta!en a# *re&i"inary #u**ort for the hy*othe#i# that 7oth *erfor"an(e# are de*endent u*on "etare*re#entationa& #!i&&# and an a7i&ity to di#engage fro" (urrent "enta& (ontent' The e"erging theory of "ind "ay therefore not on&y 7e i"*ortant for #o(ia& under#tanding 7ut a&#o for under#tanding and uti&i6ing one9# o-n "ind' Thi# #ugge#t# that 7y the age of four (hi&dren ha e de e&o*ed the (ogniti e foundation -hi(h a&&o-# the" to a(ti e&y engage in di ergent thin!ing' Referen(e# A#tington, I'<', > Ien!in#, I'M' :?114;' Theory of "ind de e&o*"ent and #o(ia& under#tanding' %ognition and E"otion, 1, ?4?)/4' Caron)%ohen, $' :?114;' Mind7&indne##: an e##ay on auti#" and theory of "ind' %a"7ridge, MA: MIT Pre##' Caron)%ohen, $', He#&ie, A', > Frith, +' :?1B4;' Doe# the auti#ti( (hi&d ha e a 8theory of "ind9L %ognition, D?, 23)0/' Cyrne, R'<', > <hiten, A' :?11D;' %ogniti e e o&ution in *ri"ate#' Man, D3, /@1)/D3' %heney, D'H', > $eyfarth, R'M' :?11@;' Ho- "on!ey# #ee the -or&d' %hi(ago: +ni er#ity of %hi(ago Pre##' %or7a&&i#, M'%' :?11?;' The &o*#ided a*e' Ne- Yor!: OGford +ni er#ity Pre##' Dennett, D' :?1B3;' The intentiona& #tan(e' %a"7ridge, MA: MIT Pre##' Dunn, I', Cro-n, I', $&o"!o-#!i, %', Te#&a, %', > Young7&ade, H', :?11?;' Young (hi&dren9# under#tanding of other *eo*&e9# fee&ing# and 7e&ief#: Indi idua& differen(e# and their ante(edent#' %hi&d De e&o*"ent, /D, ?24D)//' Dunn, H'M', Dunn, H', <hetton, %', > Pinti&&ie, D' :?1BD;' Criti#h *i(ture o(a7u&ary #(a&e' Hondon: Nfer)Ne&#on' F&a e&&, I'H' :?112;' The de e&o*"ent of (hi&dren9# under#tanding of fa&#e 7e&ief and the a**earan(e)rea&ity di#tin(tion' Internationa& Iourna& of P#y(ho&ogy, DB, 414)/@0' F&et(her)F&inn, %'M', > $uddendorf, T' :in *re##;' Do (o"*uter# affe(t the "indL Iourna& of Edu(ationa& %o"*uting Re#ear(h' Go*ni!, A' :?112;' Ho- -e !no- our o-n "ind#: The i&&u#ion of fir#t)*er#on !no-&edge of intentiona&ity' Ceha iora& and Crain $(ien(e#, ?/, ?)?0' Go*ni!, A', > A#tington I'<' :?1BB;' %hi&dren9# under#tanding of re*re#entationa& (hange and it# re&ation to the under#tanding of fa&#e 7e&ief and the a**earan(e)rea&ity di#tin(tion' %hi&d De e&o*"ent, 41, D/)23'

Go*ni!, A', > $&aughter, V' :?11?;' Young (hi&dren9# under#tanding of (hange# in their "enta& #tate#' %hi&d De e&o*"ent, /D, 1B)??@' Harri#, P'H' :?11?;' The -or! of i"agination' In A' <hiten :Ed';, Natura& theorie# of "ind: E o&ution, de e&o*"ent, and #i"u&ation of e eryday "indreading :**' DB2) 2@0;' OGford: Ca#i& C&a(!-e&&' Heye#, %'M' :?112;' Ane(dote#, training, tra**ing, and triangu&ation: Do ani"a&# attri7ute "enta& #tate#L Ani"a& Ceha ior, 0/, ?33)?BB' Hu"*hrey, N'K' :?13/;' The #o(ia& fun(tion of inte&&e(t' In P'P'G' Cate#on > R'A' Hinde :Ed#';, Gro-ing *oint# in etho&ogy :**' 2@2)2?3;' %a"7ridge: %a"7ridge +ni er#ity Pre##' Hu"*hrey, N'K' :?1B/;' The inner eye' Hondon: Fa7er > Fa7er' Kar"i&off)$"ith, A' :?11@;' %on#traint# on re*re#entationa& (hange: e iden(e fro" (hi&dren9# dra-ing#' %ognition, 20, 43)B2' Perner, I' :?11?;' +nder#tanding the re*re#entationa& "ind' %a"7ridge, MA: MIT Pre##' Po ine&&i, D'I' :in *re##;' The undu7&i(ated #e&f' In P' Ro(hat :Ed';, The #e&f in ear&y infan(y' A"#terda": North Ho&&and)E&#e ier' Pre"a(!, D', > Da##er, V' :?11?;' Per(e*tua& origin# and (on(e*tua& e iden(e for theory of "ind in a*e# and (hi&dren' In A' <hiten :Ed';, Natura& theorie# of "ind: e o&ution, de e&o*"ent and #i"u&ation of e eryday "indreading :**' D42) D//;' OGford: Ca#i& C&a(!-e&&' Pre"a(!, D' > <oodruff, G' :?13B;' Doe# the (hi"*an6ee ha e a theory of "indL Ceha iora& > Crain $(ien(e#, 0, 4?4) 4D/' Prior, M', Dah&#tro", C', > $Euire#, T'H' :?11@;' Auti#ti( (hi&dren9# !no-&edge of thin!ing and fee&ing #tate# in other *eo*&e' Iourna& of %hi&d P#y(ho&ogy and P#y(hiatry, 4?, 4B3)/@?' Ru##e&, I', > Iarro&d, %' :in re ie-;' EGe(uti e fa(tor# in the fa&#e 7e&ief ta#!, and *ro#*e(t# of an eGe(uti e a((ount of theory of "ind de e&o*"ent' $tern7erg, R'I', > Hu7art, T'I' :?11?;' An in e#t"ent theory of (reati ity and it# de e&o*"ent' Hu"an De e&o*"ent, 20, ?)2?' $uddendorf, T, > %or7a&&i#, M'%' :in *re##;' Menta& ti"e tra e& and the e o&ution of the hu"an "ind' Geneti(, $o(ia&, and Genera& P#y(ho&ogy Monogra*h#' $uddendorf, T' :?110;' Di#(o ery of the fourth di"en#ion: Menta& ti"e tra e& and hu"an e o&ution' M'$o('$(i' The#i#, +ni er#ity of <ai!ato, Ha"i&ton, Ne- .ea&and :a ai&a7&e on reEue#t fro" the author;' <a&&a(h, M'A' :?13@;' %reati ity' In A' Mu##en :Ed';, %ar"i(he&9# "anua& of (hi&d *#y(ho&ogy :2rd ed'; :**' ?D??) 3D;' Ne- Yor!: <i&ey' <a&&a(h, M'A', > Kogan, N' :?1/4;' A ne- &oo! at the (reati ity)inte&&igen(e di#tin(tion' Iourna& of Per#ona&ity, 22, 20B)/1' <ard, <'%' :?1/B;' %reati ity in young (hi&dren' %hi&d De e&o*"ent, 21, 323)340' <e&&"an, H'M' :?11?;' Fro" de#ire# to 7e&ief#: A(Eui#ition of a theory of "ind' In A' <hiten :Ed';, Natura& theorie# of "ind: E o&ution, de e&o*"ent, and #i"u&ation of e eryday "indreading :**' ?1)2B;' OGford: C&a(!-e&&'

<i""er, H' > Perner, I' :?1B2;' Ce&ief# a7out 7e&ief#: Re*re#entation and (on#training fun(tion of -rong 7e&ief# in young (hi&dren9# under#tanding of de(e*tion' %ognition, ?2, ?@2)?DB' Author Note Tho"a# $uddendorf, De*art"ent of P#y(ho&ogyA %&aire M' F&et(her)F&inn, De*art"ent of P#y(ho&ogy' The *erfor"an(e of thi# #a"*&e on the fa&#e)7e&ief ta#!# ha# 7een re*orted e&#e-here in the (onteGt of a #tudy on *re#(hoo&er# (o"*uter u#e :F&et(her)F&inn and $uddendorf, in *re##;' Thi# re#ear(h -a# #u**orted 7y a Te&e(o", Ne- .ea&and re#ear(h grant to the #e(ond author' <e than! the tea(her#, *arent# and (hi&dren of the <aihe!e Kindergarten, %hri#9 %re(he, and <aihe!e P&ay(enter for their *arti(i*ation, ho#*ita&ity and #u**ort' <e a&#o than! M'%' %or7a&&i# for a&ua7&e (o""ent# on an ear&ier er#ion of thi# *a*er' %orre#*onden(e (on(erning thi# arti(&e #hou&d 7e addre##ed to Tho"a# $uddendorf, De*art"ent of P#y(ho&ogy, +ni er#ity of Au(!&and, Pri ate Cag 1D@?1, Au(!&and, Ne.ea&and' E&e(troni( "ai& "ay 7e #end to t'#uddendorf5au(!&and'a('n6 Ta7&e ? Re#*on#e Mean#, $tandard De iation#, and %orre&ation# for %reati ity Mea#ure# ))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) Mea#ure# )))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) In#tan(e# +#e# Tota& )))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) +niEuene## F&uen(y +niEuene## F&uen(y +niEuene## F&uen(y ))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) Mean D'42 3'B@ D'04 3'@B ?0'BB $D D'@B 0'4/ D'?@ D'B? /'/4 ))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) %orre&ation#: ToM '01SS '43SS '24S '44SS '0BSS '/DSS Menta& age '2? '0@S '23S '0BSS '0@S '03SS ))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) S * Q '@4 SS * Q '@?

4'@@ 2'3?

ToM and di ergent thin!ing