Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.

12* 2%13

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A Comparative Assessment of the Quality of Harvested Rainwater, Underground Water and Surface Water for Domestic urposes in Ughelli, Southern !igeria
+shurhe (chu,o1 (righo -haddeus2 1. .elta State Institute of /ontinuing Education*+ghelli* .elta State* Nigeria E-mail0 ochu,s1eloved2%123ahoo.com 2. .e"artment of 4eogra"h3* /ollege of Education*5arri* .elta State* Nigeria. A"stract -he stud3 com"ares the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water for domestic "ur"oses in +ghelli* Southern Nigeria. It is an em"irical research stud3 of three sources of water su""l3 in the area. 5ater sam"les were collected from harvested rainwater* hand dug wells and from the river and la1orator3 anal3sis carried out in line with 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. 8rom the anal3sis of the water sam"les* it was discovered that variation e9ists in the "h3sico-chemical "arameters e9amined in the three sources of water su""l3 in the area. 7owever* "arameters such as "7* tem"erature* -.S* sul"hate and :inc are within the 57( 2%1%# "ermissi1le standard. .omestic water sources* such as hand dug wells* rainwater and rivers should 1e "rotected and monitored to chec, im"airments in order to safeguard human health. #eywords$ assessment* 6ualit3* well water* river water* rain water* harvested. %ntroduction ;ain water is the water which is gotten from rainfall. It occurs as a result of condensation of water molecules in the u""er atmos"here. 5hen this reaches saturation "oints* it falls 1ac, to the earth<s surface as rain water. It is collected from different catchment roofs 13 man (righo* 2%%&#. 8or long term use* rain water can 1e "i"ed into clean* closed underground tan,s for human use. 7owever* rainwater can 1e contaminated 13 dirt3 roofs* dirt3 containers* and tan,s. -oda3* increase in "o"ulation* ur1ani:ation and inefficient "i"e-1orne water su""l3 has made rainwater harvesting a verita1le source of water su""l3 Schiller* 1&'2#. In man3 develo"ing countries of =frica* where housing standard has im"roved and im"ermea1le roofs are constructed* rainwater harvesting s3stems are 1ecoming increasingl3 used. ;ainwater has 1een successfull3 harnessed for domestic water re6uirement in >en3a and -an:ania Schiller* 1&'2# and in Sierra ?eone Nissen-!eterson* 1&'2 and Ja3a,aran* 1&''#. In @im1a1we* 1etween '% and '$ "ercent of all measura1le rainfall is collected and stored for use Aorgan* 1&&%#. In Nigeria* the conce"t of rainwater harvesting or its use during the rain3 season is not new "articularl3 as a su""lement to water from rivers and streams Aorgan* 1&&%#. Some "eo"le in the rural areas and ur1an centres of Nigeria de"end on rainwater. ;ainwater according to Efe 2%%6#* is one of the "urest sources of water su""l3 if "ro"erl3 collected. But the desire for technological 1rea,through and im"roved standard of living has "laced "ressure on its use. 5hile underground water is the water su""l3 which is ta""ed when we sin, a well or a 1orehole. =s rainwater infiltrates into the ground and travels underground* it is filtered 13 the soil. +nderground water is usuall3 clean* "lentiful and "ermanent. +nderground water is a "o"ular source of water su""l3 for ur1an and rural dwellers in Nigeria. 4roundwater su""lies drin,ing water for household uses and feeds most of our la,es* rivers and streams >orth* 1&&C#. =ccording to >rant: and >ifferstein 2%%$#* a1out ninet3-five "ercent of all freshwater on earth is groundwater. It is found in natural roc, formations and is a vital source for the success and survival of the entire ecos3stem. 4roundwater is "articularl3 at greatest health related ris, es"eciall3 1ecause it is largel3 unmonitored and the visual "erce"tion of its 6ualit3 on e9traction is usuall3 dece"tive =g1ede* >u"ulati and =,"o,odDe* 2%%3#. -hus* measuring the "h3sical and or chemical "ro"erties of underground water to determine its contaminant concentrations are fre6uentl3 monitored to determine if the3 are increasing* decreasing or remaining at the same range. Aonitoring is also "erformed at and in the vicinit3 of water su""l3 sources to determine the 6ualit3 of the water and trends of indicator of water 6ualit3. 7owever* "reci"itation that falls on the earth<s surface either infiltrates into the ground or runs over the surface of the earth into streams* la,es and rivers as surface water ;o:ans,i* 8roelich and Aoo,* 2%%%#. Surface water is the commonest source of water su""l3 for most "eo"le in the develo"ing countries of the world* es"eciall3 =frica and Nigeria in "articular. Surface water is easil3 accessi1le to man3 "eo"le and is "ermanent throughout the 3ear* es"eciall3 rivers. ;ivers are unfortunatel3 the most easil3 and fre6uentl3 "olluted source of water su""l3. -he3 are "olluted 13 human activities through industrial waste and agricultural activities such as

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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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fertili:er a""lication @uc,er and Brown. 1&&'#. In his 6uest for e9istence* man has continued to ta" these water sources rainwater* underground water and surface water# for domestic and other uses without "rior consideration as to its 6ualit3 as a result of scarcit3 and technological ,nowhow. -his has resulted in untold hardshi" culminating in child and infant mortalit3 and mor1ilit3 in man3 "arts of the word* es"eciall3 in develo"ing countries and Nigeria in "articular. -here is the need to assess the "h3sico-chemical and 1iological indices of these water sources in order to safeguard human health and the ecos3stem* hence this stud3. revailing &rend .rin,ing contaminated water can cause various diseases such as t3"hoid* d3senter3 and diarrhea .8I.* 2%%6* +shurhe and (righo* 2%%&a#. =ccordingl3* 2.2 million "eo"le die each 3ear from diseases related to drin,ing contaminated water .8I.* 2%%6#. .iarrhea alone claims the lives of nearl3 6*%%% children a da3 in develo"ing countries of =frica. =ccording to the 5orld 7ealth (rgani:ation 57(* 1&&'#* drin,ing water is not availa1le to C$ E '% "ercent of the citi:ens living in rural areas of man3 develo"ing countries li,e Nigeria. It is also o1served that one out of ever3 four "ersons in the world es"eciall3 in develo"ing countries suffer from some t3"e of water 1orne disease or the other. -hese o1servations readil3 highlight the magnitude of the world water "ro1lem. -he life of man de"ends ver3 much on good su""l3 of water and so* we cannot ta,e "ota1le water for granted. 7ence the need for increased water 6ualit3 for sustaina1le develo"ment has continued to 1e of great concern to researchers. In +ghelli* the "eo"le de"end on water su""l3 from hand dug wells +shurhe* 2%%C#* 1oreholes* rainwater (righo* 2%%&F +shurhe and (righo* 2%%&1# and river as sources of water su""l3. -his water is consumed 13 the inha1itants of the area without further "urification. In an e"idemiological re"ort 2%%6#* o1tained from the /entral 7os"ital +ghelli as re"orted 13 +shurhe 2%%C# shows that "olluted water is res"onsi1le for cases of t3"hoid* diarrhea and d3senter3 in the area. -his "a"er therefore sets to assess and com"are the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water in order to ascertain their "ota1ilit3 in the light of 57( 2%1%# drin,ing water standard to address issues of water 1orne diseases in the area. Aim, '"(ectives and Hypothesis -he stud3 is aimed at a com"arative assessment of the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water for domestic "ur"oses in +ghelli* Southern Nigeria. -he s"ecific o1Dectives are0 i. assess the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water in the area. ii. com"are the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water in the area. iii. ascertain the level of variation 1etween the 6ualit3 of rainwater harvested * underground water and surface water in the area. iv. suggest wa3s on how to im"rove the 6ualit3 of rainwater harvested * underground water and surface water and hence achieve sustaina1le water 6ualit3 su""l3 for domestic "ur"oses in the area Hypothesis 4iven the aim and o1Dectives of this stud3* the following h3"othesis is s"elt out0 Ho$ -here is no significant difference in the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water in +ghelli* Southern Nigeria. Research )ethods and rocedures Study Area +ghelli is located within latitudes $%2'G North and $%32G North of the E6uator and longitudes $%$'G East % and 6 %3G East of the 4reenwich Aendian. In terms of drainage* the area is drained 13 ;iver =se* a tri1utar3 of the ;iver Niger +do* 1&C'#. -he climate of the area is characteri:ed 13 high* 1ut uniform tem"erature. -he mean dail3 ma9imum tem"erature is a1out 32%/. ;ainfall intensit3 ranges 1etween 3%%%mm to 3$%%mm =Da3i* 2%%3#. 5ithin this "eriod* the water ta1le is usuall3 ver3 high in the valle3 region. -he high annual rainfall* high water ta1le and low relief are res"onsi1le for "oor soil formation in the area. Research Design and Data Collection rocedure -he stud3 is an em"irical research wor, that ado"ted field surve3* collection of water sam"les from rainwater* shallow wells and from the river* and la1orator3 anal3sis of the water sam"les collected. -he sim"le random sam"ling techni6ue was used for choosing the sites for sam"le collection* while the s3stematic random sam"ling techni6ue was used for the collection of water sam"les along the course of the river* catchment roofs and from shallow wells. -he :inc catchment roof "o"ularl3 used as roofing sheet in the area was chosen for

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Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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water sam"le collection. -he rainwater sam"les were collected at the time of rainfall from the month of the gutter (righo* 2%%&#* while water sam"les were collected from shallow wells situated at a distance of 3% metres of shallow wells to an3 "olluting source in the area +shurhe* 2%%C# in line with 57( 1&&'# standard. -he sam"les were collected 1etween the hours of Cam E 1%am. In the case of river water* the sam"les were collected from the surface and su1-surface of the river using 1% E 1$ ,ilometres interval 1etween sam"ling sites +shurhe* 2%11#. -he water sam"les were collected 1etween the hours of Cam -1%am. =ll sam"les were collected using sterili:ed 2-litre "lastic cans fitted with information tag for identification. -he water sam"les were collected from four different sites each for harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water. = total of fort3-eight 4'# water sam"les were collected. -he water sam"les were collected once in the months of Aarch* ="ril* Aa3 and June in 2%%C* 2%%& and 2%11 for shallow well water* harvested rainwater and river water res"ectivel3. -he collected water sam"les were ta,en .to the la1orator3 within 6 hours of their collection for anal3sis. =ll sam"les were allowed to settle down for a1out 4 hours 1efore an3 form of la1orator3 anal3sis. -his was done to eliminate an3 form of tur1idit3 influence on tests. 5ater 6ualit3 "arameters such as "7* tem"erature* tur1idit3* .(* B(.* -.S* -SS* sul"hate* nitrate* lead* iron and :inc were anal3sed using =tomic =1sor"tion S"ectro"hotometer* .igital meters* in addition to titration methods. -he results o1tained were com"ared with 57( 2%1%# threshold. -he anal3sis of variance =N()=# was used to test the "osited h3"othesis. Results and Discussion -he mean concentration values of the anal3:ed "h3sico-chemical "arameters of rainwater harvested* well water and river water are summari:ed in ta1le I. &a"le *$ Aean values of "h3sico-chemical characteristics of water from hand dug wells* rainwater catchment roofs and river water. ++Rain water +++River WH' Standard Remar0s arameter +Well water water ,-.*./ "7 6.&6 $.&% 6.&C 6.$-'.$ Safe -em"erature o/ 26.C% 2&.6& 2C.'$ 2&.'% Safe -ur1idit3 N-+# 1.%2 %.%$ '.1$ $.%% SafeHNot safe .( mgHl# 2.&3 C.44 $.4& $.%% Not safeHSafe B(. mgHl# 1.C6 1.%C 3.1% 3.%% SafeHNot safe -.S mgHl# 23.6% %.%2 3$.4% $.%% Safe -SS mgHl# %.4& %.%3 6.C$ $.%% SafeHNot safe Sul"hate mgHl# 3.$& 16.3% 1.C2 2.%% Safe ?ead mgHl# %.%2$ %.%1' %.%%1 %.%1 Not safeHSafe Iron mgHl# %.%4 %.$& %.62 %.3% Safe @inc mgHl# %.2& %.4& %.&6 3.%% Safe Sources$ ++shurhe* 2%%CF I I (righo* 2%%&F III+shurhe* 2%11. 8rom the anal3sed sam"les as shown in ta1le 1* "7 mean values were generall3 low $.&%-6.&C# and fell within the 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. -em"erature mean values range from 26.C%o/ for well water* 2&.6&%/ for rain water and 2C.'$%/ for river water. -hese mean tem"erature values are within the 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. Aean tur1idit3 values of 1.%2 N-) were recorded for well water* %.%$ N-+ for harvested rainwater and '.1$ N-+ for river water. -he recorded values for well water and harvested rainwater were within the 57( 2%1%# thresholdF while that of the river water was a1ove the 57( 2%1%# acce"ta1le threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. =ll the .( values were a1ove the 57( 2%1%# threshold e9ce"t for well waterF there13 ma,ing the well water unsafe. -he high values of .( in the rainwater C.44mgHl# shows the a1sence of 1acteria and activitiesF while the low values 2.&3mgHl# recorded in water sam"les from well water shows the "resence of 1acteria and activities* including water from the river $.4&mgHl#. -his im"lies that there is a strong indication of a reducing agent in the water. If such water is consumed without further "urification* it ma3 cause instant death in living organisms. B(. mean levels were generall3 low in well water 1.C6mgHl#* harvested rainwater 1.%CmgHl# and slightl3 high in river water 3.1%mgHl#. -his im"lies that the concentration of solu1le organics reaching the groundwater and rainwater is generall3 low 1ut slightl3 high in surface water. In total dissolved solids -.S#* all the recorded mean values were generall3 low and 1elow the 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. = mean value of 23.6% mgHl* %.2 mgHl and 3$.4% mgHl were recorded for well water* rainwater* and river water res"ectivel3. In the sam"led water* means values of %.4& mgHl* %.%3 mgHl and 6.C$ mgHl were recorded for well water* rainwater* and river water res"ectivel3. -hese values are within 11

Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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the 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3 e9ce"t the river water. -his im"lies the "resence of silt* cla3* "lan,ton* organic waste and inorganic "reci"itates in the surface water. Sul"hate concentrations in the three sources of water were generall3 low. = mean value of 3.$&mgHl recorded for well water* 16.3% mgHl for rain water and 1.C2 mgHl for river water. =lthough* harvested rainwater has the highest concentration* these values are lower than the 2%% mgHl 57( 2%1%# "ermissi1le standard for drin,ing water 6ualit3. ?ead* with a mean value of %.%2$ mgHl for well water* %.%1'mgHl for harvested rainwater and %.%%1mgHl for river water are a1ove and within the 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water standard res"ectivel3. -he im"lication of this is that lead "oisoning is "resent in all the anal3sed sources of water su""l3 e9ce"t river water. Iron mean concentration varies from %.%4 mgHl for well water* %.$& mgHl for rainwater and %.62mgHl for river water. -hese values are a1ove the %.3%mgHl 57( 2%1%# "ermissi1le standard for drin,ing water 6ualit3 e9ce"t for well water with a recorded value of %.%4. @inc concentration in the anal3sed water sam"les for well water was %.2&mgHl and %.4&mgHl for harvested rainwater* while river water recorded a mean value of %.&6mgle. -hese values are within the 3.%%mgHl acce"ta1le 57( 2%1%# drin,ing water 6ualit3 standard. &est of Hypothesis$ -he anal3sis of variance =N()=# was used to test the "osited h3"othesis* Jthat there is no significant difference in the 6ualit3 of harvested rainwater* underground water and surface water in +ghelli* Southern NigeriaK. &a"le -0 Summar3 of =N()= result e9"laining the level of variation in the 6ualit3 of water from well* rain and river in the area. 2 Critical Remar0s )odel Sum of Differences )ean S1uare S1uares ;egression 13$%3.$64 3 4$%1.1'' 'C6.CC' 2.6% Significant .ifference ;esidual 636.$'& 124 $.134 E9ists -otal 1414%.1$2 12C 8rom the model summar3 in ta1le 2* the calculated 8-value of 'C6.CC' at %.%$ level of significance is greater than the critical value of 2.6%. Since the critical value is less than the calculated 8-value the null h3"othesis is reDected. -hus* there is significant difference in the 6ualit3 of water o1tained from the shallow wells* rainwater and from the river in the area. -he im"lication of this is that variation e9ists in the 6ualit3 of water from the three sources of water su""l3 in the area. 2indings Based on the aim and o1Dectives of the stud3 and the h3"othesis "osited* the following findings emerged0 i. Aost of the "arameters e9amined such as "7* tem"erature* -.S* sul"hate and :inc showed satisfactor3 concentration in line with 57( 2%1%# standard in the three sources of water su""l3 in the area. ii. -he concentration of tur1idit3* B(.* -SS* and iron were higher in the surface water river# and hence showed unsatisfactor3 concentration when com"ared to well water and harvested rain water that showed satisfactor3 concentration in those "arameters. iii. -he concentration of .( was lowest in well water and hence unsafe* when com"ared to the concentration found in rainwater and river water. iv. ?ead concentration was lowest in the surface water river# 1ut lower and low in rainwater and well water res"ectivel3 in the area. v. -he stud3 also confirmed that the 6ualit3 of water varies in the three sources of water consumed 13 the "eo"le in the area. Conclusion -he three sources of water o1tained 13 the "eo"le for domestic "ur"oses in the area showed satisfactor3 concentration in terms of the "arameters e9amined. 7owever* variation e9ists in some of the "arameters* as some of them showed higher concentration when com"ared to 57( 2%1%# threshold for drin,ing water 6ualit3. 7ence* the water from the three sources well* rain and river# 1e "urified 1efore drin,ing in order to safeguard the health of the "eo"le. Recommendations -he following are recommendations for im"roving on the "resent state of the water from hand dug wells* rainwater and river water in the area. 12

Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 !a"er# ISSN 222$-%&4' (nline# )ol. 3* No.12* 2%13

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i ii iii

=ll the sources of water su""l3 in the area should 1e "urified 1efore drin,ing. 7uman activities within the vicinities of the sources of water su""l3 should 1e monitored to chec, factors res"onsi1le for im"airment of the water. .omestic groundwater sources such as hard dug wells should 1e "rotected from surface run-off* while harvesting of rainwater should 1e done at least 1%-1$ minutes of rainfall to minimi:e im"urities from the catchment roofs. 5hile surface water such as rivers should 1e "rotected from surface and human discharge of sewage from getting into the river.

References =g1ede* (.=* >u"ulati* 5.>. and =,"o,odDe* (.I. 2%%3# J8ailure of on-site sanitar3 facilities in Nigeria +r1an /entres* I1adan as case Stud3*K !a"er "resented at the 1'th International /onference on Solid 5aste -echnolog3 and Aanagement* !hilade"hia* +S=* Aarch 23 E 26. =Da3i* (. 2%%3# /om"rehensive 4eogra"h3* ?agos* Johnson "u1lishers. .e"artment for International .evelo"ment 2%%6# 4' 4leneagles0 (ne 3ear of -3rning -al, into =ction* +nited >ingdom* ?ime 7ous. Efe* S.I 2%%6#K Lualit3 of rainwater harvesting for rural communities of .elta State* NigeriaK* Environmentalist* 2601C$ E 1'1 Ja,ara3an* S./. 1&''# J;ural 5ater Su""lu0 Sierra ?eone E9am"le - = case of .evelo"ing 5orld 5ater*K 5ater Engineering and .evelo"ment /entre !u1lication* 1% -1. >orth ;. 1&&C# ?ife on the Edge* +niversit3 of 5isconsin E9tension* /ollege of Natural ;esources* +5 E Stevens !oints. >rant:* .. and >ifferstein* B. 2%%$# J5ater !ollution and Societ3K* Journal of Environmental ?aw !ractice* 4 1#. 1 -2 Aorgan* ! 1&&%# ;ainwater 7arvesting in ;ural 5ater Su""l3 and Sanitation* ?ondon* Aacmillan !u1lication Nissen-!eterson* E 1&'2# ;ain /atchment and 5ater Su""l3 in ;ural =frica* 8reetown* 7older Stoughton "u1lisher. (righo* -. 2%%&# J =ssessment of the 6ualit3 of rainwater harvesting in +ghelli and its rural areas* .elta State* Niger J* +n"u1lished A.Sc .issertation* .elta State +niversit3* =1ra,a* Nigeria. ;o:ans,i* >* 8roehlich* > and Aoo,* 5.4 2%%%# JSurface 5aterK* in Aoo, ed# 73drological /3cle* >ra,ow* +niversit3 !ress Schiller* E.J. 1&'2# J;oofto" /atchment ;ainwater for .rin,ingK Schiller* E.J and .rosten* ;.?. eds# 5ater Su""l3 and Sanitation in .evelo"ing /ountries* Aichigan* =r1or !u1lication. +do* ;.>. 1&C'# 4eogra"hical ;egions of Nigeria* I1adan* 7einemann. +shurhe* ( and (righo* - 2%%&a# J -he "revalence of water 1orne diseases as a result of the im"act of se"tic tan, effluent on the 6ualit3 of water from hand dug wells in +ghelli* .elta State* Nigeria*K Nigeria Journal of ;esearch and !roduction 14 2#0 121 E 13'. +shurhe* ( and (righo* - 2%%&1# K=ssessment of the 6ualit3 of rainwater collected from different catchment roofs in +ghelli* .elta State* Nigeria*K Intellectualism* 2 2#0 2%% E 2%&. +shurhe* ( 2%%%C# J -he im"act of se"tic tan, effluent on the 6ualit3 of water from hand dug wells in +ghelli* .elta State*K +n"u1lished A. Sc. .issertation* .elta State +niversit3* =1ra,a* Nigeria. +shurhe* (. 2%11# J/om"arative =ssessment of the Lualit3 of 5ater from ;iver =se* 5arri and Ethio"e in .elta State for .omestic and =gricultural uses*K = !h.. Seminar !a"er* .elta State +niversit3. =1ra,a* Nigeria. 57( 2%1%# International Standard for .rin,ing 5ater guidelines for 5ater Lualit3* 4eneva. 57( 1&&'# Im"ortance of Safe .rin,ing 5ater Su""l3* 4eneva* 3* $ E 1%. @uc,er* ?. =. and Brown* ?./ 1&&'# J=gricultural drainage water 6ualit3 im"acts and su1surface drainage studies in the Aid-5est (hio State +niversit3 E9tension*K Bulletin 'C1* htt"0HHohio-line. osu.eduH1'C1H. ;etrieved on 21 E 4 E 2%1% .

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