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NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) are noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a material,
component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object. In contrast to destructive
testing, NDT is an assessment without doing harm, stress or destroying the test object. The destruction of the test
object usually makes destructive testing more costly and it is also inappropriate in many circumstances.
NDT plays a crucial role in ensuring cost effective operation, safety and reliability of plant, with resultant benefit to
the community. NDT is used in a wide range of industrial areas and is used at almost any stage in the production
or life cycle of many components. The mainstream applications are in aerospace, power generation, automotive,
railway, petrochemical and pipeline markets. NDT of welds is one of the most used applications. It is very difficult
to weld or mold a solid object that has no risk of breaking in service, so testing at manufacture and during use is
often essential.
While originally NDT was applied only for safety reasons it is today widely accepted as cost saving technique in the
quality assurance process. Unfortunately NDT is still not used in many areas where human life or ecology is in
danger. Some may prefer to pay the lower costs of claims after an accident than applying of NDT. That is a form of
unacceptable risk management. Disasters like the railway accident in Eschede Germany in 1998 is only one
example, there are many others.
For implementation of NDT it is important to describe what shall be found and what to reject. A completely flawless
production is almost never possible. For this reason testing specifications are indispensable. Nowadays there exists
a great number of standards and acceptance regulations. They describe the limit between good and bad conditions,
but also often which specific NDT method has to be used.
The reliability of an NDT Method is an essential issue. But a comparison of methods is only significant if it is
referring to the same task. Each NDT method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages and, therefore,
some are better suited than others for a particular application. By use of artificial flaws, the threshold of the
sensitivity of a testing system has to be determined. If the the sensitivity is to low defective test objects are not
always recognized. If the sensitivity is too high parts with smaller flaws are rejected which would have been of no
consequence to the serviceability of the component. With statistical methods it is possible to look closer into the
field of uncertainly. Methods such as Probability of Detection (POD) or the ROC-method "Relative Operating
Characteristics" are examples of the statistical analysis methods. Also the aspect of human errors has to be taken
into account when determining the overall reliability.
Personnel Qualification is an important aspect of non-destructive evaluation. NDT techniques rely heavily on human
skill and knowledge for the correct assessment and interpretation of test results. Proper and adequate training and
certification of NDT personnel is therefore a must to ensure that the capabilities of the techniques are fully
exploited. There are a number of published international and regional standards covering the certification of
competence of personnel. The EN 473 (Qualification and certification of NDT personnel - General Principles) was
developed specifically for the European Union for which the SNT-TC-1A is the American equivalent.
The nine most common NDT Methods are shown in the main index of this encyclopedia. In order of most used, they
are: Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Radiographic Testing (RT), Electromagnetic Testing (ET) in which Eddy Current
Testing (ECT) is well know and Acoustic Emission (AE or AET). Besides the main NDT methods a lot of other NDT
techniques are available, such as Shearography Holography, Microwave and many more and new methods are
being constantly researched and developed.





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NDT Applications and Limitations
NDT Method Applications Limitations
Liquid Penetrant
used on nonporous materials
can be applied to welds, tubing,
brazing, castings, billets, forgings,
aluminium parts, turbine blades and
disks, gears
need access to test surface
defects must be surface breaking
decontamination & precleaning of
test surface may be needed
vapour hazard
very tight and shallow defects
difficult to find
depth of flaw not indicated
Magnetic Particle
ferromagnetic materials
surface and slightly subsurface
flaws can be detected
can be applied to welds, tubing,
bars, castings, billets, forgings,
extrusions, engine components,
shafts and gears
detection of flaws limited by field
strength and direction
needs clean and relatively smooth
surface
some holding fixtures required for
some magnetizing techniques
test piece may need
demagnetization which can be
difficult for some shapes and
magetizations
depth of flaw not indicated
Eddy Current
metals, alloys and electroconductors
sorting materials
surface and slightly subsurface
flaws can be detected
used on tubing, wire, bearings,
rails, nonmetal coatings, aircraft
components, turbine blades and
disks, automotive transmission
shafts
requires customized probe
although non-contacting it requires
close proximity of probe to part
low penetration (typically 5mm)
false indications due to uncontrolled
parametric variables
Ultrasonics
metals, nonmetals and composites
surface and slightly subsurface
flaws can be detected
can be applied to welds, tubing,
joints, castings, billets, forgings,
shafts, structural components,
concrete, pressure vessels, aircraft
and engine components
used to determine thickness and
mechanical properties
monitoring service wear and
deterioration
usually contacting, either direct or
with intervening medium required
(e.g. immersion testing)
special probes are required for
applications
sensitivity limited by frequency
used and some materials cause
significant scattering
scattering by test material structure
can cause false indications
not easily applied to very thin
materials
Radiography Neutron
metals, nonmetals, composites and
mixed materials
used on pyrotechnics, resins,
plastics, organic material,
honeycomb structures, radioactive
material, high density materials,
and materials containing hydrogen
access for placing test piece
between source and detectors
size of neutron source housing is
very large (reactors) for reasonable
source strengths
collimating, filtering or otherwise
modifying beam is difficult
radiation hazards
cracks must be oriented parallel to
beam for detection
sensitivity decreases with increasing
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thickness
Radiography X-ray
metals, nonmetals, composites and
mixed materials
used on all shapes and forms;
castings, welds, electronic
assemblies, aerospace, marine and
automotive components
access to both sides of test piece
needed
voltage, focal spot size and
exposure time critical
radiation hazards
cracks must be oriented parallel to
beam for detection
sensitivity decreases with increasing
thickness
Radiography Gamma
usually used on dense or thick
material
used on all shapes and forms;
castings, welds, electronic
assemblies, aerospace, marine and
automotive components
used where thickness or access
limits X-ray generators
radiation hazards
cracks must be oriented parallel to
beam for detection
sensitivity decreases with increasing
thickness
access to both sides of test piece
needed
not as sensitive as X-rays

REBOUND HAMMER
In 1948 Ernst Schmidt invented a device which made nondestructive compressive strength testing feasible. A
Schmidt hammer is a device to measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock. Today Schmidt
hammers are in use throughout the world for estimating strength of concrete. The European standard for Schmidt
hammer testing is EN 12504-2.
The test hammer hits the concrete with a spring-driven pin at a defined energy, and then measures the rebound
(in rebound units). Its rebound is dependent on the hardness of the concrete and is measured by test equipement.
When conducting the test the hammer should be held perpendicular to the surface which in turn should be flat and
smooth. Note that the Schmidt hammer does not work well for small samples and will make marks. By reference to
the conversion tables, the rebound value can be used to determine the compressive strength. Schmidt hammers
are available from their original manfacturers in several different energy ranges.
Although, rebound hammer provides a quick inexpensive means of checking the uniformity of concrete, it has
limitations. The test is also sensitive to local variation in the sample. To minimise this it is recommended to take a
selection of readings and take an average value. In an assessment of the influence of internal rock moisture
content on Schmidt hammer readings, rebound (R) values are found to decrease with increasing moisture content.
Other influences are type of coarse aggregate, cement, mould, carbonation of concrete surface.
Each hammer varies considerable in performance and needs calibration for use on concrete made with the
aggregates from specific source. The test can be conducted horizontally, vertically or at intermediate angles. At
each angle the rebound number will be different for the same concrete and will require separate calibration or
correction chart
Investigations have shown that there is a general correlation between compressive strength of concrete and
rebound number; however, there is a wide degree of disagreement among various research workers regarding the
accuracy of estimation of strength from rebound readings. The variation of strength of a properly calibrated
hammer may lie between +/- 15% and +/- 20%.
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VISUAL AND OPTICAL TESTING
HOLOGRAPHY

Optical Holographic techniques can be used for nondestructive testing of materials (HNDT). Non-optical Holography
techniques include Acoustical, Microwave, X-Ray and Electron beam Holography. HNDT essentially measures
deformations on the surface of the object. However, there is sufficient sensitivity to detect sub- surface and
internal defects in metallic and composite specimens.
In HNDT techniques, the test sample is interferometrically compared with the sample after it has been stressed
(loaded). A flaw can be detected if by stressing the object it creates an anomalous deformation of the surface
around the flaw.

Optical holography is an imaging method, which records the amplitude and phase of light reflected from an object
as an interferometric pattern on film. It thus allows reconstruction of the full 3-D image of the object. In HNDT, the
test sample is interferometrically compared in two different stressed states. Stressing can be mechanical, thermal,
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vibration etc. The resulting interference pattern contours the deformation undergone by the specimen in between
the two recordings. Surface as well as sub-surface defects show distortions in the otherwise uniform pattern. In
addition, the characteristics of the component, such as vibration modes, mechanical properties, residual stress etc.
can be identified through holographic inspection. Applications in fluid mechanics and gas dynamics also abound.
The light used to illuminate the surface of the specimen must be coherent, which means that it must also be
monochromatic, and the only practical source is a laser. Each type of laser emits a characteristic wavelength, e.g. a
helium-neon laser emits 632.8nm; a ruby laser emits 694.3nm. Laser diodes are nowadays an exciting and
compact alternative. Indeed, holography using laser pointers have also been demonstrated.
High-resolution films are another necessity for holography. With the advent of CCD and digital image processing,
digital holographic interferometry offers tremendous flexibility and real-time visualization. Furthermore, image-
processing schemes can provide computerised analysis of patterns for automated defect detection and analysis.
Finally since intricate interferometric patterns have to be recorded, vibration isolation is also required. Novel
schemes have been proposed, including use of pulsed lasers to record holograms in factory environments.
Advances and developments in lasers, computers, and recording materials introduce new techniques such as
electronic (or TV) holography, multi-wavelength recording, thermoplastic medium, time-averaged holography,
dynamic holographic interferometry, cineholography, and digital holography with each new development. Methods
that once held only academic interest often become practically viable with these developments in hardware and
software.
HNDT is widely applied in aerospace to find impact damage, corrosion, delamination, debonds, and cracks in high
performance composite aircraft parts as well as turbine blades, solid propellant rocket motor casings, tyres and air
foils. But Holography is also finding new applications in commercial and defense related industries to investigate
and test object ranging from microscopic computer chips and circuits to cultural articles, paintings and restoration



LASER
A short laser pulse is focused on to the surface of a sample to create the plasma. A laser with a good Gaussian
profile allows focusing to a near diffraction-limited spot. The tighter the focus, the less laser energy is required to
produce the laser-induced breakdown. Typically energies of only tens of millijoules are required. (Fig.1)
The plasma is emitted into >2p steradians, so a fast f/1 lens will collect more light. Sometimes a blocking filter is
used to remove any scatter from the incident laser - however, since the incident laser light and the signal are well
resolved temporally, a filter is rarely required. An Intensified CCD (ICCD) detector attached to a spectrograph
analyzes the collected plasma light.
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For LIBS, Echelle spectrographs are typically used.For analysis of a wide range of samples, a system based on an
echelle spectrograph offers a combination of high resolution and wide wavelength coverage.It is also possible to
relay the laser light to the sample and collect the signal by fiber optics. The gating requirements of LIBS are not
very demanding. Gate times and delays of several microseconds are typical, so a slow gate ICCD is suitable. The
system can usually be operated in internal trigger mode, with the controller board triggering the laser and the
delay generator. The intensity of the plasma emission is usually high enough to allow good spectra to be recorded
in single scan mode.A typical experimental configuration is shown below. (Fig.2)




RECENT ADVANCES IN EQUIPMENT
Commercially available equipment now includes:-
'PUNDIT PLUS' - which is a new generation, microprocessor-based, development of the
long-established PUNDIT ultrasonic tester widely used on concrete, now offering data
storage facilities [2].
New sub-surface radar equipment for testing concrete structures offering improved
portability, and higher frequency antennas with improved performance characteristics.
New hand-held 4-probe resistivity test equipment for concrete structures, with automatic
data storage.
Acoustic-Emission (AE) equipment suitable for routine field use, including one system
developed in the UK.
Improved covermeters, including a 'borehole probe' device.
Improved radiography systems including reductions in size and increased energy levels,
together with better image capture and processing as well as safety features (eg
'MEGASCAN [TM]').
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Laser-based surface strain and pavement deformation measuring devices.
Several specialist test companies have also successfully developed equipment configurations and
software for use in specific situations for example, multiple radar antenna arrays for highway
surveys. Another interesting example is the 'TERRIG' system [3] for determining the bearing
capacity of material below existing concrete ground-slabs based on load/deflection
measurements as illustrated in figure 1. This is particularly useful when an assessment of floor
capacity is needed relating to change of use.

CONCRETE NON-DESTRUCTIVE NDT TEST EQUIPMENT

Concrete Non-Destructive NDT Test Equipment

Strength Testing Rebar Locators Ultrasonic Testing
Corrosion Testing Temperature Monitoring Moisture Meters
Compression Testers Holiday Detectors Cement Testing

NDT Concrete Strength Testers
This category of products comprises the range of instruments utilized to evaluate construction
material strength. The range of instruments is typically considered to be two parts. The first are
non-destructive field tests of compressive strength. The second are tensile field tester systems to
either determine the tensile strength of an overlay or bond material, or tensile strength of anchors
embedded in the concrete. The first group is pure Non-Destructive Testing where the strength of
the material is determined by correlation to another parameter more easily available and readily
apparent. This is typically the hardness of the concrete or the resistance to penetration by either a
pin or probe. The Windsor Probe, Windsor Pin and our line of Rebound Hammers all fall within
this category. These are widely used standard tests and as such have seen use throughout the
world.

The second set of instruments is our concrete tensile testers. These have been optimized to both
test the strength of the anchors and repair overlay material. They can be used to test until failure
or to simply verify that the material will not be affected by a specific amount of force. A number
of considerations were taken into account when designing this line of products, include viscous
damping of the resultant failure backlash, portability, and ruggedness.
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If you are looking for High capacity Compression Machines for Concrete Cylinders and Cubes,
please CLICK HERE. The line of products represents the most effective and efficient way to
evaluate construction material strength in the field and utilize the latest in technology in order to
guarantee accurate results.
We supply a wide range of non-destructive test equipment for concrete and other coarse grained
materials. Our instruments measure and analyze strength, and structure, and are rugged, quality
equipment for field use, backed by factory service and an ongoing program of research and
development. All instruments are NIST traceable and conform to the corresponding ASTM
standards.

Windsor HP Probe

Measures the compression strength of concrete.

CLICK HERE


Windsor Pin System

Measures compressive strength of new or mature construction materials.

CLICK HERE


Concrete Rebound Hammers

Indicates the compressive strength of hardened concrete.

CLICK HERE

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Bond Tester

Accurately measures the bonding strengths of a wide and varied range of materials including
concrete, screeds, repair mortars, epoxy resin coatings, laminates, plastics, paints and enamels

CLICK HERE


Anchor Test System

Measures a wide range of anchor strengths in construction materials.

CLICK HERE


Rebar Locators
This category of products comprises the range of instruments used to locate and determine size
and depth of steel reinforcing bar in concrete. The first type most widely used utilizes a low
frequency electromagnetic field to locate ferrous objects within a structure. The second and latest
technology utilizes Ground Penetrating radar to locate steel and other objects within a structure.
The HR Rebar Locator and the Datascan both utilize a low frequency electromagnetic field to
locate ferrous objects in a structure. By closely monitoring changes in the electromagnetic field
the proximity of steel reinforcing bar can be determined. The HR is our most economical model.
It uses a simple analog meter to determine the strength of the electromagnetic field and correlate
this to either the size of the rebar or the distance to the rebar. The Datascan unit utilizes a more
sensitive digital system to monitor the strength of the electromagnetic field. This allows the user
more sensitivity in locating steel at greater depth and more closely spaced.
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The Datascan MK II utilizes the state of the art in ground penetrating radar technology. By
sending out a high frequency pulse and observing the reflected electromagnetic waves features
inside a concrete structure can be determined. The unit implements a number of different ways to
visualize the data received, including a three dimensional image of the objects within the
structure. This unit represents the current cutting edge technology in object location.
The line of products represents the most effective and efficient way to evaluate steel reinforcing
bar in the field and utilizes the latest in technology in order to guarantee accurate results.

HR Rebar Locator

Locates the position, depth and size of reinforcement bars

CLICK HERE


Rebar Locator - R-Meter MK III Model 3000

R-Meter MK III is the digital version of a classic rebar locator, rebar finder which enables the
user to locate reinforcement bars and also determine rebar location and rebar size. The R-Meter
MK III rebar locator is also capable of locating non ferrous metals as well.

CLICK HERE


Ultrasonic Concrete Testing
This category comprises the range of instruments that use sound or stress waves in order to
determine the properties of concrete and other materials non-destructively. The first and most
widely used System is our V-Meter, which utilizes the ultrasonic pulse velocity method for
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evaluating construction materials in the field. Transducers are available for a variety of
frequencies from 24 KHz to 500 KHz. This unit has also been modified to suit the special needs
of ceramics users and can be found as the Ultrapulse. The PIES, our revolutionary Portable
Impact-Echo System, is an advanced instrument for non-destructive detection of flaws and
defects in a variety of civil infrastructures ranging from bridges, parking structures and buildings
to dams, piles, tunnels, tanks and marine structures.
Finally our E-Meter System represents the state of the art in bench top laboratory resonant
frequency analysis of materials. This unit comes standard with a test bench designed to handle a
variety of modes of vibration, including longitudinal, torsional and flexural.
This line of products represents the most effective and efficient way to evaluate concrete and
other materials in the field and utilizes the latest in technology in order to guarantee accurate
results.

Ultrasonic E-Meter MKII

For the Determination of the Resonant Frequency of Materials such as Concrete, Glass, Carbon
& Graphite, Ceramic White ware as well as in refractories.

CLICK HERE


Ultrasonic V-Meter

Detects flaws and measures basic characteristics in coarse-grained material.

CLICK HERE

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Portable Impact-Echo System

Offers unparalleled ease of use to test structures using sonic stress waves.

CLICK HERE


Corrosion Testing
This category comprises the range of instruments that evaluate parameters related to the
corrosion of the concrete or the steel reinforcing bar within the concrete.
The Ohmcor and Cormap systems represent more economical methods of evaluating steel
reinforcement corrosion. The Cormap Systems use half cell potential mapping in order to
identify areas of probably corrosion. The Ohmcorr System is typically used in conjunction with
the Cormap system n order to verify the presence of steel reinforcement corrosion. This older
technology is still widely used in the field.
The Porosiscope and Chloride Field Systems allow the user to rapidly evaluate mechanisms that
cause corrosion. The Porosiscope quickly and simply evaluates concrete permeability. The
Chloride Field System will rapidly evaluate field chloride levels without expensive and time
consuming laboratory tests.
Our ASR Detect and Carbodetect systems are chemical indicators to assist in evaluating the two
leading causes of concrete corrosion. This line of products represents the most effective and
efficient way to evaluate concrete and other materials in the field and utilizes the latest in
technology in order to guarantee accurate results.
Finally, the extensive range of our Holiday / Porosity Detectors complement our Corrosion line
and are used to detect the pinholes, and porosity in order to prevent from corrosion.
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CorMap

A Simple Economical Method for Identifying Areas of Probable Rebar Corrosion

CLICK HERE


Cor-Map II

For corrosion potential data acquisition and analysis, allowing the user to identify areas of
probable corrosion in the field.

CLICK HERE


Chloride Field Test System

A Chloride Laboratory in a Briefcase for Wet or Dry Concrete

CLICK HERE


ASR Detect

Simple colored dye field test to detect Alkali Silca Reaction (ASR)
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CLICK HERE


Carbo Detect

Simple colored dye field test for carbonation

CLICK HERE


OhmCorr

Resistivity Meter to Assess Corrosion Currents in Concrete

CLICK HERE


Porosiscope-Plus

Concrete Air / Water Permeability Tester The Field Test for Air and Water Permeability of
Concrete Using the FIGG Technique

CLICK HERE

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Holiday / Porosity Detectors

Extensive Range of Holiday / Porosity Detectors for Detection of Porosity and Corrosion
Prevention.

CLICK HERE


Temperature Monitoring, Moisture & Flow Testing
This category comprises the range of instruments that record temperature and can then evaluate
maturity of fresh concrete.
The IQM System is the latest technology for concrete maturity. Designed specifically for
monitoring and analyzing fresh concrete, the IQM Module is programmed with the required
Equivalent Age of the concrete under test. Once this preset maturity number is reached, a visual
indicator will flash continuously, providing an effective, automatic indication that the concrete
has reached the desired level of maturity. This with a readily available PC represents a fast and
efficient means of monitoring concrete maturity.
A flexible and economical temperature monitoring system, the IQT features extensive memory
and graphic display of temperature history. Similar to the IQM, the IQT System offers software
for uploading the temperature data to a P.C. through its serial port. The temperature history can
then be displayed with respect to time. Also a Multi Channel Maturity meter is available upon
your request.
This line of products represents the most effective and efficient way to evaluate concrete and
other materials in the field and utilizes the latest in technology in order to guarantee accurate
results.
Our Moisture Testing line are suited for determining the moisture content of construction
materials. This is a critical factor in determining quality of final construction. The Trident
utilizes the latest microwave and microprocessor technology to measure moisture content in
various fine and coarse-grained sand and aggregates. The prongs of the probe are inserted into
the material to be tested and the percentage of moisture content is instantaneously shown on the
easy to read display.
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The Aquameter is an advanced digital instrument, using a high frequency capacitive sensor to
accurately measure the water content of concrete, masonry, brick, gypsum and most solid
materials.
This line of products represents the most effective and efficient way to evaluate concrete and
other materials in the field and utilizes the latest in technology in order to guarantee accurate
results.
Lastly the Fresh Concrete Flow Meter and Flow Gauge, are very useful tools for analysis of the
consistency and workability of Fresh Concrete

IQM System

The IQM System Enables Fresh Concrete to be Easily and Completely Monitored in the Field for
Improved Safety, Quality Assurance and Optimum Setting Time.

CLICK HERE


IQT System

Flexible and Economical Temperature Monitoring System with Extensive Memory

CLICK HERE


Moisture Master T-M-170

A Hand Held Instrument for Fast Accurate Measurement of Moisture Content in Solid Materials.

CLICK HERE
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Trident Moisture Meter

A Microwave Meter for Rapid Determination of Moisture Content in Sand and Other Fine and
Coarse Aggregates

CLICK HERE




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