THE PHILOSOPHY OF SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY

By RUDOLF STEINER Authorized English translation by G eta!a Edited by "# $ollison Re%ised English Edition& 'irst (ublished in August )*+, CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION, 1918 E%erything dis-ussed in this boo. -enters around t/o (roble0s /hi-h are 'unda0ental to the hu0an soul1li'e# One o' these (roble0s -on-erns the (ossibility o' attaining su-h insight into hu0an nature that .no/ledge o' 0an -an be-o0e the 'oundation o' all hu0an .no/ledge and e!(erien-e o' li'e# 2e o'ten 'eel that our e!(erien-es and the results o' s-ienti'i- in%estigations are not sel'1su((orting3 'urther e!(erien-es or dis-o%eries 0ay sha.e our -ertitude# The other (roble0 is4 "as 0an any right to as-ribe 'reedo0 to his /ill& or is 'reedo0 o' /ill an illusion arising out o' his inability to re-ognize the threads o' ne-essity on /hi-h his /ill de(ends& 5ust li.e a (ro-ess in nature6 This 7uestion is not arti'i-ially -reated# In a -ertain dis(osition it arises 7uite s(ontaneously in the hu0an soul# And one 'eels that the soul la-.s in stature i' it has not at so0e ti0e 'a-ed in dee( seriousness the 7uestion o' 'ree /ill or ne-essity# In this boo. the intention is to sho/ that the inner e!(erien-es -aused by the se-ond (roble0 de(end u(on /hat attitude 0an is able to ta.e to/ard the 'irst (roble0# The atte0(t /ill be 0ade to sho/ that it is (ossible to attain su-h an insight into 0an8s nature& that this -an su((ort all the rest o' his .no/ledge& and 'urther that this insight -o0(letely 5usti'ies the -on-e(t o' 'reedo0 o' /ill& (ro%ided only that 'irst the region o' soul is dis-o%ered /here 'ree /ill -an un'old# This insight in relation to the t/o (roble0s is su-h that& on-e attained& it -an be-o0e a li%ing -ontent o' 0an8s soul li'e# A theoreti-al ans/er /ill not be gi%en /hi-h& on-e a-7uired is 0erely -arried about as a -on%i-tion& retained by 0e0ory# For the /hole 0anner o' thin.ing on /hi-h this boo. is based& su-h an ans/er /ould be no ans/er# Su-h a 'inished& li0ited ans/er /ill not be gi%en& but a region o' e!(erien-es /ithin the hu0an soul /ill be (ointed to& /here& through the soul8s o/n inner a-ti%ity& li%ing ans/ers to the 7uestions are to be 'ound e%er ane/ and at e%ery 0o0ent /hen 0an needs the0# On-e the region o' soul is dis-o%ered /here these 7uestions un'old& a real insight into this region (ro%ides 0an /ith /hat he needs 'or the solution o' these t/o (roble0s o' li'e so that& /ith /hat he has then attained& he -an (enetrate 'urther into the breadth and de(th o' li'e8s riddles& as need or destiny leads hi0# 1 It /ill be seen that a .no/ledge has here been outlined& /hi-h (ro%es its 5usti'i-ation and %alidity& not only through its o/n e!isten-e& but also through the relationshi( it has /ith the entire soul1li'e o' 0an# These /ere 0y thoughts about the -ontent o' this boo. /hen I /rote it t/enty1'i%e years ago# Today& again I 0ust /rite si0ilarly i' I a0 to -hara-terize the ai0 o' this boo.# In the 'irst edition I li0ited 0ysel' to saying no 0ore than /as in the stri-test sense -onne-ted /ith the t/o 'unda0ental (roble0s des-ribed abo%e# I' anyone should be sur(rised at not 'inding in this boo. as yet& any re'eren-e to that region o' the /orld o' s(iritual e!(erien-e des-ribed in 0y later /ritings& then he 0ust -onsider that at that ti0e it /as not 0y (ur(ose to des-ribe results o' s(iritual resear-h& but 'irst to lay the 'oundation on /hi-h su-h results -an rest# This 9:hiloso(hy o' Freedo0; does not -ontain any s(e-ial results o' this .ind& any 0ore than it -ontains s(e-ial results o' the natural s-ien-es# But /hat it -ontains -annot& in 0y %ie/& be dis(ensed /ith by anyone /ho stri%es 'or -ertainty in su-h .no/ledge# 2hat I ha%e said in this boo. -an also be a--e(table to 0any /ho& 'or reasons o' their o/n& /ill ha%e nothing to do /ith the results o' 0y s(iritual s-ienti'i- resear-h# But one /ho -an regard these results o' s(iritual

s-ienti'i- resear-h as so0ething to /hi-h he is dra/n& /ill re-ognize as i0(ortant /hat is atte0(ted here# It is this4 to (ro%e that an o(en10inded -onsideration o' 5ust the t/o (roble0s I ha%e indi-ated& (roble0s /hi-h are 'unda0ental to all .no/ledge& leads to re-ognition o' the 'a-t that 0an is li%ing /ithin the reality o' a s(iritual /orld# In this boo. the atte0(t is 0ade to 5usti'y .no/ledge o' the real0 o' s(irit be'ore entering u(on s(iritual e!(erien-e# And this 5usti'i-ation is underta.en in su-h a /ay that& 'or anyone able and /illing to enter into this dis-ussion& there is no need& in order to a--e(t /hat is said here& to -ast 'urti%e glan-es at the e!(erien-es /hi-h 0y later /ritings ha%e sho/n to be rele%ant# Thus it see0s to 0e that& on the one hand& this boo. o--u(ies a (osition -o0(letely inde(endent o' 0y /ritings on a-tual s(iritual s-ienti'i- 0atters& and yet& on the other hand& it is also 0ost inti0ately -onne-ted /ith the0# All this has -aused 0e no/& a'ter t/enty1'i%e years& to re(ublish the -ontent o' this boo. (ra-ti-ally unaltered in all essentials# I ha%e& ho/e%er& 0ade additions o' so0e length to se%eral -ha(ters# The 0isunderstandings o' 0y argu0ent /hi-h ha%e -o0e to 0y attention see0ed to 0a.e these detailed e!tensions ne-essary# Alterations ha%e been 0ade only /here /hat I said a 7uarter o' a -entury ago a((eared to 0e -lu0sily e!(ressed# <Only ill1/ill -ould 'ind in these -hanges o--asion to suggest that I ha%e -hanged 0y 'unda0ental -on%i-tion#= The boo. has been out o' (rint 'or 0any years# Ne%ertheless& and in s(ite o' the 'a-t& a((arent 'ro0 /hat I ha%e 5ust said& that to 0e it see0s that to1day 0ust be si0ilarly e!(ressed /hat I did e!(ress t/enty1'i%e years ago about the (roble0s I ha%e -hara-terized& I hesitated a long ti0e about the -o0(letion o' this re%ised edition# Again and again I ha%e as.ed 0ysel' /hether at this (oint or that& I ought not to de'ine 0y (osition to/ard the nu0erous (hiloso(hi-al %ie/s /hi-h ha%e been (ut 'or/ard sin-e the (ubli-ation o' the 'irst edition# >et the hea%y de0ands on 0y ti0e in re-ent years& due to (urely s(iritual s-ienti'i- resear-h& (re%ented 0e doing as I 0ight ha%e /ished# Also& a sur%ey& as thorough as (ossible& o' the (hiloso(hi-al literature o' the (resent day has -on%in-ed 0e that su-h a -riti-al dis-ussion& te0(ting though it /ould be in itsel'& has no (la-e in the -onte!t o' /hat this boo. has to say# All that& 'ro0 the (oint o' %ie/ o' the 9:hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity&; it see0ed to 0e ne-essary to say about re-ent (hiloso(hi-al tenden-ies& 0ay be 'ound in the se-ond %olu0e o' 0y 9Riddles o' :hiloso(hy#; A(ril )*)? RUDOLF STEINER

THE CONSCIOUS HUMAN DEED Is 0an in his thin.ing and a-ting a s(iritually 'ree being& or is he -o0(elled by the iron ne-essity o' natural la/6 Fe/ 7uestions ha%e been debated 0ore than this one# The -on-e(t o' the 'reedo0 o' the hu0an /ill has 'ound enthusiasti- su((orters and stubborn o((onents in (lenty# There are those /ho& in 0oral 'er%or& de-lare it to be sheer stu(idity to deny so e%ident a 'a-t as 'reedo0# O((osed to the0 are others /ho regard as utterly

nai%e the belie' that the uni'or0ity o' natural la/ is interru(ted in the s(here o' hu0an a-tion and thin.ing# One and the sa0e thing is here de-lared as o'ten to be the 0ost (re-ious (ossession o' hu0anity& as it is said to be its 0ost 'atal illusion# In'inite subtlety has been de%oted to e!(laining ho/ hu0an 'reedo0 is -o0(atible /ith the /or.ing o' nature& to /hi-h& a'ter all& 0an belongs# No less (ains ha%e been ta.en to 0a.e -o0(rehensible ho/ a delusion li.e this -ould ha%e arisen# That here /e are dealing /ith one o' the 0ost i0(ortant 7uestions o' li'e& religion& -ondu-t and s-ien-e& is 'elt by e%eryone /hose -hara-ter is not totally de%oid o' de(th# And indeed& it belongs to the sad signs o' the su(er'i-iality o' (resent day thin.ing that a boo. /hi-h atte0(ts to de%elo( a 9ne/ 'aith;) out o' the results o' the latest s-ienti'i- dis-o%eries& -ontains& on this 7uestion& nothing but the /ords4 9There is no need here to go into the 7uestion o' the 'reedo0 o' the hu0an /ill# The su((osed indi''erent 'reedo0 o' -hoi-e has al/ays been re-ognized as an e0(ty illusion by e%ery (hiloso(hy /orthy o' the na0e# The 0oral %aluation o' hu0an -ondu-t and -hara-ter re0ains untou-hed by this 7uestion#; I do not 7uote this (assage be-ause I -onsider that the boo. in /hi-h it a((ears has any s(e-ial i0(ortan-e& but be-ause it see0s to 0e to e!(ress the only %ie/ /hi-h 0ost o' our thin.ing -onte0(oraries are able to rea-h& -on-erning this 7uestion# E%eryone /ho -lai0s to ha%e ad%an-ed beyond an ele0entary edu-ation see0s no/adays to .no/ that 'reedo0 -annot -onsist in -hoosing at one8s (leasure& one or the other o' t/o (ossible -ourses o' a-tion3 it is 0aintained that there is al/ays a 7uite de'inite reason /hy& out o' se%eral (ossible a-tions& /e -arry out a (arti-ular one# This see0s ob%ious# Ne%ertheless& u( to no/& the 0ain atta-.s by those /ho o((ose 'reedo0 are dire-ted only against the 'reedo0 o' -hoi-e# "erbert S(en-er& /ho has %ie/s /hi-h are ra(idly gaining ground& says4 9That e%eryone is able to desire or not to desire& as he (leases& /hi-h is the essential (rin-i(le in the dog0a o' 'ree /ill& is negated by the analysis o' -ons-iousness& as /ell as by the -ontents o' the (re-eding -ha(ter#;+ Others& too& start 'ro0 the sa0e (oint o' %ie/ in -o0bating the -on-e(t o' 'ree /ill# The ger0s o' all that is rele%ant in these argu0ents are to be 'ound as early as S(inoza#, All that he brought 'or/ard in -lear and si0(le language against the idea o' 'reedo0 has sin-e been re(eated ti0es /ithout nu0ber& but usually %eiled in the 0ost -o0(li-ated theoreti-al do-trines so that it is di''i-ult to re-ognize the straight'or/ard train o' thought on /hi-h all de(ends# S(inoza /rites in a letter o' O-tober or No%e0ber& )@AB4 9I -all so0ething 'ree /hi-h e!ists and a-ts 'ro0 the (ure ne-essity o' its nature& and I -all that -o0(elled& the e!isten-e and a-tion o' /hi-h are e!a-tly and 'i!edly deter0ined by so0ething else# The e!isten-e o' God& 'or e!a0(le& though ne-essary& is 'ree be-ause "e e!ists only through the ne-essity o' "is nature# Si0ilarly& God .no/s "i0sel' and all else in 'reedo0& be-ause it 'ollo/s solely 'ro0 the ne-essity o' "is nature that "e .no/s

all# >ou see& there'ore& that I regard 'reedo0 as -onsisting& not in 'ree de-ision& but in 'ree ne-essity# 9But let us -o0e do/n to -reated things /hi-h are all deter0ined by e!ternal -auses to e!ist and to a-t in a 'i!ed and de'inite 0anner# To re-ognize this 0ore -learly& let us i0agine a (er'e-tly si0(le -ase# A stone& 'or e!a0(le& re-ei%es 'ro0 an e!ternal -ause a-ting u(on it a -ertain 7uantity o' 0otion& by /hi-h it ne-essarily -ontinues to 0o%e a'ter the i0(a-t o' the e!ternal -ause has -eased# The -ontinued 0otion o' the stone is a -o0(elled one& not a ne-essary one& be-ause it has to be de'ined by the thrust o' the e!ternal -ause# 2hat is true here 'or the stone is true also 'or e%ery other (arti-ular thing& ho/e%er -o0(li-ated and 0any1sided it 0ay be& na0ely& that ea-h thing is ne-essarily deter0ined by e!ternal -auses to e!ist and to a-t in a 'i!ed and de'inite 0anner# 9No/& (lease& su((ose that during its 0otion the stone thin.s and .no/s that it is stri%ing to the best o' its ability to -ontinue in 0otion# This stone /hi-h is -ons-ious only o' its stri%ing and is by no 0eans indi''erent& /ill belie%e that it is absolutely 'ree& and that it -ontinues in 0otion 'or no other reason than its o/n /ill to -ontinue# But this is that hu0an 'reedo0 /hi-h e%erybody -lai0s to (ossess and /hi-h -onsists in nothing but this& that 0en are -ons-ious o' their desires& but do not Cno/ the -auses by /hi-h they are deter0ined# Thus the -hild belie%es that he is 'ree /hen he desires 0il.& the angry boy that he is 'ree in his desire 'or %engean-e& and the ti0id in his desire 'or 'light# Again& the drun.en 0an belie%es that he says o' his o/n 'ree de-ision /hat& sober again& he /ould 'ain ha%e le't unsaid& and as this (re5udi-e is innate in all 0en& it is not easy to 'ree onesel' 'ro0 it# For although e!(erien-e tea-hes us o'ten enough that 0an& least o' all& -an te0(er his desires and that& 0o%ed by -on'li-ting (assions& he sees the better and (ursues the /orse& yet he -onsiders hi0sel' 'ree& si0(ly be-ause there are so0e things /hi-h he desires less strongly and 0any desires /hi-h -an easily be inhibited through the re-olle-tion o' so0ething else /hi-h is o'ten re0e0bered#; Be-ause here /e are dealing /ith a -lear and de'initely e!(ressed %ie/& it is also easy to dis-o%er the 'unda0ental error in it# As ne-essarily as a stone -ontinues a de'inite 0o%e0ent a'ter being (ut in 0otion& 5ust as ne-essarily is a 0an su((osed to -arry out an a-tion /hen urged thereto by any reason# It is only be-ause 0an is -ons-ious o' his a-tion& that he regards hi0sel' as its 'ree originator# But& in doing so& he o%erloo.s the 'a-t that he is dri%en to it by a -ause /hi-h he has to obey un-onditionally# The error in this train o' thought is soon 'ound# S(inoza& and all /ho thin. li.e hi0& o%erloo. the 'a-t that 0an not only is -ons-ious o' his a-tion& but 0ay also be-o0e -ons-ious o' the -auses /hi-h guide hi0# No one /ill deny that /hen the -hild desires 0il.& he is un'ree& as is also the drun.en 0an /hen he says things he later regrets# Neither .no/s anything o' the -auses /or.ing in the de(ths o' their organis0s& /hi-h e!er-ise irresistible (o/er o%er the0# But is it 5usti'iable to lu0( together a-tions o' this .ind /ith those in /hi-h a 0an is -ons-ious& not only o' his a-tions but also o' the reasons /hi-h -ause hi0 to a-t6 Are the a-tions o' 0en really all o' one .ind6 Should the deed o' a soldier on the 'ield o' battle& o' the resear-h s-ientist in his laboratory& o' the states0an in -o0(li-ated di(lo0ati- negotiations& be (la-ed& s-ienti'i-ally& on the sa0e le%el /ith that o' the -hild /hen he desires 0il.6 It is indeed true that it is best to atte0(t the solution o' a (roble0

/here the -onditions are si0(lest# But inability to di''erentiate has -aused endless -on'usion be'ore no/# There is& a'ter all& a (ro'ound di''eren-e bet/een /hether I .no/ /hy I do so0ething& or /hether I do not# At 'irst sight this see0s a sel'1e%ident truth# And yet those /ho o((ose 'reedo0 ne%er as. /hether a 0oti%e /hi-h I re-ognize and see through& -o0(els 0e in the sa0e sense as does the organi- (ro-ess in the -hild that -auses hi0 to -ry 'or 0il.# Eduard %on "art0annB 0aintains that the hu0an /ill de(ends on t/o 0ain 'a-tors4 the 0oti%e and the -hara-ter# I' one regards all 0en as ali.e& or at any rate the di''eren-es bet/een the0 as negligible& then their /ill a((ears as deter0ined 'ro0 /ithout& na0ely by the -ir-u0stan-es /hi-h -o0e to 0eet the0# But i' one ta.es into -onsideration that 0en let a re(resentation be-o0e a 0oti%e 'or their deeds only i' their -hara-ter is su-h that the (arti-ular re(resentation arouses a desire in the0& then 0an a((ears as deter0ined 'ro0 /ithin and not 'ro0 /ithout# No/& be-ause a re(resentation (ressing in on hi0 'ro0 /ithout 0ust 'irst& in a--ordan-e /ith his -hara-ter& be ado(ted as a 0oti%e& 0an belie%es hi0sel' to be 'ree& that is& inde(endent o' e!ternal 0oti%es# The truth& ho/e%er& a--ording to Eduard %on "art0ann& is that 9e%en though /e oursel%es 'irst turn a re(resentation into a 0oti%e& /e do so not arbitrarily& but a--ording to the ne-essity o' our -hara-terologi-al dis(osition& that is& /e are anything but 'ree#; "ere again& the di''eren-e bet/een 0oti%es /hi-h I allo/ to in'luen-e 0e only a'ter I ha%e (er0eated the0 /ith 0y -ons-iousness& and those /hi-h I 'ollo/ /ithout ha%ing any -lear .no/ledge o' the0& is disregarded# And this leads dire-tly to the stand(oint 'ro0 /hi-h the 'a-ts /ill be -onsidered here# Is it at all (er0issible to -onsider by itsel' the 7uestion o' the 'reedo0 o' our /ill6 And i' not4 2ith /hat other 7uestion 0ust it ne-essarily be -onne-ted6 I' there is a di''eren-e bet/een a -ons-ious 0oti%e o' 0y a-tion and an un-ons-ious i0(ulse& then the -ons-ious 0oti%e /ill result in an a-tion /hi-h 0ust be 5udged di''erently 'ro0 one that s(rings 'ro0 blind urge# The 'irst 7uestion 0ust& there'ore& -on-ern this di''eren-e& and u(on the ans/er /ill de(end ho/ /e are to deal /ith the 7uestion o' 'reedo0 as su-h# 2hat does it 0ean to .no/ the reason 'or one8s a-tion6 This 7uestion has been too little -onsidered be-ause& un'ortunately& the tenden-y has al/ays been to tear into t/o (arts /hat is an inse(arable /hole4 an# 2e distinguish the .no/er 'ro0 the doer& and the one /ho really 0atters is lost sight o'4 the 0an /ho a-ts be-ause he .no/s# It is said4 an is 'ree /hen his reason has the u((er hand& not his ani0al -ra%ings# Or else4 Freedo0 0eans to be able to deter0ine one8s li'e and a-tion in a--ordan-e /ith (ur(oses and de-isions#

Nothing is a-hie%ed by assertions o' this .ind# For the 7uestion is 5ust /hether reason& (ur(oses and de-isions e!er-ise -o0(ulsion o%er a 0an in the sa0e /ay as do his ani0al -ra%ings# I'& /ithout 0y doing& a reasonable de-ision e0erges in 0e /ith 5ust the sa0e ne-essity as hunger and thirst& then I 0ust needs obey it& and 0y 'reedo0 is an illusion# Another (hrase is4 To be 'ree 0eans not that one is able to /ill /hat one /ants& but that one is able to do /hat one /ants# This thought has been e!(ressed /ith great -learness by the (oet1(hiloso(her& Robert "a0erling#D 9 an -an& indeed& do /hat he /ants& but he -annot /ill /hat he /ants& be-ause his /ill is deter0ined by 0oti%esE "e -annot /ill /hat he /ants6 Let us -onsider these /ords 0ore -losely# "a%e they any sense6 Should 'reedo0 o' /ill -onsist in being able to /ill so0ething /ithout reason& /ithout a 0oti%e6 But /hat does it 0ean to /ill so0ething& other than to ha%e a reason to do or to stri%e 'or this rather than that6 To /ill so0ething /ithout a reason& /ithout a 0oti%e& /ould 0ean to /ill so0ething /ithout /illing it# The -on-e(t o' /ill is inse(arable 'ro0 that o' 0oti%e# 2ithout a 0oti%e to deter0ine it& the /ill is an e0(ty ability3 only through the 0oti%e does it be-o0e a-ti%e and real# It is& there'ore& 7uite -orre-t that the hu0an /ill is not F'ree&8 inas0u-h as its dire-tion is al/ays deter0ined by that 0oti%e /hi-h is the strongest# But& on the other hand& it 0ust be ad0itted that in -ontrast /ith this Fun'reedo08 it is absurd to s(ea. o' a thin.able F'reedo08 o' the /ill& /hi-h /ould end u( in being able to /ill /hat one does not /ill#; "ere again& only 0oti%es in general are dis-ussed& /ithout regard 'or the di''eren-e bet/een un-ons-ious and -ons-ious 0oti%es# I' a 0oti%e a''e-ts 0e and I a0 -o0(elled to a-t on it be-ause it (ro%es to be the 9strongest; o' its .ind& then the thought o' 'reedo0 -eases to ha%e any 0eaning# Should it 0atter to 0e /hether I -an do a thing or not& i' I a0 'or-ed by the 0oti%e to do it6 The i00ediate 7uestion is not /hether I -an or -annot do a thing /hen a 0oti%e has in'luen-ed 0e& but /hether only su-h 0oti%es e!ist as a''e-t 0e /ith -o0(elling ne-essity# I' I ha%e to /ill so0ething& then I 0ay /ell be absolutely indi''erent as to /hether I -an also do it# And i'& through 0y -hara-ter& or through -ir-u0stan-es (re%ailing in 0y en%iron0ent& a 0oti%e is (ressed u(on 0e /hi-h to 0y thin.ing is unreasonable& then I should e%en ha%e to be glad i' I -ould not do /hat I /ill# The 7uestion is not /hether I -an -arry out a de-ision on-e 0ade& but ho/ the de-ision arises /ithin 0e# 2hat distinguishes 0an 'ro0 all other organi- beings is his rational thin.ing# A-tions he has in -o00on /ith other organis0s# Nothing is gained by see.ing analogies in the ani0al /orld to -lari'y the -on-e(t o' 'reedo0 o' a-tion o' hu0an beings# odern natural s-ien-e lo%es su-h analogies# 2hen s-ientists ha%e su--eeded in 'inding a0ong ani0als so0ething si0ilar to hu0an beha%ior& they belie%e they ha%e tou-hed u(on the 0ost i0(ortant 7uestion o' the s-ien-e o' 0an# To /hat 0isunderstandings this %ie/ leads is seen& 'or e!a0(le& in a boo. by :# RGe&@ /here the 'ollo/ing re0ar. on 'reedo0 a((ears4

9It is easy to e!(lain /hy the 0o%e0ent o' a stone see0s to us ne-essary& /hile the /ill1 i0(ulse o' a don.ey does not# The -auses /hi-h set the stone in 0otion are e!ternal and %isible& /hile the -auses /hi-h indu-e in the don.ey i0(ulses o' /ill are internal and in%isible& that is& bet/een us and the (la-e /here they are a-ti%e there is the s.ull o' the don.ey#### The de(enden-e on a -ause is not seen and the -on-lusion& there'ore& is dra/n that no de(enden-e is (resent# It is e!(lained that the /ill is& indeed& the -ause o' the don.ey8s turning round& but that it is itsel' un-onditioned3 it is an absolute beginning#; "ere again& hu0an a-tions in /hi-h 0an is -ons-ious o' the reasons /hy he a-ts& are si0(ly ignored& 'or RGe de-lares4 9Bet/een us and the (la-e /here the -auses are a-ti%e there is the s.ull o' the don.ey#; Fro0 these /ords -an be seen that Ree had no notion that there are a-tions& not indeed o' the don.ey& but o' hu0an beings& in /hi-h bet/een us and the deed lies the 0oti%e that has be-o0e -ons-ious# That Ree does not see this he sho/s again later& /hen he says4 92e do not (er-ei%e the -auses by /hi-h our /ill is deter0ined& hen-e /e belie%e that our /ill is not -ausally deter0ined at all#; But enough o' e!a0(les /hi-h sho/ that 0any o((ose 'reedo0 /ithout .no/ing in the least /hat 'reedo0 is# That an a-tion -annot be 'ree& o' /hi-h the doer does not .no/ /hy he -arries it out& is ob%ious# But /hat about an a-tion 'or /hi-h /e .no/ the reasonE This leads us to the 7uestion4 2hat is the origin and signi'i-an-e o' thin.ing6 For /ithout .no/ledge o' the thin.ing a-ti%ity o' the soul& it is i0(ossible to 'or0 a -on-e(t o' /hat it 0eans to .no/ so0ething& and there'ore also o' /hat it 0eans to .no/ the reason 'or an a-tion# 2hen /e re-ognize /hat thin.ing in general 0eans& then it /ill also be easy to be-o0e -lear about the role that thin.ing (lays in hu0an a-tion# As "egelA rightly says& 9It is thin.ing that turns the soul& /ith /hi-h the ani0als are also endo/ed& into s(irit#; And this is /hy thin.ing gi%es to hu0an a-tion its -hara-teristi- sta0(# It is not 0aintained that all our a-tion s(rings only 'ro0 the sober deliberations o' our reason# Far be it 'ro0 0e to -onsider hu0an in the highest sense only those a-tions /hi-h result 'ro0 abstra-t 5udg0ents# But as soon as our -ondu-t rises abo%e the s(here o' the satis'a-tion o' (urely ani0al desires& our 0oti%es are al/ays (er0eated by thoughts# Lo%e& (ity and (atriotis0 are 0oti%ating 'or-es 'or deeds /hi-h -annot be analyzed a/ay into -old -on-e(ts o' the intelle-t# It is said that here the heart and the 0ood o' soul hold s/ay# No doubt# But the heart and the 0ood o' the soul do not -reate the 0oti%es# They (resu((ose the0 and let the0 enter# :ity enters 0y heart /hen the re(resentation o' a (erson /ho arouses (ity a((ears in 0y -ons-iousness# The /ay to the heart is through the head# Lo%e is no e!-e(tion# 2hene%er it is not 0erely the e!(ression o' bare se!ual instin-t& it de(ends on the re(resentation /e 'or0 o' the lo%ed one# And the 0ore

idealisti- these re(resentations are& 5ust so 0u-h the 0ore blessed is our lo%e# "ere too& thought is the 'ather o' 'eeling# It is said4 Lo%e 0a.es us blind to the 'ailings o' the lo%ed one# But this also holds good the other /ay round& and it -an be said4 Lo%e o(ens the eyes 5ust 'or the good 7ualities o' the lo%ed one# any (ass by these good 7ualities /ithout noti-ing the0# One& ho/e%er& sees the0& and 5ust be-ause he does& lo%e a/a.ens in his soul# "e has done nothing other than 'or0 a re(resentation o' so0ething& o' /hi-h hundreds ha%e none# They ha%e no lo%e be-ause they la-. the re(resentation# Fro0 /hate%er (oint /e regard the sub5e-t& it be-o0es e%er -learer that the 7uestion o' the nature o' hu0an a-tion (resu((oses that o' the origin o' thin.ing# I shall& there'ore& turn to this 7uestion ne!t#

THE FUNDAMENTAL URGE FOR KNOWLEDGE T/o souls alas are d/elling in 0y breast3 And ea-h is 'ain to lea%e its brother# The one& 'ast -linging& to the /orld adheres 2ith -lut-hing organs& in lo%e8s sturdy lust3 The other strongly li'ts itsel' 'ro0 dust To yonder high& an-estral s(heres# Faust I& S-# + :riest translation? In these /ords Goethe e!(resses a -hara-teristi- 'eature belonging to the dee(est 'oundation o' hu0an nature# an is not a uni'or0ly organized being# "e al/ays de0ands 0ore than the /orld gi%es hi0 o' its o/n a--ord# Nature has endo/ed us /ith needs3 a0ong the0 are so0e that are le't to our o/n initiati%e to satis'y# Abundant are the gi'ts besto/ed u(on us& but still 0ore abundant are our desires# 2e see0 born to be dissatis'ied# Our thirst 'or .no/ledge is but a s(e-ial instan-e o' this dissatis'a-tion# I' /e loo. t/i-e at a tree and the 'irst ti0e see its bran-hes 0otionless& the se-ond ti0e in 0o%e0ent& /e do not re0ain satis'ied /ith this obser%ation# 2hy does the tree a((ear to us no/ 0otionless& no/ in 0o%e0ent6 Thus /e as.# E%ery glan-e at nature e%o.es in us a nu0ber o' 7uestions# E%ery (heno0enon /e 0eet sets us a (roble0# E%ery e!(erien-e -ontains a riddle# 2e see e0erging 'ro0 the egg a -reature li.e the 0other ani0al3 /e as. the reason 'or this li.eness# 2e noti-e that li%ing beings gro/ and de%elo( to a -ertain degree o' (er'e-tion and /e in%estigate the -onditions 'or this e!(erien-e# No/here are /e satis'ied /ith /hat nature s(reads be'ore our senses# E%ery/here /e see. /hat /e -all e!(lanation o' the 'a-ts# The so0ething 0ore /hi-h /e see. in things& o%er and abo%e /hat is gi%en us dire-tly in the0& di%ides our /hole being into t/o as(e-ts3 /e be-o0e -ons-ious o' our -ontrast to the /orld# 2e -on'ront the /orld as inde(endent beings# The uni%erse a((ears to us to ha%e t/o o((osite (oles4 I and /orld#

2e ere-t this barrier bet/een oursel%es and the /orld as soon as -ons-iousness 'irst da/ns in us# But /e ne%er -ease to 'eel that& in s(ite o' all& /e belong to the /orld& that there is a bond o' union bet/een it and us& that /e are not beings outside& but /ithin& the uni%erse# This 'eeling 0a.es us stri%e to bridge o%er the -ontrast# And in this bridging the /hole s(iritual stri%ing o' 0an.ind ulti0ately -onsists# The history o' 0an8s s(iritual li'e is an in-essant sear-h 'or unity bet/een us and the /orld# Religion& art and s-ien-e all ha%e this sa0e ai0# In the re%elation God grants hi0& the religious belie%er see.s the solution o' the (roble0s in the /orld /hi-h his I& dissatis'ied /ith the /orld o' 0ere (heno0ena& sets hi0# The artist see.s to i0(rint into 0atter the ideas o' his I& in order to re-on-ile /ith the /orld outside /hat li%es /ithin hi0# "e& too& 'eels dissatis'ied /ith the /orld as it a((ears to hi0& and see.s to e0body into the /orld o' 0ere (heno0ena that so0ething 0ore /hi-h his I& rea-hing out beyond it& -ontains# The thin.er see.s the la/s o' (heno0ena& and stri%es to (enetrate /ith thin.ing /hat he e!(erien-es by obser%ing# Only /hen /e ha%e 0ade the /orld1-ontent into our thought1-ontent do /e again 'ind the unity 'ro0 /hi-h /e se(arated oursel%es# 2e shall see later that this goal /ill be rea-hed only /hen the tas. o' the s-ienti'i- in%estigator is understood at a 0u-h dee(er le%el than is usually the -ase# The /hole situation I ha%e des-ribed here& (resents itsel' to us on the stage o' history in the -ontrast bet/een a uni'ied %ie/ o' the /orld or 0onis0&* and the theory o' t/o /orlds or dualis0#)H Dualis0 (ays attention only to the se(aration bet/een I and /orld& brought about by 0an8s -ons-iousness# All its e''orts -onsist in a %ain struggle to re-on-ile these o((osites& /hi-h it -alls s(irit and 0atter& sub5e-t and ob5e-t& or thin.ing and (heno0ena# The dualist 'eels that there 0ust be a bridge bet/een the t/o /orlds& but he is unable to 'ind it# In as 'ar as 0an is a/are o' hi0sel' as 9I&; he -annot but thin. o' this 9I; as belonging to s(irit3 and in -ontrasting this 9I; /ith the /orld he -annot do other/ise than re-.on the (er-e(tions gi%en to the senses& the real0 o' 0atter& as belonging to the /orld# In doing so& 0an (la-es hi0sel' /ithin the -ontrast o' s(irit and 0atter# "e 0ust do so all the 0ore be-ause his o/n body belongs to the 0aterial /orld# Thus the 9I; belongs to the real0 o' s(irit& as (art o' it3 the 0aterial things and e%ents /hi-h are (er-ei%ed by the senses belong to the 9/orld#; All the (roble0s -onne-ted /ith s(irit and 0atter& 0an 'inds again in the 'unda0ental riddle o' his o/n nature# onis0 (ays attention only to the unity and tries either to deny or to e''a-e the -ontrasts& /hi-h are there ne%ertheless# Neither o' these t/o %ie/s is satis'a-tory& 'or they do not do 5usti-e to the 'a-ts# Dualis0 sees s(irit <I= and 0atter </orld= as t/o 'unda0entally di''erent entities and -annot& there'ore& understand ho/ they -an intera-t u(on ea-h other# "o/ should s(irit .no/ /hat goes on in 0atter& i' the essential nature o' 0atter is 7uite alien to s(irit6 And ho/& in these -ir-u0stan-es& should s(irit be able to a-t u(on 0atter& in order to trans'or0 its intentions into a-tions6 The 0ost -le%er and the 0ost absurd hy(otheses ha%e been (ut 'or/ard to sol%e these (roble0s# But& so 'ar& 0onis0 has 'ared no better# U( to no/ it has tried to 5usti'y itsel' in three di''erent /ays# Either it denies s(irit and be-o0es 0aterialis03 or it denies 0atter and see.s its sal%ation in s(iritualis0))3 or it 0aintains that sin-e e%en in the si0(lest entities in the /orld s(irit and 0atter are indi%isibly bound together& there is no need 'or sur(rise i' these t/o .inds o' e!isten-e are both (resent in the hu0an being& 'or they are ne%er 'ound a(art#

aterialis0)+ -an ne%er arri%e at a satis'a-tory e!(lanation o' the /orld# For e%ery atte0(t at an e!(lanation 0ust o' ne-essity begin /ith 0an8s 'or0ing thoughts about the (heno0ena o' the /orld# aterialis0& there'ore& ta.es its start 'ro0 thoughts about 0atter or 0aterial (ro-esses# In doing so& it straight/ay -on'ronts t/o di''erent .inds o' 'a-ts& na0ely& the 0aterial /orld and the thoughts about it# The 0aterialist tries to understand thoughts by regarding the0 as a (urely 0aterial (ro-ess# "e belie%es that thin.ing ta.es (la-e in the brain 0u-h in the sa0e /ay that digestion ta.es (la-e in the ani0al organs# Iust as he as-ribes to 0atter 0e-hani-al and organi- e''e-ts& so he also attributes to 0atter& in -ertain -ir-u0stan-es& the ability to thin.# "e 'orgets that in doing this he has 0erely shi'ted the (roble0 to another (la-e# Instead o' to hi0sel'& he as-ribes to 0atter the ability to thin.# And thus he is ba-. again at his starting1(oint# "o/ does 0atter -o0e to re'le-t about its o/n natureE 2hy is it not si0(ly satis'ied /ith itsel' and /ith its e!isten-e6 The 0aterialist has turned his attention a/ay 'ro0 the de'inite sub5e-t& 'ro0 our o/n I& and has arri%ed at a %ague& inde'inite i0age# And here again& the sa0e (roble0 -o0es to 0eet hi0# The 0aterialisti- %ie/ is unable to sol%e the (roble03 it only trans'ers it to another (la-e# "o/ does the 0atter stand /ith the s(iritualisti- %ie/6 The e!tre0e s(iritualist denies to 0atter its inde(endent e!isten-e and regards it 0erely as (rodu-t o' s(irit# But /hen he tries to a((ly this %ie/ o' the /orld to the solution o' the riddle o' his o/n hu0an nature& he 'inds hi0sel' in a -orner# $on'ronting the I& /hi-h -an be (la-ed on the side o' s(irit& there stands& /ithout any 0ediation& the (hysi-al /orld# No s(iritual a((roa-h to it see0s (ossible3 it has to be (er-ei%ed and e!(erien-ed by the I by 0eans o' 0aterial (ro-esses# Su-h 0aterial (ro-esses the 9I; does not 'ind in itsel' i' it regards its o/n nature as ha%ing only s(iritual %alidity# The (hysi-al /orld is ne%er 'ound in /hat it /or.s out s(iritually# It see0s as i' the 9I; /ould ha%e to ad0it that the /orld /ould re0ain -losed to it i' it did not establish a non1s(iritual relation to the /orld# Si0ilarly& /hen /e -o0e to be a-ti%e& /e ha%e to translate our intentions into realities /ith the hel( o' 0aterial substan-es and 'or-es# In other /ords& /e are de(endent u(on the outer /orld# The 0ost e!tre0e s(iritualist 1 or rather& the thin.er /ho& through absolute idealis0& a((ears as an e!tre0e s(iritualist 1 is Iohann Gottlieb Fi-hte#), "e atte0(ts to deri%e the /hole edi'i-e o' the /orld 'ro0 the 9I#; 2hat he has a-tually a--o0(lished is a 0agni'i-ent thought1 (i-ture o' the /orld& /ithout any -ontent o' e!(erien-e# As little as it is (ossible 'or the 0aterialist to argue the s(irit a/ay& 5ust as little is it (ossible 'or the idealist to argue a/ay the outer /orld o' 0atter# The 'irst thing 0an (er-ei%es /hen he see.s to gain .no/ledge o' his 9I; is the a-ti%ity o' this 9I; in the -on-e(tual elaboration o' the /orld o' ideas# This is the reason /hy so0eone /ho 'ollo/s a /orld1%ie/ /hi-h in-lines to/ard s(iritualis0 0ay 'eel te0(ted& /hen loo.ing at his o/n hu0an nature& to a-.no/ledge nothing o' s(irit e!-e(t his o/n /orld o' ideas# In this /ay s(iritualis0 be-o0es one1sided idealis0# "e does not rea-h the (oint o' see.ing through the /orld o' ideas a s(iritual /orld3 in the /orld o' his ideas he sees the s(iritual /orld itsel'# As a result o' this& he is dri%en to re0ain /ith his /orld1 %ie/ as i' -hained /ithin the a-ti%ity o' his 9I#;

The %ie/ o' Friedri-h Albert Lange)B is a -urious %ariety o' idealis0& (ut 'or/ard by hi0 in his /idely read "istory o' aterialis0# "e suggests that the 0aterialists are 7uite right in de-laring all (heno0ena& in-luding our thin.ing& to be the (rodu-t o' (urely 0aterial (ro-esses& only& in turn& 0atter and its (ro-esses are the0sel%es the (rodu-t o' our thin.ing# 9The senses gi%e us the e''e-ts o' things& not true -o(ies& 0u-h less the things the0sel%es# To these 0ere e''e-ts belong the senses the0sel%es& as /ell as the brain and the 0ole-ular %ibrations /hi-h are thought to go on there#; That is& our thin.ing is (rodu-ed by the 0aterial (ro-esses& and these by the thin.ing o' the 9I#; Lange8s (hiloso(hy& in other /ords& is nothing but the story 1 a((lied to -on-e(ts 1 o' the ingenious Baron iinn-hhausen&)D /ho holds hi0sel' u( in the air by his o/n (igtail# The third 'or0 o' 0onis0 is the one /hi-h sees the t/o entities& 0atter and s(irit& already united in the si0(lest being <the ato0=# But nothing is gained by this& either& 'or here again the 7uestion& /hi-h really originates in our -ons-iousness& is trans'erred to another (la-e# "o/ does the si0(le being -o0e to 0ani'est itsel' in t/o di''erent /ays& i' it is an indi%isible unity6 To all these %ie/(oints it 0ust be ob5e-ted that it is 'irst and 'ore0ost in our o/n -ons-iousness that /e 0eet the basi- and original -ontrast# It is /e /ho deta-h oursel%es 'ro0 the boso0 o' nature and -ontrast oursel%es as 9I; /ith the 9/orld#; Goethe8; has gi%en -lassi- e!(ression to this in his essay On Nature& although at 'irst glan-e his 0anner 0ay be -onsidered 7uite uns-ienti'i-4 92e li%e in the 0idst o' her <nature= yet are /e strangers to her# $easelessly she s(ea.s to us& and yet betrays not her se-rets#; But Goethe .ne/ the other side too4 9All hu0an beings are in her and she is in all hu0an beings#; Iust as true as it is that /e ha%e estranged oursel%es 'ro0 nature& so is it also true that /e 'eel4 2e are /ithin nature and /e belong to it# That /hi-h li%es in us -an only be nature8s o/n in'luen-e# 2e 0ust 'ind the /ay ba-. to nature again# A si0(le -onsideration -an sho/ us this /ay# 2e ha%e& it is true& deta-hed oursel%es 'ro0 nature& but /e 0ust ha%e ta.en so0ething o' it o%er /ith us& into our o/n being# This essen-e o' nature in us /e 0ust see. out& and then /e shall also 'ind the -onne-tion /ith it on-e again# Dualis0 negle-ts this# It -onsiders the inner being o' 0an as a s(iritual entity 7uite alien to nature& and see.s so0eho/ to hit-h it onto nature# No /onder it -annot 'ind the -onne-ting lin.# 2e -an only understand nature outside us /hen /e ha%e 'irst learned to re-ognize it /ithin us# 2hat /ithin us is a.in to nature 0ust be our guide# This (oints out our (ath# 2e shall not s(e-ulate about the intera-tion o' nature and s(irit# But /e shall (enetrate the de(ths o' our o/n being& there to 'ind those ele0ents /hi-h /e too. /ith us in our 'light 'ro0 nature#

In%estigation o' our o/n being 0ust bring the solution o' the riddle# 2e 0ust rea-h a (oint /here /e -an say to oursel%es4 "ere I a0 no longer 0erely 9I&; here I en-ounter so0ething /hi-h is 0ore than 9I#; I a0 a/are that 0any /ho ha%e read thus 'ar /ill not ha%e 'ound 0y dis-ussion 9s-ienti'i-; in the usual sense# To this I -an only re(ly that so 'ar I ha%e not been -on-erned /ith s-ienti'i- results o' any .ind& but /ith the si0(le des-ri(tion o' /hat e%eryone e!(erien-es in his o/n -ons-iousness# A 'e/ e!(ressions -on-erning the atte0(ts to re-on-ile 0an8s -ons-iousness and the /orld ha%e been used only 'or the (ur(ose o' -lari'ying the a-tual 'a-ts# I ha%e& there'ore& 0ade no atte0(t to use the e!(ressions 9I&; 9s(irit&; 9/orld&; 9nature&; in the (re-ise /ay that is usual in (sy-hology and (hiloso(hy# Ordinary -ons-iousness is una/are o' the shar( distin-tions 0ade by the s-ien-es& and u( to this (oint it has only been a 0atter o' des-ribing the 'a-ts o' e%eryday -onditions# I a0 -on-erned& not /ith ho/ s-ien-e& so 'ar& has inter(reted -ons-iousness& but /ith ho/ /e e!(erien-e it in daily li'e#

THINKING IN THE SERVICE OF UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD 2hen I see ho/ a billiard ball& /hen stru-.& -o00uni-ates its 0otion to another ball& I re0ain entirely /ithout in'luen-e on the -ourse o' this e%ent /hi-h I obser%e# The dire-tion and %elo-ity o' the se-ond ball is deter0ined by the dire-tion and %elo-ity o' the 'irst# As long as I do no 0ore than obser%e& I -annot say anything about the 0otion o' the se-ond ball until it a-tually 0o%es# The situation alters i' I begin to re'le-t on the -ontent o' 0y obser%ation# The (ur(ose o' 0y re'le-tion is to 'or0 -on-e(ts o' the e%ent# I bring the -on-e(t o' an elasti- ball into -onne-tion /ith -ertain other -on-e(ts o' 0e-hani-s& and ta.e into -onsideration the s(e-ial -ir-u0stan-es (re%ailing in this (arti-ular instan-e# In other /ords& to the a-tion ta.ing (la-e /ithout 0y doing& I try to add a se-ond a-tion /hi-h un'olds in the -on-e(tual s(here# The latter is de(endent on 0e# This is sho/n by the 'a-t that I -ould rest -ontent /ith the obser%ation and 'orgo all sear-h 'or -on-e(ts i' I had no need o' the0# I'& ho/e%er& this need is (resent& then I a0 not satis'ied until I ha%e brought the -on-e(ts ball& elasti-ity& 0otion& i0(a-t& %elo-ity& et-#& into a -ertain -onne-tion& to /hi-h the obser%ed (ro-ess is related in a de'inite /ay# As -ertain as it is that the e%ent ta.es (la-e inde(endently o' 0e& so -ertain is it also that the -on-e(tual (ro-ess -annot ta.e (la-e /ithout 0y doing it# 2e shall -onsider later /hether this a-ti%ity o' 0ine is really a (rodu-t o' 0y o/n inde(endent being or /hether the 0odern (hysiologists are right /ho say that /e -annot thin. as /e /ill& but that /e 0ust thin. e!a-tly as the thoughts and thought1-onne-tions (resent in our -ons-iousness deter0ine#)A For the ti0e being /e /ish 0erely to establish the 'a-t that /e -onstantly 'eel -o0(elled to see. 'or -on-e(ts and -onne-tions o' -on-e(ts standing in a -ertain relation to ob5e-ts and e%ents gi%en inde(endently o' us# 2hether this a-ti%ity is really ours& or /hether /e a--o0(lish it a--ording to an unalterable ne-essity& /e shall lea%e aside 'or the 0o0ent# That at 'irst sight it a((ears to be our a-ti%ity is beyond doubt# 2e .no/ /ith absolute -ertainty that /e are not gi%en

the -on-e(ts together /ith the ob5e-ts# That I 0ysel' a0 the doer 0ay be illusion& but to i00ediate obser%ation this -ertainly a((ears to be the -ase# The 7uestion here is4 2hat do /e gain by 'inding a -on-e(tual -ounter(art to an e%ent6 There is a (ro'ound di''eren-e bet/een the /ays in /hi-h& 'or 0e& the (arts o' an e%ent are related to one another be'ore and a'ter the dis-o%ery o' the -orres(onding -on-e(ts# ere obser%ation -an 'ollo/ the (arts o' a gi%en e%ent as they o--ur& but their -onne-tion re0ains obs-ure /ithout the hel( o' -on-e(ts# I see the 'irst billiard ball 0o%e to/ard the se-ond in a -ertain dire-tion and /ith a de'inite %elo-ity# I 0ust /ait 'or /hat /ill ha((en a'ter the i0(a-t& and again I -an 'ollo/ /hat ha((ens only /ith 0y eyes# Let us assu0e that at the 0o0ent the i0(a-t o--urs so0eone obstru-ts 0y %ie/ o' the 'ield /here the e%ent ta.es (la-e4 then 1 as 0ere onloo.er 1 I ha%e no .no/ledge o' /hat ha((ens a'ter/ard# The situation is di''erent i' be'ore 0y %ie/ /as obstru-ted I had dis-o%ered the -on-e(ts -orres(onding to the ne!us o' e%ents# In that -ase I -an esti0ate /hat o--urs& e%en /hen I a0 no longer able to obser%e# An ob5e-t or e%ent /hi-h has only been obser%ed does not o' itsel' re%eal anything about its -onne-tion /ith other ob5e-ts or e%ents# This -onne-tion -o0es to light only /hen obser%ation -o0bines /ith thin.ing# Obser%ation and thin.ing are the t/o (oints o' de(arture 'or all s(iritual stri%ing o' 0an inso'ar as he is -ons-ious o' su-h stri%ing# 2hat is a--o0(lished by ordinary hu0an reason as /ell as by the 0ost -o0(li-ated s-ienti'i- in%estigations rests on these t/o 'unda0ental (illars o' our s(irit# :hiloso(hers ha%e started 'ro0 %arious (ri0ary antitheses4 idea and reality& sub5e-t and ob5e-t& a((earan-e and thing1in1itsel'& ego and non1ego& idea and /ill& -on-e(t and 0atter& 'or-e and substan-e& the -ons-ious and the un-ons-ious# It is easy to sho/& ho/e%er& that all these antitheses 0ust be (re-eded by that o' obser%ation and thin.ing& as the one the 0ost i0(ortant 'or 0an# 2hate%er (rin-i(le /e /ish to ad%an-e& /e 0ust (ro%e that so0e/here /e ha%e obser%ed it& or e!(ress it in the 'or0 o' a -lear thought /hi-h -an be re1thought by others# E%ery (hiloso(her /ho begins to s(ea. about his 'unda0ental (rin-i(les 0ust 0a.e use o' the -on-e(tual 'or0& and thereby 0a.es use o' thin.ing# "e there'ore indire-tly ad0its that 'or his a-ti%ity he (resu((oses thin.ing# 2hether thin.ing or so0ething else is the 0ain ele0ent in the e%olution o' the /orld& /e shall not de-ide as yet# But that /ithout thin.ing the (hiloso(her -an gain no .no/ledge o' the e%olution o' the /orld& is i00ediately -lear# Thin.ing 0ay (lay a 0inor (art in the -o0ing into being o' /orld (heno0ena& but thin.ing -ertainly (lays a 0a5or (art in the -o0ing into being o' a %ie/ about the0# As regards obser%ation& it is due to our organization that /e need it# For us& our thin.ing about a horse and the ob5e-t horse are t/o se(arate things# But /e ha%e a--ess to the ob5e-t only through obser%ation# As little as /e -an 'or0 a -on-e(t o' a horse by 0erely staring at it& 5ust as little are /e able to (rodu-e a -orres(onding ob5e-t by 0ere thin.ing# In se7uen-e o' ti0e& obser%ation e%en (re-edes thin.ing# For e%en thin.ing /e learn to .no/ 'irst by 0eans o' obser%ation# It /as essentially a des-ri(tion o' an obser%ation

/hen& at the o(ening o' this -ha(ter& /e ga%e an a--ount o' ho/ thin.ing is .indled by an e%ent and o' ho/ it goes beyond /hat is gi%en /ithout its a-ti%ity# 2hate%er enters the -ir-le o' our e!(erien-es /e 'irst be-o0e a/are o' through obser%ation# The -ontents o' sensation& o' (er-e(tion& o' -onte0(lation& o' 'eelings& o' a-ts o' /ill& o' the (i-tures o' drea0s and 'antasy& o' re(resentations& o' -on-e(ts and ideas& o' all illusions and hallu-inations are gi%en us through obser%ation# "o/e%er& as ob5e-t o' obser%ation& thin.ing di''ers essentially 'ro0 all other ob5e-ts# The obser%ation o' a table or a tree o--urs in 0e as soon as these ob5e-ts a((ear /ithin the range o' 0y e!(erien-e# But 0y thin.ing that goes on about these things& I do not obser%e at the sa0e ti0e# I obser%e the table3 the thin.ing about the table I -arry out& but I do not obser%e it at the sa0e 0o0ent# I /ould 'irst ha%e to trans(ort 0ysel' to a (la-e outside 0y o/n a-ti%ity i'& besides obser%ing the table& I /anted also to obser%e 0y thin.ing about the table# 2hereas obser%ation o' things and e%ents& and thin.ing about the0& are but ordinary o--urren-es 'illing daily li'e& the obser%ation o' thin.ing itsel' is a sort o' e!-e(tional situation# This 'a-t 0ust be ta.en into a--ount su''i-iently /hen /e -o0e to deter0ine the relation o' thin.ing to all other -ontents o' obser%ation# It is essential to be -lear about the 'a-t that /hen thin.ing is obser%ed the sa0e (ro-edure is a((lied to it as the one /e nor0ally a((ly to the rest o' the /orld1-ontent& only in ordinary li'e /e do not a((ly it to thin.ing# So0eone 0ight ob5e-t that /hat I ha%e said here about thin.ing also holds good 'or 'eeling and 'or all other soul a-ti%ities# 2hen& 'or e!a0(le& /e 'eel (leasure& the 'eeling is also .indled by an ob5e-t& and it is this ob5e-t I obser%e& and not the 'eeling o' (leasure# This ob5e-tion& ho/e%er& is based u(on an error# :leasure does not ha%e at all the sa0e relationshi( to its ob5e-t as has the -on-e(t /hi-h thin.ing builds u(# I a0 absolutely -ons-ious o' the 'a-t that the -on-e(t o' a thing is built u( by 0y a-ti%ity& /hereas (leasure is (rodu-ed in 0e by an ob5e-t in the sa0e /ay as& 'or instan-e& a -hange is -aused in an ob5e-t by a stone /hi-h 'alls u(on it# For obser%ation& a (leasure is gi%en in e!a-tly the sa0e /ay as that is gi%en /hi-h -auses it# The sa0e is not true o' -on-e(ts# I -an as.4 2hy does a (arti-ular e%ent arouse in 0e a 'eeling o' (leasure6 But it is ne%er (ossible to as.4 2hy does an e%ent (rodu-e in 0e a -ertain nu0ber o' -on-e(ts6 That si0(ly has no sense# 2hen I re'le-t about an e%ent there is no 7uestion o' an e''e-t on 0e# I learn nothing about 0ysel' by .no/ing the -on-e(ts /hi-h -orres(ond to the -hange obser%ed in a (ane o' glass /hen a stone is thro/n against it# But I %ery de'initely do learn so0ething about 0y (ersonality /hen I .no/ the 'eeling /hi-h a -ertain e%ent arouses in 0e# 2hen I say o' an obser%ed ob5e-t4 This is a rose& I say absolutely nothing about 0ysel'3 but /hen I say o' the sa0e thing4 It gi%es 0e a 'eeling o' (leasure& I -hara-terize not only the rose but also 0ysel' in 0y relation to the rose# There -an& there'ore& be no 7uestion o' -o0(aring thin.ing and 'eeling as ob5e-ts o' obser%ation# And the sa0e -ould easily be sho/n -on-erning other a-ti%ities o' the hu0an soul# Unli.e thin.ing& they belong in the sa0e s(here as other obser%ed ob5e-ts and e%ents# It is -hara-teristi- o' the nature o' thin.ing that it is an a-ti%ity dire-ted solely u(on the obser%ed ob5e-t and not u(on the thin.ing (ersonality# This -an already be seen 'ro0 the /ay /e e!(ress our thoughts& as distin-t 'ro0 the /ay /e e!(ress our 'eelings

or a-ts o' /ill in relation to ob5e-ts# 2hen I see an ob5e-t and re-ognize it as a table& generally I /ould not say4 I a0 thin.ing o' a table& but4 This is a table# But I /ould say4 I a0 (leased /ith the table# In the 'irst instan-e I a0 not at all interested in (ointing out that I ha%e entered into any relationshi( /ith the table& /hereas in the se-ond it is 5ust this relationshi( that 0atters# In saying4 I a0 thin.ing o' a table& I already enter the e!-e(tional situation -hara-terized abo%e& /here so0ething is 0ade an ob5e-t o' obser%ation /hi-h is al/ays -ontained /ithin our soul8s a-ti%ity& only nor0ally it is not 0ade an ob5e-t o' obser%ation# It is -hara-teristi- o' thin.ing that the thin.er 'orgets thin.ing /hile doing it# 2hat o--u(ies hi0 is not thin.ing& but the ob5e-t o' thin.ing /hi-h he obser%es# The 'irst thing then& that /e obser%e about thin.ing is that it is the unobser%ed ele0ent in our ordinary li'e o' thought# The reason /e do not obser%e thin.ing in our daily li'e o' thought is be-ause it de(ends u(on our o/n a-ti%ity# 2hat I 0ysel' do not bring about& enters 0y 'ield o' obser%ation as so0ething ob5e-ti%e# I 'ind 0ysel' -on'ronted by it as by so0ething that has -o0e about inde(endently o' 0e3 it -o0es to 0eet 0e3 I 0ust ta.e it as the (resu((osition o' 0y thin.ing (ro-ess# 2hile I re'le-t on the ob5e-t& I a0 o--u(ied /ith it& 0y attention is turned to it# This a-ti%ity is& in 'a-t& thin.ing -onte0(lation# y attention is dire-ted not to 0y a-ti%ity but to the ob5e-t o' this a-ti%ity# In other /ords4 /hile I thin.& I do not loo. at 0y thin.ing /hi-h I (rodu-e& but at the ob5e-t o' thin.ing /hi-h I do not (rodu-e# I a0 e%en in the sa0e (osition /hen I let the e!-e(tional situation -o0e about and thin. about 0y o/n thin.ing# I -an ne%er obser%e 0y (resent thin.ing& but only a'ter/ard -an I 0a.e into an ob5e-t o' thin.ing the e!(erien-e I ha%e had o' 0y thin.ing1(ro-ess# I' I /anted to obser%e 0y (resent thin.ing& I /ould ha%e to s(lit 0ysel' into t/o (ersons4 one to do the thin.ing& the other to obser%e this thin.ing# This I -annot do# I -an only a--o0(lish it in t/o se(arate a-ts# The thin.ing to be obser%ed is ne%er the one a-tually being (rodu-ed& but another one# 2hether 'or this (ur(ose I obser%e 0y o/n earlier thin.ing& or 'ollo/ the thin.ing (ro-ess o' another (erson& or else& as in the abo%e e!a0(le o' the 0o%e0ents o' the billiard balls& (resu((ose an i0aginary thin.ing (ro-ess& 0a.es no di''eren-e# T/o things that do not go together are a-ti%ely (rodu-ing so0ething and -on'ronting this in -onte0(lation# This is already sho/n in the First Boo. o' oses# The latter re(resents God as -reating the /orld in the 'irst si! days& and only /hen the /orld is there is the (ossibility o' -onte0(lating it also (resent4 9And God sa/ e%erything that he had 0ade and& behold& it /as %ery good#; So it is also /ith our thin.ing# It 0ust 'irst be (resent be'ore /e -an obser%e it# The reason it is i0(ossible 'or us to obser%e thin.ing /hen it is a-tually ta.ing (la-e& is also the reason it is (ossible 'or us to .no/ it 0ore dire-tly and 0ore inti0ately than any other (ro-ess in the /orld# It is 5ust be-ause /e oursel%es bring it 'orth that /e .no/ the -hara-teristi- 'eatures o' its -ourse& the 0anner in /hi-h the (ro-ess ta.es (la-e# 2hat in

the other s(heres o' obser%ation -an be 'ound only indire-tly4 the rele%ant -onte!t and the -onne-tion bet/een the indi%idual ob5e-ts 1 in the -ase o' thin.ing is .no/n to us in an absolutely dire-t /ay# O''1hand& I do not .no/ /hy& 'or 0y obser%ation& thunder 'ollo/s lightning& but 'ro0 the -ontent o' the t/o -on-e(ts I .no/ i00ediately /hy 0y thin.ing -onne-ts the -on-e(t o' thunder /ith the -on-e(t o' lightning# Naturally here it does not 0atter /hether I ha%e -orre-t -on-e(ts o' thunder and lightning# The -onne-tion bet/een those -on-e(ts I ha%e is -lear to 0e& and indeed this is the -ase through the -on-e(ts the0sel%es# This trans(arent -larity o' the (ro-ess o' thin.ing is 7uite inde(endent o' our .no/ledge o' the (hysiologi-al basis o' thin.ing# I s(ea. here o' thin.ing inso'ar as it (resents itsel' to obser%ation o' our s(iritual a-ti%ity# "o/ one 0aterial (ro-ess in 0y brain -auses or in'luen-es another /hile I -arry out a line o' thought& does not -o0e into -onsideration at all# 2hat I see /hen I obser%e thin.ing is not /hat (ro-ess in 0y brain -onne-ts the -on-e(t o' lightning /ith the -on-e(t o' thunder& but I see /hat 0oti%ates 0e to bring the t/o -on-e(ts into a (arti-ular relationshi(# y obser%ation o' thin.ing sho/s 0e that there is nothing that dire-ts 0e in 0y -onne-ting one thought /ith another& e!-e(t the -ontent o' 0y thoughts3 I a0 not dire-ted by the 0aterial (ro-esses in 0y brain# In a less 0aterialisti- age than ours this re0ar. /ould o' -ourse be entirely su(er'luous# Today ho/e%er& /hen there are (eo(le /ho belie%e4 2hen /e .no/ /hat 0atter is& /e shall also .no/ ho/ 0atter thin.s& 1 it has to be said that it is (ossible to s(ea. about thin.ing /ithout entering the do0ain o' brain (hysiology at the sa0e ti0e# Today 0any (eo(le 'ind it di''i-ult to gras( the -on-e(t o' thin.ing in its (urity# Anyone /ho /ants to -ontrast the re(resentation o' thin.ing I ha%e here de%elo(ed& /ith $abanis8)? state0ent& 9The brain se-retes thoughts as the li%er does gall or the s(ittle1glands s(ittle& et-#&; si0(ly does not .no/ /hat I a0 tal.ing about# "e tries to 'ind thin.ing by 0eans o' a 0ere (ro-ess o' obser%ation su-h as /e a((ly to other ob5e-ts that 0a.e u( the -ontent o' the /orld# "e -annot 'ind it in this 0anner be-ause as I ha%e sho/n& it eludes nor0al obser%ation# 2hoe%er -annot o%er-o0e 0aterialis0 la-.s the ability to bring about in hi0sel' the e!-e(tional situation des-ribed abo%e& /hi-h brings to his -ons-iousness /hat re0ains un-ons-ious in all other s(iritual a-ti%ities# I' a (erson does not ha%e the good /ill to (la-e hi0sel' in this situation& then one -an no 0ore s(ea. to hi0 about thin.ing than one -an s(ea. about -olor to a (erson /ho is blind# "o/e%er& he 0ust not belie%e that /e -onsider (hysiologi-al (ro-esses to be thin.ing# "e -annot e!(lain thin.ing be-ause he si0(ly does not see it# "o/e%er& one (ossessing the ability to obser%e thin.ing& 1 and /ith good/ill e%ery nor0ally organized (erson has this ability& 1 this obser%ation is the 0ost i0(ortant he -an 0a.e# For he obser%es so0ething /hi-h he hi0sel' brings to e!isten-e3 he 'inds hi0sel' -on'ronted not by a 'oreign ob5e-t& to begin /ith& but by his o/n a-ti%ity# "e .no/s ho/ /hat he obser%es -o0es to be# "e sees through the -onne-tions and relations# A 'ir0 (oint is attained 'ro0 /hi-h& /ith /ell1'ounded ho(e& one -an see. 'or the e!(lanation o' the rest o' the /orld8s (heno0ena# The 'eeling o' (ossessing su-h a 'ir0 (oint -aused the 'ounder o' 0odern (hiloso(hy& Renatus $artesius&)* to base the /hole o' hu0an .no/ledge on the (rin-i(le& I thin.&

there'ore I a0# All other things& all other e%ents are (resent inde(endent o' 0e# 2hether they are there as truth or illusion or drea0 I .no/ not# Only one thing do I .no/ /ith absolute -ertainty& 'or I 0ysel' bring it to its sure e!isten-e4 0y thin.ing# :erha(s it also has so0e other origin as /ell& (erha(s it -o0es 'ro0 God or 'ro0 else/here& but that it is (resent in the sense that I 0ysel' bring it 'orth& o' that I a0 -ertain# $artesius had& to begin /ith& no 5usti'i-ation 'or gi%ing his state0ent any other 0eaning# "e -ould 0aintain only that /ithin the /hole /orld -ontent it is in 0y thin.ing that I gras( 0ysel' /ithin that a-ti%ity /hi-h is 0ost essentially 0y o/n# 2hat is 0eant by the atta-hed there'ore I a0& has been 0u-h debated# It -an ha%e a 0eaning in one sense only# The si0(lest assertion I -an 0a.e about so0ething is that it is& that it e!ists# "o/ this e!isten-e -an be 'urther de'ined I -annot say straight a/ay about anything that -o0es to 0eet 0e# Ea-h thing 0ust 'irst be studied in its relation to others be'ore it -an be deter0ined in /hat sense it -an be said to e!ist# An e%ent that -o0es to 0eet 0e 0ay be a set o' (er-e(tions& but it -ould also be a drea0& a hallu-ination& and so 'orth# In short& I a0 unable to say in /hat sense it e!ists# I -annot gather this 'ro0 the e%ent in itsel'& but I shall learn it /hen I -onsider the e%ent in its relation to other things# Fro0 this& ho/e%er& I -an& again& learn no 0ore than ho/ it is related to these other things# y sear-h only rea-hes solid ground i' I 'ind an ob5e-t /hi-h e!ists in a sense /hi-h I -an deri%e 'ro0 the ob5e-t itsel'# As thin.er I a0 su-h an ob5e-t& 'or I gi%e 0y e!isten-e the de'inite& sel'1 de(endent -ontent o' the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing# "a%ing rea-hed this& I -an go on 'ro0 here and as.4 Do the other ob5e-ts e!ist in the sa0e or in so0e other sense6 2hen thin.ing is 0ade the ob5e-t o' obser%ation& to the rest o' the ele0ents to be obser%ed is added so0ething /hi-h usually es-a(es attention3 but the 0anner in /hi-h the other things are a((roa-hed by 0an is not altered# One in-reases the nu0ber o' obser%ed ob5e-ts& but not the nu0ber o' 0ethods o' obser%ation# 2hile /e are obser%ing the other things& there 0ingles in the uni%ersal (ro-ess 1 in /hi-h I no/ in-lude obser%ation 1 one (ro-ess /hi-h is o%erloo.ed# So0ething di''erent 'ro0 all other (ro-esses is (resent& but is not noti-ed# But /hen I obser%e 0y thin.ing& no su-h unnoti-ed ele0ent is (resent# For /hat no/ ho%ers in the ba-.ground is& again& nothing but thin.ing# The obser%ed ob5e-t is 7ualitati%ely the sa0e as the a-ti%ity dire-ted u(on it# And that is another -hara-teristi- 'eature o' thin.ing# 2hen /e obser%e it& /e do not 'ind oursel%es -o0(elled to do so /ith the hel( o' so0ething 7ualitati%ely di''erent& but -an re0ain /ithin the sa0e ele0ent# 2hen I /ea%e an ob5e-t& gi%en inde(endently o' 0e& into 0y thin.ing& then I go beyond 0y obser%ation& and the 7uestion is4 "a%e I any right to do so6 2hy do I not si0(ly let the ob5e-t a-t u(on 0e6 In /hat /ay is it (ossible that 0y thin.ing -ould be related to the ob5e-t6 These are 7uestions /hi-h e%eryone /ho re'le-ts on his o/n thought (ro-esses 0ust (ut to hi0sel'# They -ease to e!ist /hen one thin.s about thin.ing# 2e do not add anything 'oreign to thin.ing& and -onse7uently do not ha%e to 5usti'y su-h an addition# S-helling+H says4 9To gain .no/ledge o' nature 0eans to -reate nature#; I' these /ords o' the bold nature1(hiloso(her are ta.en literally& /e should ha%e to renoun-e 'ore%er all .no/ledge o' nature# For a'ter all& nature is there already& and in order to -reate it a se-ond ti0e& one 0ust .no/ the (rin-i(les a--ording to /hi-h it originated# Fro0 the

nature already in e!isten-e one /ould ha%e to learn the -onditions o' its e!isten-e in order to a((ly the0 to the nature one /anted to -reate# But this learning& /hi-h /ould ha%e to (re-ede the -reating& /ould& ho/e%er& be .no/ing nature& and /ould re0ain this e%en i'& a'ter the learning& no -reation too. (la-e# Only a nature not yet in e!isten-e -ould be -reated /ithout .no/ing it be'orehand# 2hat is i0(ossible /ith regard to nature4 -reating be'ore .no/ing& /e a-hie%e in the -ase o' thin.ing# I' /e /anted to /ait and not thin. until /e had 'irst learned to .no/ thin.ing& then /e /ould ne%er thin. at all# 2e ha%e to (lunge straight into thin.ing in order to be able& a'ter/ard& to .no/ thin.ing by obser%ing /hat /e oursel%es ha%e done# 2e oursel%es 'irst -reate an ob5e-t /hen /e obser%e thin.ing# All other ob5e-ts ha%e been -reated /ithout our hel(# Against 0y senten-e& 2e 0ust thin. be'ore /e -an -onte0(late thin.ing& so0eone 0ight easily set another senten-e as being e7ually %alid4 2e -annot /ait /ith digesting& either& until /e ha%e obser%ed the (ro-ess o' digestion# This ob5e-tion /ould be si0ilar to the one 0ade by :as-al+) against $artesius& /hen he 0aintained that one -ould also say4 I go 'or a /al.& there'ore I a0# $ertainly I 0ust resolutely get on /ith digesting be'ore I ha%e studied the (hysiologi-al (ro-ess o' digestion# But this -ould only be -o0(ared /ith the -onte0(lation o' thin.ing i'& a'ter ha%ing digested& I /ere not to -onte0(late it /ith thin.ing& but /ere to eat and digest it# It is& a'ter all& not /ithout signi'i-an-e that /hereas digestion -annot be-o0e the ob5e-t o' digestion& thin.ing -an %ery /ell be-o0e the ob5e-t o' thin.ing# This& then& is beyond doubt4 In thin.ing /e are gras(ing a -orner o' the uni%ersal (ro-ess& /here our (resen-e is re7uired i' anything is to -o0e about# And& a'ter all& this is 5ust the (oint# The reason things are so enig0ati-al to 0e is that I do not (arti-i(ate in their -reation# I si0(ly 'ind the0 there& /hereas in the -ase o' thin.ing I .no/ ho/ it is 0ade# This is /hy a 0ore basi- starting (oint than thin.ing& 'ro0 /hi-h to -onsider all else in the /orld& does not e!ist# "ere I should 0ention another /idely -urrent error /hi-h (re%ails /ith regard to thin.ing# It -onsists in this& that it is said4 Thin.ing& as it is in itsel'& /e ne%er en-ounter# That thin.ing /hi-h -onne-ts the obser%ations /e 0a.e o' our e!(erien-es and /ea%es the0 into a net/or. o' -on-e(ts& is not at all the sa0e as that thin.ing /hi-h later /e e!tra-t 'ro0 the ob5e-ts /e ha%e obser%ed and then 0a.e the ob5e-t o' our -onsideration# 2hat /e 'irst un-ons-iously /ea%e into things is so0ething 7uite di''erent 'ro0 /hat /e -ons-iously e!tra-t 'ro0 the0 a'ter/ard# To dra/ su-h -on-lusions is not to see that in this /ay it is i0(ossible to es-a(e 'ro0 thin.ing# It is absolutely i0(ossible to -o0e out o' thin.ing i' one /ants to -onsider it# 2hen one distinguishes an un-ons-ious thin.ing 'ro0 a later -ons-ious thin.ing& then one 0ust not 'orget that this distin-tion is 7uite e!ternal and has nothing to do /ith thin.ing as su-h# I do not in the least alter a thing by -onsidering it /ith 0y thin.ing# I -an /ell i0agine that a being /ith 7uite di''erently organized sense organs and /ith a di''erently 'un-tioning intelligen-e /ould ha%e a 7uite di''erent re(resentation o' a horse

'ro0 0ine& but I -annot i0agine that 0y o/n thin.ing be-o0es so0ething di''erent be-ause I obser%e it# 2hat I obser%e is /hat I 0ysel' bring about# 2hat 0y thin.ing loo.s li.e to an intelligen-e di''erent 'ro0 0ine is not /hat /e are s(ea.ing about no/3 /e are s(ea.ing about /hat it loo.s li.e to 0e# In any -ase& the (i-ture o' 0y thin.ing in another intelligen-e -annot be truer than 0y o/n (i-ture o' it# Only i' I /ere not 0ysel' the thin.ing being& but thin.ing -on'ronted 0e as the a-ti%ity o' a being 'oreign to 0e& -ould I say that 0y (i-ture o' thin.ing a((eared in 7uite a de'inite /ay& and that I -ould not .no/ /hat in itsel' the thin.ing o' the beings /as li.e# So 'ar there is not the slightest reason to %ie/ 0y o/n thin.ing 'ro0 a stand(oint di''erent 'ro0 the one a((lied to other things# A'ter all& I -onsider the rest o' the /orld by 0eans o' thin.ing# "o/ should I 0a.e o' 0y thin.ing an e!-e(tion6 2ith this I -onsider that I ha%e su''i-iently 5usti'ied 0a.ing thin.ing 0y starting (oint in 0y a((roa-h to an understanding o' the /orld# 2hen Ar-hi0edes++ had dis-o%ered the le%er& he thought that /ith its hel( he -ould li't the /hole -os0os 'ro0 its hinges i' only he -ould 'ind a (oint u(on /hi-h he -ould su((ort his instru0ent# "e needed so0ething that /as su((orted by itsel'& that /as not -arried by anything else# In thin.ing /e ha%e a (rin-i(le /hi-h e!ists by 0eans o' itsel'# Fro0 this (rin-i(le let us atte0(t to understand the /orld# Thin.ing /e -an understand through itsel'# So the 7uestion is only /hether /e -an also understand other things through it# I ha%e so 'ar s(o.en o' thin.ing /ithout -onsidering its %ehi-le& 0an8s -ons-iousness# ost (resent1day (hiloso(hers /ould ob5e-t4 Be'ore there -an be thin.ing& there 0ust be -ons-iousness# There'ore& one should begin& not 'ro0 thin.ing& but 'ro0 -ons-iousness# No thin.ing -an e!ist /ithout -ons-iousness# To the0 I 0ust re(ly4 I' I /ant to ha%e an e!(lanation o' /hat relation e!ists bet/een thin.ing and -ons-iousness& I 0ust thin. about it# In doing so I (resu((ose thin.ing# To this -ould be said4 2hen the (hiloso(her /ants to understand -ons-iousness he 0a.es use o' thin.ing& and to that e!tent (resu((oses it& but in the ordinary -ourse o' li'e thin.ing does arise /ithin -ons-iousness and& there'ore& (resu((oses this# I' this ans/er /ere gi%en to the 2orld $reator /ho /ished to -reate thin.ing& it /ould no doubt be 5usti'ied# One naturally -annot let thin.ing arise /ithout 'irst ha%ing brought about -ons-iousness# "o/e%er& the (hiloso(her is not -on-erned /ith the -reation o' the /orld& but /ith the understanding o' it# There'ore he has to 'ind the starting (oint& not 'or the -reation& but 'or the understanding o' the /orld# I -onsider it 0ost e!traordinary that a (hiloso(her should be re(roa-hed 'or being -on-erned 'irst and 'ore0ost about the -orre-tness o' his (rin-i(les& rather than turning straight to the ob5e-ts he /ants to understand# The 2orld $reator had to .no/& abo%e all& ho/ to 'ind a %ehi-le 'or thin.ing3 the (hiloso(her has to 'ind a se-ure 'oundation 'or his understanding o' /hat already e!ists# "o/ -an it hel( us to start 'ro0 -ons-iousness and a((ly thin.ing to it& i' 'irst /e do not .no/ /hether it is (ossible to rea-h any e!(lanation o' things by 0eans o' thin.ing6 2e 0ust 'irst -onsider thin.ing 7uite i0(artially& /ithout re'eren-e to a thin.ing sub5e-t or a thought ob5e-t# For in sub5e-t and ob5e-t /e already ha%e -on-e(ts 'or0ed by thin.ing# There is no denying4 Be'ore anything else a -an be understood& thin.ing 0ust

be understood# To deny this is to 'ail to realize that 0an is not a 'irst lin. in -reation& but the last# There'ore& 'or an e!(lanation o' the /orld by 0eans o' -on-e(ts& one -annot start 'ro0 the 'irst ele0ents o' e!isten-e& but 0ust begin /ith /hat is nearest to us and is 0ost inti0ately ours# 2e -annot at one bound trans(ort oursel%es to the beginning o' the /orld& in order to begin our in%estigations there3 /e 0ust start 'ro0 the (resent 0o0ent and see /hether /e -annot as-end 'ro0 the later to the earlier# As long as geology s(o.e in ter0s o' assu0ed re%olutions in order to e!(lain the (resent -ondition o' the earth& it gro(ed in dar.ness# It /as only /hen it 0ade its beginnings 'ro0 the in%estigations o' those (ro-esses at (resent at /or. on the earth& and 'ro0 these dre/ -on-lusions about the (ast& that it gained a se-ure 'oundation# As long as (hiloso(hy assu0es all sorts o' (rin-i(les su-h as ato0& 0otion& 0atter& /ill& the un-ons-ious& it /ill get no/here# Only /hen the (hiloso(her re-ognizes as his absolute 'irst that /hi-h -a0e as the absolute last& -an he rea-h his goal# But this absolute last in /orld e%olution is Thin.ing# There are (eo(le /ho say4 2hether or not our thin.ing is right in itsel' -annot be established /ith -ertainty& a'ter all# And to this e!tent the (oint o' de(arture is still a doubt'ul one# It /ould be 5ust as sensible to raise doubts as to /hether in itsel' a tree is right or /rong# Thin.ing is a 'a-t& and to s(ea. o' the rightness or /rongness o' a 'a-t has no sense# At 0ost& I -an ha%e doubts as to /hether thin.ing is being rightly a((lied& 5ust as I -an doubt /hether a -ertain tree su((lies a /ood suitable 'or 0a.ing tools 'or a (arti-ular (ur(ose# To sho/ to /hat e!tent the a((li-ation o' thin.ing to the /orld is right or /rong& is 5ust the tas. o' this boo.# I -an understand anyone doubting /hether /e -an as-ertain anything about the /orld by 0eans o' thin.ing& but it is in-o0(rehensible to 0e ho/ anyone -an doubt the rightness o' thin.ing in itsel'# Addition to the Re%ised Edition <)*)?=4 In the (re-eding dis-ussion& the signi'i-ant di''eren-e bet/een thin.ing and all other a-ti%ities o' the soul has been re'erred to as a 'a-t /hi-h re%eals itsel' to a really un(re5udi-ed obser%ation# Unless this un(re5udi-ed obser%ation is a-hie%ed& against this dis-ussion one is te0(ted to raise ob5e-tions su-h as these4 2hen I thin. about a rose& then a'ter all& this also is only an e!(ression o' a relation o' 0y 9I; to the rose& 5ust as /hen I 'eel the beauty o' the rose# In the -ase o' thin.ing& a relation bet/een 9I; and ob5e-t e!ists in the sa0e /ay as in the -ase o' 'eeling or (er-ei%ing# To 0a.e this ob5e-tion is to 'ail to realize that it is only in the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing that the 9I; .no/s itsel' to be -o0(letely at one /ith that /hi-h is a-ti%e 1 going into all the ra0i'i-ations o' the a-ti%ity# In the -ase o' no other soul a-ti%ity is this -o0(letely so# 2hen& 'or e!a0(le& a (leasure is 'elt& a 0ore sensiti%e obser%ation -an 7uite easily dete-t to /hat e!tent the 9I; .no/s itsel' to be one /ith so0ething a-ti%e& and to /hat e!tent there is so0ething (assi%e in it so that the (leasure 0erely ha((ens to the 9I#; And this is the -ase /ith the other soul a-ti%ities# But one should not -on'use 9ha%ing thought1i0ages; /ith the /or.ing through o' thought by 0eans o' thin.ing# Thought1i0ages -an arise in the soul in the sa0e /ay as drea0s or %ague inti0ations# This is not thin.ing# 1 To this -ould be said4 I' this is /hat is 0eant by thin.ing& then the ele0ent o' /ill is /ithin thin.ing& and so /e ha%e to do not 0erely /ith thin.ing& but also /ith the /ill /ithin thin.ing# "o/e%er& this /ould only 5usti'y one in saying4 Real thin.ing 0ust al/ays be /illed# But this has nothing to do /ith the -hara-terization o' thin.ing as gi%en in this dis-ussion# The nature o' thin.ing 0ay be su-h that it 0ust

ne-essarily al/ays be /illed3 the (oint is that e%erything that is /illed is 1 /hile being /illed 1 sur%eyed by the 9I; as an a-ti%ity entirely its o/n# Indeed it 0ust be said that 5ust be-ause this is the nature o' thin.ing& it a((ears to the obser%er as /illed through and through# Anyone /ho really ta.es the trouble to understand all that has to be -onsidered in order to rea-h a 5udg0ent about thin.ing& -annot 'ail to re-ognize that this soul a-ti%ity does ha%e the uni7ue -hara-ter /e ha%e des-ribed here# A (ersonality highly a((re-iated as a thin.er by the author o' this boo.& has ob5e-ted that it is i0(ossible to s(ea. about thin.ing as is done here& be-ause /hat one belie%es one is obser%ing as a-ti%e thin.ing only a((ears to be so# In reality one is obser%ing only the results o' an un-ons-ious a-ti%ity& /hi-h is the 'oundation o' thin.ing# Only be-ause this un-ons-ious a-ti%ity is not obser%ed does the illusion arise that the obser%ed thin.ing e!ists through itsel'& 5ust as /hen in an illu0ination 0ade by a ra(id su--ession o' ele-tri- s(ar.s one belie%es one is seeing a -ontinuous 0o%e0ent# This ob5e-tion& too& rests on an ina--urate e!a0ination o' the 'a-ts# To 0a.e it 0eans that one has not ta.en into -onsideration that it is the 9I; itsel'& standing /ithin thin.ing& that obser%es its o/n a-ti%ity# The 9I; /ould ha%e to stand outside thin.ing to be deluded as in the -ase o' an illu0ination /ith a ra(id su--ession o' ele-tri- s(ar.s# Indeed one -ould say4 To 0a.e su-h a -o0(arison is to de-ei%e onesel' 'or-ibly& li.e so0eone /ho& seeing a 0o%ing light& insisted that it /as being 'reshly lit by an un.no/n hand at e%ery (oint /here it a((eared# 1 No& /hoe%er /ants to see in thin.ing anything other than a sur%eyable a-ti%ity brought about /ithin the 9I&; 0ust 'irst 0a.e hi0sel' blind to the (lain 'a-ts that are there 'or the seeing& in order to be able to set u( a hy(otheti-al a-ti%ity as the basis o' thin.ing# "e /ho does not so blind hi0sel' -annot 'ail to re-ognize that e%erything he 9thin.s into; thin.ing in this 0anner ta.es hi0 a/ay 'ro0 the essen-e o' thin.ing# Un(re5udi-ed obser%ation sho/s that nothing belongs to thin.ing8s o/n nature that is not 'ound in thin.ing itsel'# I' one lea%es the real0 o' thin.ing& one -annot -o0e to /hat -auses it#

THE WORLD AS PERCEPTION $on-e(ts and ideas arise through thin.ing# 2hat a -on-e(t is -annot be stated in /ords# 2ords -an do no 0ore than dra/ attention to our -on-e(ts# 2hen so0eone sees a tree& his thin.ing rea-ts to his obser%ation& an ideal -ounter(art is added to the ob5e-t& and he -onsiders the ob5e-t and the ideal -ounter(art as belonging together# 2hen the ob5e-t disa((ears 'ro0 his 'ield o' obser%ation& only the ideal -ounter(art o' it re0ains# This latter is the -on-e(t o' the ob5e-t# The 'urther our range o' e!(erien-e is /idened& the greater be-o0es the su0 o' our -on-e(ts# But a -on-e(t is ne%er 'ound isolated# $on-e(ts -o0bine to 'or0 a totality built u( a--ording to inherent la/s# The -on-e(t 9organis0; -o0bines& 'or e!a0(le& /ith those o' 9gradual de%elo(0ent& gro/th#; Other -on-e(ts 'or0ed o' single ob5e-ts 0erge -o0(letely# All -on-e(ts that I 'or0 o' lions& 0erge into the general -on-e(t 9lion#; In this /ay the single -on-e(ts unite in an en-losed -on-e(tual syste0& in /hi-h ea-h -on-e(t has its s(e-ial (la-e# Ideas are not 7ualitati%ely di''erent 'ro0 -on-e(ts# They are but -on-e(ts that are ri-her in -ontent& 0ore saturated

and -o0(rehensi%e# At this (arti-ular (oint I 0ust dra/ s(e-ial attention to the 'a-t that thin.ing is 0y (oint o' de(arture& and not -on-e(ts and ideas /hi-h 0ust 'irst be gained by 0eans o' thin.ing# $on-e(ts and ideas already (resu((ose thin.ing# There'ore& /hat I ha%e said about the nature o' thin.ing& that it e!ists through itsel'& that it is deter0ined by nothing but itsel'& -annot si0(ly be -arried o%er and a((lied to -on-e(ts# <I 0ention this at this (oint e!(li-itly be-ause it is here that 0y di''eren-e /ith "egel lies# For "egel& the -on-e(t is the (ri0ary and original#= The -on-e(t -annot be gained 'ro0 obser%ation# This -an already be seen 'ro0 the 'a-t that the gro/ing hu0an being slo/ly and gradually 'or0s -on-e(ts -orres(onding to the ob5e-ts surrounding hi0# The -on-e(ts are added to obser%ation# A 0u-h1read -onte0(orary (hiloso(her& "erbert S(en-er&+, des-ribes the 0ental (ro-ess /hi-h /e -arry out in res(onse to obser%ation& in the 'ollo/ing /ay4 9I'& /hen /al.ing through the 'ields one day in Se(te0ber& /e hear a sound a 'e/ yards in ad%an-e& and& on obser%ing the dit-h1side /here it o--urs& see the grass 0o%e& /e shall (robably turn to/ard the s(ot to learn by /hat this sound and 0otion are (rodu-ed# As /e a((roa-h& a (artridge 'lutters in the dit-h3 on seeing this our -uriosity is satis'ied3 /e ha%e /hat /e -all an e!(lanation o' the (heno0ena# This e!(lanation& (lease noti-e& a0ounts to this4 Be-ause /e ha%e e!(erien-ed -ountless ti0es in li'e that a disturban-e o' the stationary (osition o' s0all bodies is a--o0(anied by the 0o%e0ent o' other bodies e!isting a0ong the0& and be-ause /e ha%e there'ore generalized the relation bet/een su-h disturban-es and su-h 0o%e0ents& /e -onsider this (arti-ular disturban-e e!(lained as soon as /e 'ind it to be an e!a0(le o' 5ust this relationshi(#;+B A -loser e!a0ination gi%es a %ery di''erent result 'ro0 /hat is des-ribed abo%e# 2hen I hear a sound& the 'irst thing I do is to 'ind the -on-e(t that -orres(onds to this obser%ation# It is this -on-e(t that ta.es 0e beyond the sound# So0eone /ho did not re'le-t 'urther /ould si0(ly hear the sound and be -ontent /ith that# But& be-ause I re'le-t& it be-o0es -lear to 0e that I ha%e to understand the sound as an e''e-t# It is there'ore only /hen I -onne-t the -on-e(t o' e''e-t /ith the (er-e(tion o' the sound that I a0 indu-ed to go beyond the single obser%ation and loo. 'or the -ause# The -on-e(t o' e''e-t -alls u( that o' -ause3 I then loo. 'or the ob5e-t /hi-h is the -ause& and in this -ase I 'ind it to be the (artridge# But these -on-e(ts& -ause and e''e-t& I -an ne%er gain by 0ere obser%ation& ho/e%er 0any instan-es I 0ay ha%e obser%ed# Obser%ation -alls u( thin.ing& and it is thin.ing that then sho/s 0e ho/ to 'it one indi%idual o--urren-e to another# I' one de0ands o' a 9stri-tly ob5e-ti%e s-ien-e; that it 0ust ta.e its -ontent 'ro0 obser%ation alone& then one 0ust at the sa0e ti0e re7uire that it is to desist 'ro0 all thin.ing# For by its %ery nature& thin.ing goes beyond the obser%ed ob5e-t# 2e 0ust no/ (ass 'ro0 thin.ing itsel' to the being /ho thin.s& 'or it is through the thin.er that thin.ing is -o0bined /ith obser%ation# "u0an -ons-iousness is the stage u(on /hi-h -on-e(t and obser%ation 0eet one another and be-o0e united# In saying this&

/e ha%e at the sa0e ti0e -hara-terized hu0an -ons-iousness# It is the 0ediator bet/een thin.ing and obser%ation# Inso'ar as the hu0an being obser%es an ob5e-t& it a((ears to hi0 as gi%en3 inso'ar as he thin.s& he a((ears to hi0sel' as a-ti%e# "e regards /hat -o0es to 0eet hi0 as ob5e-t& and hi0sel' as thin.ing sub5e-t# 2hile he dire-ts his thin.ing to the obser%ation& he is -ons-ious o' the ob5e-t3 /hile he dire-ts his thin.ing to hi0sel' he is -ons-ious o' hi0sel'& or is sel'1-ons-ious# "u0an -ons-iousness o' ne-essity& 0ust be sel'1-ons-ious at the sa0e ti0e& be-ause it is a thin.ing -ons-iousness# For /hen thin.ing turns its attention to its o/n a-ti%ity& then its o/n essential being& that is& its sub5e-t& is its ob5e-t as /ell# It 0ust& ho/e%er& not be o%erloo.ed that it is only /ith the hel( o' thin.ing that /e -an de'ine oursel%es as sub5e-t and -ontrast oursel%es /ith ob5e-ts# For this reason& thin.ing 0ust ne%er be understood as a 0erely sub5e-ti%e a-ti%ity# Thin.ing is beyond sub5e-t and ob5e-t# It 'or0s these t/o -on-e(ts& 5ust as it 'or0s all others# 2hen there'ore as thin.ing sub5e-t& /e re'er a -on-e(t to an ob5e-t& /e 0ust not understand this re'eren-e as so0ething 0erely sub5e-ti%e# It is not the sub5e-t that 0a.es the re'eren-e& but thin.ing# The sub5e-t does not thin. be-ause it is sub5e-t3 rather it a((ears to itsel' as a sub5e-t be-ause it is able to thin.# The a-ti%ity -arried out by 0an as a thin.ing being is& there'ore& not a 0erely sub5e-ti%e a-ti%ity# Rather it is neither sub5e-ti%e nor ob5e-ti%e3 it is an a-ti%ity that goes beyond both these -on-e(ts# I ought ne%er to say that 0y indi%idual sub5e-t thin.s3 in 'a-t& 0y sub5e-t e!ists by the %ery gra-e o' thin.ing# Thin.ing& there'ore& is an ele0ent that ta.es 0e beyond 0ysel' and unites 0e /ith the ob5e-ts# >et at the sa0e ti0e it se(arates 0e 'ro0 the0& inas0u-h as it sets 0e& as sub5e-t& o%er against the0# an8s t/o'old nature is due to this4 he thin.s& and in so doing en-o0(asses hi0sel' and the rest o' the /orld3 but at the sa0e ti0e& it is also by 0eans o' thin.ing that he de'ines hi0sel' as an indi%idual /ho -on'ronts the ob5e-ts# The ne!t ste( is to as. oursel%es4 "o/ does the other ele0ent& 1 that in -ons-iousness 0eets /ith thin.ing 1 /hi-h /e ha%e so 'ar si0(ly -alled the ob5e-t o' obser%ation& enter our -ons-iousness6 In order to ans/er this 7uestion& /e 0ust se(arate 'ro0 our 'ield o' obser%ation all that has been brought into it by thin.ing# For the -ontent o' our -ons-iousness at any 0o0ent is already (er0eated /ith -on-e(ts in the 0ost %aried /ays# 2e 0ust i0agine a being /ith 'ully de%elo(ed hu0an intelligen-e suddenly /a.ing into e!isten-e out o' nothing& and -on'ronting the /orld# E%erything o' /hi-h it /as a/are be'ore its thin.ing a-ti%ity began& /ould be the (ure -ontent o' obser%ation# The /orld /ould then re%eal to this being nothing but the 0ere dis-onne-ted aggregate o' ob5e-ts o' sensation4 -olors& sounds& sensations o' (ressure& /ar0th& taste and s0ell& then 'eelings o' (leasure and dis(leasure# This aggregate is the -ontent o' (ure& unthin.ing obser%ation# O%er against it stands thin.ing& ready to un'old its a-ti%ity i' a (oint o' atta-. -an be 'ound# E!(erien-e soon sho/s that it is 'ound# Thin.ing is able to dra/ threads 'ro0 one ele0ent o' obser%ation to another# It -onne-ts de'inite -on-e(ts /ith these ele0ents and

thereby brings about a relationshi( bet/een the0# 2e ha%e already seen abo%e ho/ a sound that -o0es to 0eet us is -onne-ted /ith another obser%ation by our identi'ying the 'or0er as the e''e-t o' the latter# I' /e no/ re0ind oursel%es that the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing is ne%er to be understood as a sub5e-ti%e a-ti%ity& then /e shall not be te0(ted to belie%e that su-h relationshi(s& established by thin.ing& ha%e 0erely a sub5e-ti%e %alue# Our ne!t tas. is to dis-o%er by 0eans o' thin.ing re'le-tion /hat relation the abo%e1 0entioned dire-tly gi%en -ontent o' obser%ation has to our -ons-ious sub5e-t# The %aried /ays o' using /ords 0a.e it ne-essary 'or 0e to -o0e to an agree0ent /ith 0y readers -on-erning the use o' a /ord /hi-h I shall ha%e to e0(loy in /hat 'ollo/s# I shall use the /ord (er-e(tions 'or the i00ediate ob5e-ts o' sensation enu0erated abo%e& inso'ar as the -ons-ious sub5e-t be-o0es a/are o' the0 through obser%ation# It is there'ore not the (ro-ess o' obser%ation& but the ob5e-t o' obser%ation /hi-h I -all (er-e(tion#+D I do not -hoose the /ord sensation be-ause in (hysiology this has a de'inite 0eaning /hi-h is narro/er than that o' 0y -on-e(t o' (er-e(tion# I -an -all a 'eeling in 0ysel' a (er-e(tion& but not a sensation in the (hysiologi-al sense# But I also be-o0e a/are o' 0y 'eelings by their be-o0ing (er-e(tions 'or 0e# And the /ay /e be-o0e a/are o' our thin.ing through obser%ation is su-h that /e -an also -all thin.ing& as it 'irst -o0es to the noti-e o' our -ons-iousness& a (er-e(tion# The nai%e 0an -onsiders his (er-e(tions& in the sense in /hi-h they dire-tly see0 to a((ear to hi0& as things ha%ing an e!isten-e -o0(letely inde(endent o' hi0sel'# 2hen he sees a tree he belie%es& to begin /ith& that it stands in the 'or0 /hi-h he sees& /ith the -olors o' its %arious (arts& et-#& there on the s(ot to/ard /hi-h his gaze is dire-ted# 2hen in the 0orning he sees the sun a((ear as a dis. on the horizon and 'ollo/s the -ourse o' this dis.& his o(inion is that all this a-tually e!ists <by itsel'= and o--urs 5ust as he obser%es it# "e -lings to this belie' until he 0eets /ith 'urther (er-e(tions /hi-h -ontradi-t those he 'irst had# The -hild /ho has as yet no e!(erien-e o' distan-e gras(s at the 0oon& and does not -orre-t his 'irst i0(ression as to the real distan-e until a se-ond (er-e(tion -ontradi-ts the 'irst# E%ery e!tension o' the -ir-le o' 0y (er-e(tions -o0(els 0e to -orre-t 0y (i-ture o' the /orld# 2e see this in e%eryday li'e& as /ell as in the intelle-tual de%elo(0ent o' 0an.ind# That (i-ture /hi-h the an-ients 0ade 'or the0sel%es o' the relation o' the earth to the sun and to the other hea%enly bodies had to be re(la-ed through $o(erni-us by a di''erent one& be-ause theirs did not a--ord /ith (er-e(tions /hi-h /ere un.no/n in those early ti0es# A 0an /ho had been born blind said& /hen o(erated on by Dr# Franz&+Da that the idea o' the size o' ob5e-ts /hi-h he had 'or0ed by his sense o' tou-h be'ore his o(eration& /as a %ery di''erent one# "e had to -orre-t his ta-tual (er-e(tions by his %isual (er-e(tions# 2hy are /e -o0(elled to 0a.e these -onstant -orre-tions o' our obser%ations6

A si0(le re'le-tion /ill ans/er this 7uestion# 2hen I stand at one end o' an a%enue& the trees at the 'ar end see0 s0aller and nearer together than those /here I stand# The (i-ture o' 0y (er-e(tion -hanges /hen I -hange the (la-e 'ro0 /hi-h I a0 loo.ing# The 'or0 in /hi-h it a((ears to 0e& there'ore& is de(endent on a -ondition /hi-h belongs not to the ob5e-t& but to 0e& the (er-ei%er# It is all the sa0e to the a%enue /here I stand# But the (i-ture o' it /hi-h I re-ei%e de(ends essentially on the (la-e /here I stand# In the sa0e /ay& it is all the sa0e to the sun and the (lanetary syste0 that hu0an beings ha((en to -onsider the0 'ro0 the earth3 but the (er-e(tion1(i-ture o' the hea%ens /hi-h hu0an beings ha%e is deter0ined by the 'a-t that they inhabit the earth# This de(enden-e o' our (er-e(tion1(i-ture u(on our (la-e o' obser%ation is the easiest one to gras(# atters already be-o0e 0ore di''i-ult /hen /e learn ho/ our (er-e(tions are de(endent on our bodily and s(iritual organization# The (hysi-ist sho/s us that /ithin the s(a-e in /hi-h /e hear a sound& %ibrations o' the air o--ur& and also that in the body in /hi-h /e see. the origin o' the sound& %ibrating 0o%e0ents o' its (arts /ill be 'ound# 2e (er-ei%e this 0o%e0ent as sound& but only i' /e ha%e a nor0ally -onstru-ted ear# 2ithout this& the /hole /orld /ould be 'ore%er silent 'or us# Fro0 (hysiology /e .no/ that there are (eo(le /ho (er-ei%e nothing o' the s(lendor o' -olor surrounding us# Their (er-e(tion1 (i-ture sho/s only degrees o' light and dar.# Others are blind to one -olor& e#g#& red# Their (i-ture o' the /orld la-.s this shade o' -olor& and there'ore is a-tually a di''erent one 'ro0 that o' the a%erage (erson# I /ould -all the de(enden-e o' 0y (er-e(tion1 (i-ture on 0y (la-e o' obser%ation& a 0athe0ati-al one& and its de(enden-e on 0y organization a 7ualitati%e one# The 'irst deter0ines the (ro(ortions o' size and 0utual distan-es o' 0y (er-e(tions& the se-ond their 7uality# The 'a-t that I see a red sur'a-e as red 1 this 7ualitati%e deter0ination 1 de(ends on the organization o' 0y eye# y (er-e(tion1(i-tures& then& are sub5e-ti%e to begin /ith# Cno/ledge o' the sub5e-ti%e -hara-ter o' our (er-e(tions 0ay easily lead to doubt that there is any ob5e-ti%e basis 'or the0 at all# I' /e .no/ that a (er-e(tion& 'or e!a0(le& that o' the -olor red or o' a -ertain tone& is not (ossible /ithout a s(e-i'i- stru-ture o' our organis0& it is easy to belie%e that it has no e!isten-e at all a(art 'ro0 our sub5e-ti%e organization& that /ithout the a-t o' (er-ei%ing 1 the ob5e-ti%e o' /hi-h it is 1 it /ould ha%e no .ind o' e!isten-e# This %ie/ 'ound a -lassi-al e!(onent in George Ber.eley#+@ "is o(inion /as that 0an& 'ro0 the 0o0ent he realizes the signi'i-an-e the sub5e-t has 'or (er-e(tion& is no longer able to belie%e in the (resen-e o' a /orld /ithout the -ons-ious s(irit# "e said4 9So0e truths there are so near and ob%ious to the 0ind that a 0an need only o(en his eyes to see the0# Su-h I ta.e this i0(ortant one to be& %iz#& that all the -hoir o' hea%en and 'urniture o' the earth 1 in a /ord& all those bodies /hi-h -o0(ose the 0ighty 'ra0e o' the /orld 1 ha%e not any subsisten-e /ithout a 0ind3 that their being is to be (er-ei%ed or .no/n3 that& -onse7uently& so long as they are not a-tually (er-ei%ed by 0e& or do not e!ist in 0y 0ind or that o' any other -reated s(irit& they 0ust either ha%e no e!isten-e at all or else subsist in the 0ind o' so0e Eternal S(irit#; A--ording to this %ie/& nothing re0ains o' the (er-e(tion& i' one disregards the 'a-t o' its being (er-ei%ed# There is no -olor /hen none is seen& no sound /hen none is heard# A(art 'ro0 the a-t o' (er-e(tion& e!tension& 'or0 and 0otion e!ist as little as do -olor

and sound# No/here do /e see bare e!tension or 'or03 these are al/ays -onne-ted /ith -olor or so0e other 7uality un7uestionably de(endent on our sub5e-ti%ity# I' these latter disa((ear /hen our (er-e(tion o' the0 disa((ears& then the 'or0er& being bound u( /ith the0& 0ust li.e/ise disa((ear# To the ob5e-tion that e%en i' 'igure& -olor& sound& et-#& ha%e no other e!isten-e than the one /ithin the a-t o' (er-e(tion& yet there 0ust be things that e!ist a(art 'ro0 -ons-iousness and to /hi-h the -ons-ious (er-e(tion (i-tures are si0ilar& the abo%e %ie/ /ould ans/er that a -olor -an be si0ilar only to a -olor& a 'igure only to a 'igure# Our (er-e(tions -an be si0ilar only to our (er-e(tions& and to nothing else# 2hat /e -all an ob5e-t is also nothing but a -olle-tion o' (er-e(tions /hi-h are -onne-ted in a (arti-ular /ay# I' I stri( a table o' its 'or0& e!tension& -olor& et-#& 1 in short& o' all that is only 0y (er-e(tion1then nothing else re0ains# I' this %ie/ is 'ollo/ed to its logi-al -on-lusion& it leads to the assertion that the ob5e-ts o' 0y (er-e(tions are (resent only through 0e and& indeed& only in as 'ar as& and as long as I (er-ei%e the0# They disa((ear /ith the a-t o' (er-ei%ing the0& and ha%e no 0eaning a(art 'ro0 it# But a(art 'ro0 0y (er-e(tions I .no/ o' no ob5e-ts and -annot .no/ o' any# No ob5e-tion -an be 0ade to this assertion as long as in general I 0erely ta.e into a--ount the 'a-t that the (er-e(tion is (artially deter0ined by the organization o' 0y sub5e-t# It /ould be %ery di''erent i' /e /ere able to esti0ate /hat 'un-tion our (er-ei%ing has in bringing about a (er-e(tion# 2e should then .no/ /hat ha((ens to the (er-e(tion during the a-t o' (er-ei%ing& and -ould also deter0ine ho/ 0u-h o' it 0ust already ha%e e!isted be'ore it /as (er-ei%ed# This leads us to turn our -onsideration 'ro0 the ob5e-t o' (er-e(tion to its sub5e-t# I (er-ei%e not only other things3 I also (er-ei%e 0ysel'# The i00ediate -ontent o' the (er-e(tion o' 0ysel' is the 'a-t that I a0 the stable ele0ent in -ontrast to the -ontinually -o0ing and going (er-e(tion1(i-tures# The (er-e(tion o' the I -an al/ays -o0e u( in 0y -ons-iousness /hile I a0 ha%ing other (er-e(tions# 2hen I a0 absorbed in the (er-e(tion o' an ob5e-t that is gi%en& then& 'or the ti0e being& I a0 -ons-ious only o' this ob5e-t# To this& the (er-e(tion o' 0y sel' -an -o0e# I a0 then -ons-ious& not only o' the ob5e-t& but also o' 0y o/n (ersonality& /hi-h -on'ronts the ob5e-t and obser%es it# I do not 0erely see a tree& but I also .no/ that it is I /ho see it# I also realize that so0ething ta.es (la-e in 0e /hile I obser%e the tree# 2hen the tree disa((ears 'ro0 0y 'ield o' %ision& an a'ter1e''e-t o' this (ro-ess re0ains in 0y -ons-iousness4 an i0age o' the tree# This i0age be-a0e united /ith 0y sel' during 0y obser%ation# y sel' has be-o0e enri-hed3 its -ontent has ta.en a ne/ ele0ent into itsel'# This ele0ent I -all 0y re(resentation o' the tree# I should ne%er be in a (osition to s(ea. o' re(resentations i' I did not e!(erien-e the0 in the (er-e(tion o' 0y o/n sel'# :er-e(tions /ould -o0e and go3 I should let the0 sli( by# Only be-ause I (er-ei%e 0y sel'& and a0 a/are that /ith ea-h (er-e(tion the -ontent o' 0y sel' also -hanges& do I 'ind 0ysel' -o0(elled to bring the obser%ation o' the ob5e-t into -onne-tion /ith the -hanges in 0y o/n -ondition& and to s(ea. o' 0y re(resentation#

I (er-ei%e the re(resentation in 0y sel' in the sa0e sense as I (er-ei%e -olor& sound& et-#& in other ob5e-ts# No/ I a0 also able to 0a.e the distin-tion that I -all those other ob5e-ts that -on'ront 0e& outer /orld& /hereas the -ontent o' 0y sel'1(er-e(tion I -all inner /orld# isunderstanding o' the relationshi( bet/een re(resentation and ob5e-t has led to the greatest 0ista.es in 0odern (hiloso(hy# The (er-e(tion o' a -hange in us& the 0odi'i-ation e!(erien-ed in the sel'& has been thrust into the 'oreground and the ob5e-t /hi-h -auses this 0odi'i-ation is lost sight o' altogether# It is said4 2e do not (er-ei%e the ob5e-ts& but only our re(resentations# I a0 su((osed to .no/ nothing o' the table in itsel'& /hi-h is the ob5e-t o' 0y obser%ation& but only o' the -hanges /hi-h o--ur in 0y sel' /hile I (er-ei%e the table# This %ie/ should not be -on'used /ith that o' Ber.eley& 0entioned abo%e# Ber.eley 0aintains the sub5e-ti%e nature o' the -ontent o' (er-e(tions& but he does not say that I -an .no/ only o' 0y o/n re(resentations# "e li0its 0an8s .no/ledge to his re(resentations be-ause& in his o(inion& there are no ob5e-ts outside the a-t o' re(resenting# 2hat I regard as a table is no longer (resent& a--ording to Ber.eley& /hen I -ease to turn 0y gaze to/ard it# This is /hy Ber.eley lets our (er-e(tions arise dire-tly out o' the o0ni(oten-e o' God# I see a table be-ause God -alls u( this (er-e(tion in 0e# For Ber.eley& there'ore& there are no real beings other than God and hu0an s(irits# 2hat /e -all 9/orld; is (resent only /ithin s(irits# For Ber.eley& /hat the nai%e 0an -alls outer /orld& or (hysi-al nature& is not there# This %ie/ is -ontrasted by the no/ (redo0inant Cantian %ie/;8 /hi-h li0its our .no/ledge to our re(resentations& not be-ause it is -on%in-ed that there -annot be things in e!isten-e besides these re(resentations& but be-ause it belie%es us to be so organized that /e -an e!(erien-e only the 0odi'i-ation in our o/n sel'& not the thing1in1itsel' that -auses this 0odi'i-ation# This -on-lusion arises 'ro0 the %ie/ that I .no/ only 0y re(resentations& not that there is no e!isten-e a(art 'ro0 the0& but only that the sub5e-t -annot ta.e su-h an e!isten-e dire-tly into itsel'3 all it -an do is 0erely through 9the 0ediu0 o' its sub5e-ti%e thoughts to i0agine it& in%ent it& thin. it& -ognize it& or (erha(s also 'ail to -ognize it#;+? This %ie/ belie%es it e!(resses so0ething absolutely -ertain& so0ething that is i00ediately ob%ious& in need o' no (roo'# 9The 'irst 'unda0ental (rin-i(le /hi-h the (hiloso(her has to bring to -lear -ons-iousness -onsists in the re-ognition that our .no/ledge& to begin /ith& does not rea-h beyond our re(resentations# Our re(resentation is the only thing /e e!(erien-e and learn to .no/ dire-tly and& 5ust be-ause /e ha%e dire-t e!(erien-e o' it& e%en the 0ost radi-al doubt -annot rob us o' our .no/ledge# By -ontrast& the .no/ledge that goes beyond our re(resentations 1 ta.ing this e!(ression here in the /idest (ossible sense& so that all (hysi-al ha((enings are in-luded in it 1 is o(en to doubt# "en-e& at the %ery beginning o' all (hiloso(hizing& all .no/ledge /hi-h goes beyond re(resentations 0ust e!(li-itly be set do/n as being o(en to doubt#; These are the o(ening senten-es o' Jol.elt8s boo. on Cant8s Theory o' Cno/ledge#+* 2hat is (ut 'or/ard here as an i00ediate and sel'1e%ident truth is in reality the result o' a line o' thought /hi-h runs as 'ollo/s4 The nai%e 0an belie%es that the ob5e-ts& 5ust as

he (er-ei%es the0& are also (resent outside his -ons-iousness# :hysi-s& (hysiology and (sy-hology& ho/e%er& see0 to sho/ that 'or our (er-e(tions our organization is ne-essary and that& there'ore& /e -annot .no/ about anything e!-e(t /hat our organization trans0its to us 'ro0 the ob5e-ts# Our (er-e(tions there'ore are 0odi'i-ations o' our organization& not things1in1the0sel%es# The train o' thought here indi-ated has& in 'a-t& been -hara-terized by Eduard %on "art0ann,H as the one /hi-h 0ust lead to the -on%i-tion that /e -an ha%e a dire-t .no/ledge only o' our o/n re(resentations#,) Outside our organis0s /e 'ind %ibrations o' (hysi-al bodies and o' air3 these are sensed by us as sounds& and there'ore it is -on-luded that /hat /e -all sound is nothing but a sub5e-ti%e rea-tion o' our organis0s to these 0o%e0ents in the e!ternal /orld# In the sa0e /ay& -olor and /ar0th are 'ound to be 0erely 0odi'i-ations o' our organis0s# And& indeed& the %ie/ is held that these t/o .inds o' (er-e(tions are -alled 'orth in us through e''e-ts or (ro-esses in the e!ternal /orld /hi-h are utterly di''erent 'ro0 the e!(erien-es /e ha%e o' /ar0th or o' -olor# I' these (ro-esses sti0ulate the ner%es in 0y s.in& I ha%e the sub5e-ti%e (er-e(tion o' /ar0th3 i' they ha((en to en-ounter the o(tiner%e& I (er-ei%e light and -olor# Light& -olor and /ar0th& then& are the res(onses o' 0y sensory ner%es to e!ternal sti0uli# E%en the sense o' tou-h does not re%eal to 0e the ob5e-ts o' the outer /orld& but only -onditions in 0ysel'# In the sense o' 0odern (hysi-s& one 0ust i0agine that bodies -onsist o' in'initely s0all (arti-les& 0ole-ules& and that these 0ole-ules are not in dire-t -onta-t& but are at -ertain distan-es 'ro0 one another# Bet/een the0& there'ore& is e0(ty s(a-e# A-ross this s(a-e they a-t on one another by attra-tion and re(ulsion# I' I (ut 0y hand on a body& the 0ole-ules o' 0y hand by no 0eans tou-h those o' the body dire-tly& but there re0ains a -ertain distan-e bet/een body and hand& and /hat I sense as the body8s resistan-e is nothing other than the e''e-t o' the 'or-e o' re(ulsion /hi-h its 0ole-ules e!ert on 0y hand# I a0 -o0(letely e!ternal to the body and (er-ei%e only its e''e-ts u(on 0y organis0# These -onsiderations ha%e been su((le0ented by the theory o' the so1-alled s(e-i'iner%ous energy& /hi-h has been ad%an-ed by I# iiller <)?H)1)*D?=#,+ A--ording to this theory& ea-h sense has the (e-uliarity that it res(onds to all e!ternal sti0uli in one de'inite /ay only# I' the o(ti- ner%e is sti0ulated& (er-e(tion o' light results& irres(e-ti%e o' /hether the ner%e is sti0ulated by /hat /e -all light& or by a 0e-hani-al (ressure& or an ele-tri- -urrent# On the other hand& the sa0e e!ternal sti0ulus a((lied to di''erent senses gi%es rise to di''erent (er-e(tions# This a((ears to sho/ that our sense1organs -an trans0it only /hat o--urs in the0sel%es& but nothing 'ro0 the e!ternal /orld# They deter0ine our (er-e(tions& ea-h a--ording to its o/n nature# :hysiology also sho/s that there is no 7uestion o' a dire-t .no/ledge o' /hat the ob5e-ts -ause to ta.e (la-e in our sense1organs# 2hen the (hysiologist tra-es the (ro-esses in our bodies& he dis-o%ers that already in the sense1organs& the e''e-ts o' the e!ternal %ibrations are 0odi'ied in the 0ost 0ani'old /ays# This -an be seen 0ost -learly in the -ase o' the eye and ear# Both are %ery -o0(li-ated organs /hi-h 0odi'y the e!ternal sti0ulus -onsiderably be'ore they -ondu-t it to the -orres(onding ner%e# Fro0 the (eri(heral end o' the ner%e the already 0odi'ied sti0ulus is then led 'urther to the brain# "ere at last the -entral organs are sti0ulated in their turn# Fro0 this the -on-lusion is dra/n that the e!ternal (ro-ess 0ust ha%e undergone a series o' trans'or0ations be'ore it rea-hes

-ons-iousness# 2hat goes on in the brain is -onne-ted by so 0any inter0ediate (ro-esses /ith the e!ternal (ro-ess& that any si0ilarity to the latter is unthin.able# 2hat the brain ulti0ately trans0its to the soul is neither e!ternal (ro-esses nor (ro-esses in the sense1 organs& but only su-h as o--ur in the brain# But e%en these are not dire-tly (er-ei%ed by the soul3 /hat /e 'inally ha%e in -ons-iousness are not brain (ro-esses at all& but sensations# y sensation o' red has absolutely no si0ilarity to the (ro-ess /hi-h o--urs in the brain /hen I sense the red# The red is -aused by the (ro-esses in the brain and a((ears again only as an e''e-t o' this in the soul# This is /hy "art0ann says4,, 92hat the sub5e-t (er-ei%es there'ore is al/ays only 0odi'i-ations o' his o/n (sy-hi- states and nothing else#; 2hen I ha%e sensations& these are as yet 'ar 'ro0 being grou(ed into /hat I (er-ei%e as ob5e-ts# For only single sensations -an be trans0itted to 0e by the brain# The sensations o' hardness and so'tness are trans0itted to 0e by the sense o' tou-h& those o' -olor and light by the sense o' sight# >et all these -an be 'ound united in one and the sa0e ob5e-t# The uni'i-ation 0ust& there'ore& be -aused by the soul itsel'3 this 0eans that the soul -o0bines into bodies the se(arate sensations trans0itted through the brain# y brain gi%es 0e se(arately and indeed along %ery di''erent (aths& the sensations o' sight& tou-h and hearing& /hi-h the soul then -o0bines into the re(resentation 9tru0(et#; This last lin. <the re(resentation o' tru0(et= is the %ery 'irst (ro-ess to enter 0y -ons-iousness# In it -an no longer be 'ound anything o' /hat is outside o' 0e and originally 0ade an i0(ression on 0y senses# The e!ternal ob5e-t has been entirely lost on the /ay to the brain and through the brain to the soul# In the history o' 0an8s intelle-tual endea%or it /ould be hard to 'ind another edi'i-e o' thought /hi-h has been (ut together /ith greater ingenuity and yet /hi-h& on -loser analysis& -olla(ses into nothing# Let us loo. a little -loser at the /ay it has been built u(# The starting (oint is ta.en 'ro0 /hat is gi%en in nai%e -ons-iousness& that is& 'ro0 things as (er-ei%ed# Then it is sho/n that nothing o' /hat belongs to these things /ould be (resent 'or us had /e no senses# No eye4 no -olor# There'ore& the -olor is not yet (resent in /hat a''e-ts the eye# It arises 'irst through the intera-tion o' the eye and the ob5e-t# The latter 0ust& there'ore& be -olorless# But neither is the -olor (resent in the eye& 'or /hat is (resent there is a -he0i-al or (hysi-al (ro-ess /hi-h 'irst has to be led by the o(ti- ner%e to the brain& and there releases another (ro-ess# This is not yet the -olor# The latter is only -alled u( in the soul through the (ro-ess in the brain# As yet it does not enter 0y -ons-iousness& but is 'irst (la-ed by the soul on a body outside# "ere& 'inally& I belie%e that I (er-ei%e it# 2e ha%e -o0(leted a -ir-le# 2e are -ons-ious o' a -olored ob5e-t# This is the starting (oint3 here the building u( o' thoughts begins# I' I had no eye& 'or 0e the ob5e-t /ould be -olorless# I -annot& there'ore& (la-e the -olor on the body# I start on a sear-h 'or it# I loo. 'or it in the eye4 in %ain3 in the ner%e4 in %ain3 in the brain4 in %ain on-e 0ore3 in the soul4 here I 'ind it indeed& but not atta-hed to the body# I re-o%er the -olored body only there at the (oint 'ro0 /hi-h I started# The -ir-le is -losed# I a0 -on'ident that I re-ognize as a (rodu-t o' 0y soul /hat the nai%e 0an i0agines to be (resent out there in s(a-e# As long as one re0ains here& e%erything see0s to 'it beauti'ully# But /e 0ust start again 'ro0 the beginning# Until no/ I ha%e been dealing /ith the outer (er-e(tion& o' /hi-h earlier& as nai%e 0an& I had a -o0(letely /rong o(inion# I belie%ed that 5ust as I (er-ei%e

it& it had an ob5e-ti%e e!isten-e# But no/ I ha%e noti-ed that in the a-t o' re(resenting it& it disa((ears3 that it is only a 0odi'i-ation o' 0y soul -ondition# Is there any 5usti'i-ation 'or using it as a starting (oint in 0y -onsiderationE $an I say o' it that it a''e-ts 0y soul6 Fro0 no/ on I ha%e to treat the table& o' /hi-h earlier I belie%ed that it a-ted on 0e and brought about in 0e a re(resentation o' itsel'& as being itsel' a re(resentation# Fro0 this it 'ollo/s logi-ally that 0y sense1organs and the (ro-esses in the0 are also 0ere sub5e-ti%e 0ani'estations# I ha%e no right to s(ea. o' a real eye& but only o' 0y re(resentation o' eye# And the sa0e holds good in regard to the ner%es and the brain (ro-ess& and no less in regard to /hat ta.es (la-e in the soul itsel'& through /hi-h& out o' the -haos o' 0ani'old sensations& ob5e-ts are su((osed to be built u(# I' I run through the ste(s o' 0y a-t o' -ognition on-e 0ore& (resu((osing the 'irst line o' thought to be -orre-t& then the latter sho/s itsel' to be a /eb o' re(resentations /hi-h& as su-h& -ould not a-t u(on one another# I -annot say4 y re(resentation o' the ob5e-t a''e-ts 0y re(resentation o' the eye& and 'ro0 this intera-tion the re(resentation o' -olor -o0es about# Nor is there any need 'or saying this& 'or as soon as it is -lear to 0e that 0y sense1organs and their a-ti%ity& and 0y ner%e and soul (ro-esses as /ell& -an also be gi%en only through (er-e(tion& then the des-ribed line o' thought sho/s itsel' in its 'ull i0(ossibility# It is true that I -an ha%e no (er-e(tion /ithout the -orres(onding sense1organ& but neither -an I ha%e the sense1organ /ithout (er-e(tion# Fro0 0y (er-e(tion o' the table I -an go o%er to the eye /hi-h sees it& and to the ner%es in the s.in /hi-h tou-h it& but /hat ta.es (la-e in these I -an& again& learn only 'ro0 (er-e(tion# And there I soon noti-e that in the (ro-ess /hi-h ta.es (la-e in the eye there is no tra-e o' si0ilarity to /hat I (er-ei%e as -olor# I -annot deny the e!isten-e o' 0y -olor (er-e(tion by (ointing to the (ro-ess /hi-h ta.es (la-e in the eye during this (er-e(tion# And 5ust as little -an I 'ind the -olor in the ner%e and brain (ro-esses3 all I do is only add ne/ (er-e(tions& /ithin the organis0& to the 'irst (er-e(tion& /hi-h the nai%e 0an (la-ed outside his organis0# I si0(ly (ass 'ro0 one (er-e(tion to another# A(art 'ro0 this there is an error in the /hole -on-lusion o' the line o' thought# I a0 able to 'ollo/ /hat ta.es (la-e in 0y organis0 u( to the (ro-esses in 0y brain& e%en though 0y assu0(tions be-o0e 0ore and 0ore hy(otheti-al the nearer I get to the -entral (ro-esses in the brain# But the (ath o' obser%ation 'ro0 outside -eases /ith /hat ta.es (la-e in 0y brain& -eases& in 'a-t& /ith /hat I should obser%e i' I -ould treat the brain /ith the assistan-e and 0ethods o' (hysi-s and -he0istry# The (ath o' obser%ation 'ro0 /ithin begins /ith the sensation and -ontinues u( to the building u( o' ob5e-ts out o' the 0aterial o' sensation# In the transition 'ro0 brain1(ro-ess to sensation& there is a ga( in the (ath o' obser%ation# This -hara-teristi- /ay o' thin.ing& /hi-h des-ribes itsel' as -riti-al idealis0& in -ontrast to the stand(oint o' nai%e -ons-iousness /hi-h it -alls nai%e realis0& 0a.es the 0ista.e o' -hara-terizing one (er-e(tion as re(resentation /hile ta.ing another in the %ery sa0e sense as does the nai%e realis0 /hi-h it a((arently re'utes# $riti-al idealis0 /ants to (ro%e that (er-e(tions ha%e the -hara-ter o' re(resentations3 in this atte0(t it a--e(ts 1 in nai%e 'ashion 1 the (er-e(tions belonging to the organis0 as ob5e-ti%e& %alid 'a-ts& and& /hat is 0ore& 'ails to see that it 0i!es u( t/o s(heres o' obser%ation& bet/een /hi-h it -an 'ind no 0ediation#

$riti-al idealis0 is able to re'ute nai%e realis0 only by itsel' assu0ing& in nai%e1realisti'ashion& that one8s o/n organis0 has ob5e-ti%e e!isten-e# As soon as the -riti-al idealist be-o0es -ons-ious o' the -o0(lete si0ilarity bet/een the (er-e(tions -onne-ted /ith one8s o/n organis0 and those /hi-h nai%e realis0 assu0es to ha%e ob5e-ti%e e!isten-e& he -an no longer rely on the (er-e(tions o' the organis0 as being a sa'e 'oundation# "e /ould ha%e to regard his o/n sub5e-ti%e organization also as a 0ere -o0(le! o' re(resentations# But then the (ossibility -eases o' regarding the -ontent o' the (er-ei%ed /orld as a (rodu-t o' 0an8s s(iritual organization# One /ould ha%e to assu0e that the re(resentation 9-olor; /as only a 0odi'i-ation o' the re(resentation 9eye#; So1-alled -riti-al idealis0 -annot be (ro%ed /ithout borro/ing so0ething 'ro0 nai%e realis0# Nai%e realis0 -an only be re'uted by a--e(ting its assu0(tions 1 /ithout testing the0 1 in another s(here# This 0u-h& then& is -ertain4 In%estigations /ithin the s(here o' (er-e(tions -annot (ro%e -riti-al idealis0& and -onse7uently -annot stri( (er-e(tions o' their ob5e-ti%e -hara-ter# Still less -an the (rin-i(le& 9The (er-ei%ed /orld is 0y re(resentation&; be stated as i' it /ere ob%ious and in need o' no (roo'# S-ho(enhaue,B begins his (rin-i(al /or.& Die 2elt als 2ille und Jorstellung& The 2orld as 2ill and Re(resentation& /ith the /ords4 9The /orld is 0y re(resentation 1 this is a truth /hi-h holds good 'or e%ery being that li%es and -ognizes& though 0an alone is able to bring it into re'le-ti%e& abstra-t -ons-iousness# I' he really does this& then he has attained to (hiloso(hi-al sel'1 -ons-iousness# It then be-o0es -lear and -ertain to hi0 that he does not .no/ a sun or an earth& but al/ays only an eye that sees a sun& a hand that 'eels an earth3 that the /orld /hi-h surrounds hi0 is only there as re(resentation& that 0eans throughout only in relation to so0ething else& to the one /ho re(resents& that is& to hi0sel'# I' e%er a truth -an be asserted a (riori& this one -an& 'or it e!(resses the 'or0 0ost general o' all (ossible and thin.able e!(erien-es& 0ore general than ti0e& or s(a-e& or -ausality& 'or all these (resu((ose it###; The (rin-i(le abo%e4 9The /orld is 0y re(resentation&; on /hi-h this is based& is& ho/e%er& /re-.ed by the 'a-t& already 0entioned& that the eye and the hand are (er-e(tions in 5ust the sa0e sense as the sun and the earth# And i' one used S-ho(enhauer8s e!(ressions in his o/n sense& one -ould ob5e-t to his (rin-i(le4 y eye that sees the sun and 0y hand that 'eels the earth are 0y re(resentations& 5ust li.e the sun and the earth the0sel%es# But that& /ith this& the (rin-i(le is -an-elled out& is i00ediately ob%ious# For only 0y real eye and 0y real hand -ould ha%e the re(resentations 9sun; and 9earth; as their 0odi'i-ations3 0y re(resentations 9eye; and 9hand; -annot ha%e the0# But -riti-al idealis0 -an s(ea. o' re(resentations only# It is i0(ossible by 0eans o' -riti-al idealis0 to gain insight into /hat relation (er-e(tion has to re(resentation# It is insensible to the distin-tion& 0entioned on (age ?D& o' /hat ha((ens to the (er-e(tion /hile (er-ei%ing ta.es (la-e and /hat 0ust be inherent in it be'ore it is (er-ei%ed# 2e 0ust& there'ore& atte0(t to gain this insight along another (ath#

THE ACT OF KNOWING THE WORLD Fro0 the 'oregoing -onsiderations it 'ollo/s that by in%estigating the -ontent o' our obser%ation it is i0(ossible to (ro%e that our (er-e(tions are re(resentations# This (roo' is su((osed to 'ollo/ 'ro0 the 'a-t that i' the (ro-ess o' (er-e(tion ta.es (la-e in the /ay it is i0agined& a--ording to the nai%e1realisti- su((ositions as to 0an8s (sy-hologi-al and (hysiologi-al -onstitution& then /e are dealing& not /ith things1in1the0sel%es& but 0erely /ith our re(resentations o' things# No/ i' nai%e realis0& /hen -onsistently thought through& leads to results /hi-h dire-tly -ontradi-t /hat it (resu((oses& then one 0ust regard its (resu((ositions as unsuitable 'or the 'oundation o' a /orld %ie/ and dis-ard the0# It is -ertainly inad0issible on the one hand to re5e-t the (resu((ositions and yet& on the other& to regard their out-o0e as %alid& as does the -riti-al idealist /hen he bases his assertion& The /orld is 0y re(resentation& on the so1-alled (roo' indi-ated abo%e# <Eduard %on "art0ann gi%es a 'ull a--ount o' this line o' argu0ent in his /or.& Das Grund(roble0 der Er.enntnistheorie& The Basi- :roble0 o' a Theory o' Cno/ledge#= The -orre-tness o' -riti-al idealis0 is one thing& the (o/er o' -on%i-tion o' its (roo' another# "o/ it stands /ith the 'or0er /ill be seen later in the -ourse o' our dis-ussion# But the (o/er o' -on%i-tion o' its (roo' is nil# I' one builds a house and the 'irst 'loor -olla(ses /hile the se-ond 'loor is being built& then the se-ond 'loor -olla(ses also# As 'irst 'loor is related to se-ond 'loor& so is nai%e realis0 related to -riti-al idealis0# For the one holding the %ie/ that the /hole /orld /e (er-ei%e is only a /orld that /e re(resent to oursel%es and& indeed& only the e''e-t on our soul o' things un.no/n to us& the essential (roble0 o' .no/ledge is naturally -on-erned& not /ith the re(resentations (resent only in the soul& but /ith the things /hi-h lie outside our -ons-iousness and are inde(endent o' us# "e as.s4 "o/ 0u-h -an /e indire-tly learn about the0& sin-e they are not dire-tly a--essible to our obser%ation6 Fro0 this (oint o' %ie/ he is -on-erned& not /ith the inner -onne-tion o' his -ons-ious (er-e(tions& but /ith their -auses& /hi-h lie beyond his -ons-iousness and e!ist inde(endently o' hi0 /hile the (er-e(tions disa((ear as soon as he turns his senses a/ay 'ro0 things# Fro0 this (oint o' %ie/& our -ons-iousness a-ts li.e a 0irror 'ro0 /hi-h the (i-tures o' things also disa((ear the 0o0ent its re'le-ting sur'a-e is not turned to/ard the0# "e /ho does not see things the0sel%es& but only their re'le-tions& 0ust obtain in'or0ation about their nature indire-tly by dra/ing -on-lusions 'ro0 the beha%ior o' the re'le-tions# This is the stand(oint o' 0odern natural s-ien-e& /hi-h uses (er-e(tions only as a 0eans o' obtaining in'or0ation about the (ro-esses o' 0atter /hi-h lie behind the0& and alone really 9are#; I' the (hiloso(her& as -riti-al idealist& a-.no/ledges a real e!isten-e at all& then his sole ai0 is to gain .no/ledge o' this real e!isten-e indire-tly by 0eans o' his re(resentations# "is interest s.i(s o%er the sub5e-ti%e /orld o' re(resentations and instead (ursues /hat (rodu-es these re(resentations# But the -riti-al idealist 0ay go as 'ar as to say4 I a0 -on'ined to the /orld o' 0y re(resentations and -annot get beyond it# I' I thin. that there is so0ething behind 0y re(resentations& then again this thought is nothing but 0y re(resentation# An idealist o' this .ind /ill then either deny the thing1in1itsel' entirely or& at any rate& say that it has no

signi'i-an-e 'or hu0an beings& that it is as good as non1e!istent sin-e /e -an .no/ nothing o' it# To this .ind o' -riti-al idealist the /hole /orld see0s a drea0& in the 'a-e o' /hi-h all stri%ing 'or .no/ledge is si0(ly 0eaningless# For hi0 there -an be only t/o .inds o' 0en4 those /ho are %i-ti0s o' the illusion that their o/n drea01(i-tures are real things& and the /ise ones /ho see through the nothingness o' this drea01/orld and there'ore 0ust gradually lose all desire to trouble the0sel%es 'urther about it# Fro0 this (oint o' %ie/& e%en one8s o/n (ersonality 0ay be-o0e a 0ere drea0 (hanto0# Iust as during slee(& a0ong our drea01i0ages an i0age o' our sel' a((ears& so in /a.ing -ons-iousness the re(resentation o' the I is added to the re(resentations o' the outer /orld# 2e then ha%e in -ons-iousness not the real I& but only our re(resentation o' the I# No/& i' the e!isten-e o' things is denied or at least it is denied that /e -an .no/ anything o' the0& then the e!isten-e or the .no/ledge o' one8s o/n (ersonality 0ust also be denied# The -riti-al idealist then -o0es to 0aintain4 9All reality trans'or0s itsel' into a /onder'ul drea0 1 /ithout a li'e /hi-h is drea0ed about& and /ithout a s(irit /hi-h drea0s 1 into a drea0 /hi-h hangs together in a drea0 o' itsel'#;,D It does not 0atter /hether the (erson /ho belie%es that he re-ognizes li'e to be a drea0 assu0es nothing 0ore behind this drea0& or /hether he re'ers his re(resentations to real things4 in either -ase& li'e 0ust lose all s-ienti'i- interest 'or hi0# But /hereas all s-ien-e 0ust be 0eaningless 'or those /ho belie%e that the /hole o' the a--essible uni%erse is e!hausted in drea0s& 'or others /ho belie%e they -an dra/ -on-lusions about the things 'ro0 the re(resentations& s-ien-e /ill -onsist in the in%estigation o' su-h 9things1in1 the0sel%es#; The 'irst /orld %ie/ -ould be des-ribed as absolute illusionis0& the se-ond is -alled trans-endental realis0 by its 0ost -onsistent e!(onent& Eduard %on "art0ann#,@ Both these %ie/s ha%e this in -o00on /ith nai%e realis0 that they see. to establish the0sel%es by 0eans o' an in%estigation o' (er-e(tions# "o/e%er& no/here /ithin this s(here -an they 'ind a 'ir0 'oundation# An essential 7uestion 'or an adherent o' trans-endental realis0 0ust be4 "o/ does the I bring about& out o' itsel'& the /orld o' re(resentations6 Inso'ar as it /ould be a 0eans o' in%estigating indire-tly the /orld o' the I1in1itsel'& an earnest stri%ing 'or .no/ledge -ould still be .indled by a /orld o' re(resentations that /as gi%en us& e%en i' this disa((eared as soon as /e shut our senses to the e!ternal /orld# I' the things /e e!(erien-e /ere re(resentations& then e%eryday li'e /ould be li.e a drea0& and re-ognition o' the true situation /ould be li.e an a/a.ening# Our drea0 (i-tures also interest us as long as /e are drea0ing and& -onse7uently& do not re-ognize the0 as drea0s# The 0o0ent /e a/a.en /e no longer loo. 'or inner -onne-tions bet/een our drea01(i-tures& but 'or the (hysi-al& (hysiologi-al and (sy-hologi-al (ro-esses /hi-h -aused the0# In the sa0e /ay a (hiloso(her /ho -onsiders the /orld to be his re(resentation -annot be interested in the inner -onne-tion o' the details /ithin it# I' he allo/s 'or the e!isten-e o' an I at all& then he /ill not as. ho/ his re(resentations are -onne-ted /ith one another& but /hat ta.es (la-e in the soul that e!ists inde(endently o' hi0 /hile his -ons-iousness -ontains a -ertain -ontent o' re(resentations# I' I drea0 that I a0 drin.ing /ine /hi-h 0a.es 0y throat burn& and I /a.e u( -oughing&,A then the 0o0ent I a/a.en I -ease to be interested in /hat the

drea0 /as about3 no/ 0y attention is -on-erned only /ith the (hysiologi-al and (sy-hologi-al (ro-esses by 0eans o' /hi-h the irritation /hi-h -aused 0e to -ough -o0es to be sy0boli-ally e!(ressed in the drea0 (i-ture# Si0ilarly the (hiloso(her& as soon as he is -on%in-ed that the gi%en /orld -onsists o' nothing but re(resentations& /ould at on-e turn 'ro0 the0 to the real soul behind the0# Things be-o0e /orse /hen illusionis0 -o0(letely denies the e!isten-e o' the I1in1itsel' behind re(resentations& or at least holds it to be un.no/able# One 0ay easily arri%e at su-h a %ie/ through the obser%ation that in -ontrast to drea0ing there e!ists the /a.ing state& in /hi-h /e ha%e the o((ortunity to see through the drea0 and to re'er it to the real -onne-tions o' things& but that /e ha%e no -ondition /hi-h is related si0ilarly to our /a.ing -ons-ious li'e# To ado(t this %ie/ is to 'ail to see that in 'a-t there is so0ething /hi-h is related to 0ere (er-ei%ing as /a.ing e!(erien-e is related to drea0s# This so0ething is thin.ing# The nai%e 0an -annot be -onsidered to la-. the insight re'erred to here# "e ta.es the /orld as it is and regards things as real in the sense in /hi-h he e!(erien-es the0 to be so# The 'irst ste(& ho/e%er& /hi-h is ta.en beyond this stand(oint -an only -onsist in as.ing4 "o/ is thin.ing related to (er-e(tion6 2hether or not the (er-e(tion& in the 'or0 gi%en 0e& -ontinues to e!ist be'ore and a'ter 0y 'or0ing a re(resentation o' it& 1 i' I /ant to say anything /hate%er about it& I -an do so only /ith the hel( o' thin.ing# I' I say4 The /orld is 0y re(resentation& I ha%e e!(ressed the result o' a thin.ing (ro-ess& and i' 0y thin.ing is not a((li-able to the /orld& then this result is erroneous# Bet/een a (er-e(tion and any .ind o' assertion about it& thin.ing sli(s in# It has already been indi-ated /hy& in our -onsideration o' things& /e usually o%erloo. thin.ing <See (# @)'#=# This is due to the 'a-t that /e dire-t our attention only to/ard the ob5e-t about /hi-h /e thin.& but not to/ard our thin.ing at the sa0e ti0e# Nai%e -ons-iousness treats thin.ing as so0ething /hi-h has nothing to do /ith things& but stands altogether aloo' 'ro0 the0 and -onte0(lates the0# The (i-ture /hi-h the thin.er 0a.es o' the (heno0ena o' the /orld is -onsidered& not as so0ething belonging to the0& but as so0ething e!isting only in 0en8s heads# The /orld is -o0(lete& e%en /ithout this (i-ture# The /orld is 'inished and ready10ade /ith all its substan-es and 'or-es& and o' this ready10ade /orld 0an 0a.es hi0sel' a (i-ture# 2hoe%er thin.s along these lines should be as.ed4 2hat gi%es you the right to de-lare the /orld to be -o0(lete /ithout thin.ing6 Does the /orld not (rodu-e thin.ing in the heads o' 0en /ith the sa0e ne-essity as it (rodu-es the blosso0 on a (lant6 :lant a seed in the earth# Root and ste0 /ill gro/# It /ill un'old lea%es and blosso0s# Then (la-e the (lant be'ore you# In your soul it -onne-ts itsel' /ith a de'inite -on-e(t# 2hy should this -on-e(t belong to the entire (lant any less than lea' and blosso06 >ou say4 The lea%es and blosso0s are there /ithout the (resen-e o' a (er-ei%ing sub5e-t3 the -on-e(t& ho/e%er& does not a((ear till a hu0an being -on'ronts the (lant# Kuite true# But lea%es and blosso0s a((ear on the (lant only i' there is soil in /hi-h the seed -an be (lanted& and light and air in /hi-h the lea%es and blosso0s -an un'old# In 5ust this /ay does the -on-e(t o' the (lant arise /hen a thin.ing -ons-iousness -on'ronts it# It is 7uite arbitrary to regard as a totality& as a thing in its entirety& the su0 o' /hat /e e!(erien-e through 0ere (er-e(tion& and to regard as a 0ere addition& /hi-h has nothing to do /ith the thing itsel'& /hat re%eals itsel' through thin.ing obser%ation# I' I re-ei%e a

rosebud today& the (i-ture that o''ers itsel' to 0y (er-e(tion is -o0(lete only 'or the 0o0ent# I' I (ut the bud into /ater& to0orro/ I shall get a 7uite di''erent (i-ture o' 0y ob5e-t# I' I do not turn 0y gaze a/ay 'ro0 the rosebud& then I shall see today8s state gradually -hange into to0orro/8s through an in'inite nu0ber o' inter0ediate stages# The (i-ture /hi-h (resents itsel' to 0e at any one 0o0ent is only a -han-e se-tion o' an ob5e-t /hi-h is in a -ontinual (ro-ess o' be-o0ing# I' I do not (ut the bud into /ater& a /hole series o' states& /hi-h as (ossibilities lay /ithin the bud& /ill not be e%ol%ed3 or to0orro/ I 0ay be (re%ented 'ro0 obser%ing the blosso0 'urther and there'ore /ill ha%e an in-o0(lete (i-ture o' it# That o(inion is 7uite sub5e-ti%e /hi-h& on the basis o' a -han-e (i-ture o' a thing& de-lares4 This is the thing# It is e7ually inad0issible to de-lare the su0 o' (er-e(tions to be the thing# It -ould /ell be (ossible 'or a being to re-ei%e the -on-e(t at the sa0e ti0e as& and undi%ided 'ro0& the (er-e(tion# To su-h a being it /ould ne%er o--ur that the -on-e(t did not belong to the thing# "e /ould as-ribe to the -on-e(t an e!isten-e indi%isibly bound u( /ith the thing# Let 0e 0a.e 0ysel' -learer by an e!a0(le# I' I thro/ a stone horizontally through the air& I see it in di''erent (la-es& one a'ter the other# I -onne-t these (la-es to 'or0 a line# In 0athe0ati-s I learn to .no/ %arious .inds o' lines& one o' /hi-h is the (arabola# I .no/ the (arabola to be a line (rodu-ed by a (oint 0o%ing a--ording to -ertain la/s# I' I in%estigate the -onditions under /hi-h the stone 0o%es& I 'ind that the (ath tra%ersed is identi-al /ith the line I .no/ as a (arabola# That the stone 0o%es 5ust in a (arabola is a result o' the gi%en -onditions and ne-essarily 'ollo/s 'ro0 the0# The 'or0 o' the (arabola belongs to the /hole (heno0enon as 0u-h as does any other 'eature o' it# The being des-ribed abo%e& /ho did not ha%e to 0a.e the detour o' thin.ing& /ould be gi%en not only a su0 o' %isual as(e-ts at di''erent (oints but& undi%ided 'ro0 the /hole o--urren-e& also the (araboli- 'or0 o' the (ath /hi-h /e add to the (heno0enon by 0eans o' thin.ing# It is not due to the ob5e-ts that they are gi%en us at 'irst /ithout the -orres(onding -on-e(ts& but to our intelle-tual organization# Our being as a totality 'un-tions in su-h a /ay that 'ro0 e%ery reality the ele0ents belonging to it 'lo/ to us 'ro0 t/o dire-tions4 'ro0 the dire-tion o' (er-ei%ing and 'ro0 that o' thin.ing# "o/ I a0 organized 'or gras(ing the0 has nothing to do /ith the nature o' things# The brea-h bet/een (er-ei%ing and thin.ing is not (resent until the 0o0ent I& the one /ho -onte0(lates the0& -on'ront the things# 2hi-h ele0ents do& and /hi-h do not belong to the ob5e-t& -annot at all de(end on the 0anner in /hi-h I arri%e at .no/ledge o' these ele0ents# an is a li0ited being# To begin /ith& he is a being a0ong other beings# "is e!isten-e is bound u( /ith s(a-e and ti0e# Be-ause o' this& it is al/ays only a li0ited se-tion o' the total uni%erse that -an be gi%en hi0# But this li0ited se-tion lin.s itsel' in all dire-tions&

both in ti0e and in s(a-e& to other se-tions# I' our e!isten-e /ere so bound u( /ith the surrounding /orld that e%ery (ro-ess /ould be a (ro-ess in us as /ell& then the distin-tion bet/een us and things /ould not e!ist# But then neither /ould there be any indi%idual e%ents 'or us# All e%ents /ould (ass o%er into one another -ontinuously# The -os0os /ould be a unity& a totality en-losed /ithin itsel'# No/here /ould there be a brea. in the strea0 o' e%ents# It is be-ause o' our li0itations that things a((ear to us as i' they /ere se(arate& /hen in reality they are not se(arate at all# No/here& 'or e!a0(le& is the singular 7uality o' red (resent by itsel'& in isolation# It is surrounded on all sides by other 7ualities& to /hi-h it belongs and /ithout /hi-h it -ould not subsist# For us& ho/e%er& to li't -ertain se-tions out 'ro0 the rest o' the /orld and to -onsider the0 by the0sel%es& is a ne-essity# Our eye -an ta.e hold o' only single -olors& one a'ter another& out o' a totality o' 0any -olors& our understanding& o' only single -on-e(ts out o' a -oherent syste0 o' -on-e(ts# This se(arating o'' is a sub5e-ti%e a-t& and it is due to the 'a-t that 0an is not identi-al /ith the /orld (ro-ess& but is a being a0ong other beings# No/ all de(ends on our de'ining ho/ the being o' 0an is related to other beings# This de'inition 0ust be distinguished 'ro0 0erely be-o0ing -ons-ious o' oursel%es# This latter de(ends on the a-t o' (er-ei%ing& 5ust as does our be-o0ing -ons-ious o' anything else# Sel'1(er-e(tion sho/s 0e a nu0ber o' 7ualities /hi-h I -o0(rise in the unity o' 0y (ersonality in the sa0e /ay as I -o0(rise the 7ualities yello/& 0etalli-& hard& et-#& in the unity 9gold#; Sel'1(er-e(tion does not ta.e 0e beyond the s(here o' /hat belongs to 0ysel'# This (er-ei%ing 0ysel' is to be distinguished 'ro0 de'ining 0ysel' by 0eans o' thin.ing# Iust as I insert a se(arate (er-e(tion o' the e!ternal /orld into the -onne-tion o' things by 0eans o' thin.ing& so do I insert the (er-e(tions deri%ed 'ro0 0ysel' into the /orld (ro-ess by 0eans o' thin.ing# 2hen I (er-ei%e 0ysel'& then I see 0ysel' as en-losed /ithin -ertain li0its& but 0y thin.ing has nothing to do /ith these li0its# In this sense I a0 a t/o'old being# I a0 en-losed /ithin the s(here /hi-h I (er-ei%e as that o' 0y (ersonality& but I a0 also the bearer o' an a-ti%ity /hi-h& 'ro0 a higher s(here& deter0ines 0y li0ited e!isten-e# Our thin.ing is not indi%idual li.e our sensing and 'eeling# It is uni%ersal# It re-ei%es an indi%idual sta0( in ea-h se(arate hu0an being only be-ause it be-o0es related to his indi%idual 'eelings and sensations# Through these (arti-ular -olorings o' the uni%ersal thin.ing& single (ersons di''er 'ro0 one another# A triangle has only one single -on-e(t# For the -ontent o' this -on-e(t it is 7uite i00aterial /hether the hu0an bearer o' -ons-iousness /ho gras(s it is A or B# But it /ill be gras(ed by ea-h o' the t/o bearers o' -ons-iousness in an indi%idual /ay# This thought -on'li-ts /ith a -o00on (re5udi-e /hi-h is %ery hard to o%er-o0e# Those /ho ha%e this (re5udi-e -annot rea-h the insight that the -on-e(t o' triangle /hi-h 0y head gras(s is the sa0e -on-e(t as that /hi-h 0y neighbor8s head gras(s# The nai%e 0an -onsiders hi0sel' to be the 0a.er o' his -on-e(ts# "e there'ore belie%es that ea-h (erson has his o/n -on-e(ts# It is a 'unda0ental re7uire0ent o' (hiloso(hi- thin.ing to o%er-o0e this (re5udi-e# The one undi%ided -on-e(t& triangle& does not be-o0e a 0ulti(li-ity be-ause it is thought by 0any# For the thin.ing o' the 0any is itsel' a unity# In thin.ing& /e are gi%en that ele0ent /hi-h e0bra-es our (arti-ular indi%iduality and 0a.es it one /ith the -os0os# In that /e sense and 'eel <and also (er-ei%e=& /e are single entities3 in that /e thin.& /e are the All1One Being that (er%ades e%erything# This is the dee(er 'oundation o' our t/o'old being4 2e see /ithin us a si0(ly absolute 'or-e -o0e

into e!isten-e& a 'or-e /hi-h is uni%ersal& but /e learn to .no/ it& not as it issues 'ro0 the -enter o' the /orld& but at a (oint o' the (eri(hery# 2ere the 'or0er the -ase& as soon as /e -a0e to be -ons-ious& /e should .no/ the /hole /orld riddle# But sin-e /e stand at a (oint on the (eri(hery and 'ind that our o/n e!isten-e is -on'ined /ithin de'inite li0its& /e 0ust learn to .no/ the region /hi-h lies beyond our o/n being /ith the hel( o' thin.ing& /hi-h (enetrates into us out o' the general /orld e!isten-e# Through the 'a-t that the thin.ing in us rea-hes out beyond our se(arate e!isten-e and relates itsel' to the general /orld e!isten-e& there arises in us the urge 'or .no/ledge# Beings /ithout thin.ing do not ha%e this urge# 2hen other things -on'ront the0& this gi%es rise to no 7uestioning /ithin the0# These other things re0ain e!ternal to su-h beings# But the -on-e(t rises u( /ithin thin.ing beings /hen they -on'ront e!ternal things# It is that (art o' things /hi-h /e re-ei%e not 'ro0 outside& but 'ro0 /ithin# It is 'or .no/ledge to bring about the agree0ent& the union o' the t/o ele0ents& the inner and the outer# The (er-e(tion there'ore is not so0ething 'inished& not so0ething sel'1-ontained& but one side o' the total reality# The other side is the -on-e(t# The a-t o' .no/ledge is the synthesis o' (er-e(tion and -on-e(t# Only (er-e(tion and -on-e(t together -onstitute the /hole thing# The abo%e e!(lanations gi%e (roo' that it is 0eaningless to see. 'or any -o00on 'a-tor in the se(arate entities o' the /orld& other than the ideal -ontent to be 'ound in thin.ing# All e''orts 0ust 'ail /hi-h see. to 'ind any other /orld unity than this internally -oherent ideal -ontent /hi-h /e gain by thin.ing -onsideration o' our (er-e(tions# Neither a hu0anly (ersonal God& nor 'or-e& nor 0atter& nor idea1less /ill <S-ho(enhauer=& is a--e(table as the uni%ersal /orld unity# All these entities belong only to a li0ited s(here o' our obser%ation# "u0anly li0ited (ersonality /e (er-ei%e only in 0an& 'or-e and 0atter in e!ternal things# As regards the /ill& it -an be -onsidered only as the e!(ression o' the a-ti%ity o' our 'inite (ersonality# S-ho(enhauer,? /ants to a%oid 0a.ing 9abstra-t; thin.ing the bearer o' the /orld unity& and instead see.s so0ething /hi-h see0s to hi0 to be i00ediate reality# This (hiloso(her belie%es /e -an ne%er a((roa-h the /orld so long as /e regard it as an e!ternal /orld# 9In 'a-t& the 0eaning sought 'or in the /orld that -on'ronts 0e solely as 0y re(resentation& or the transition 'ro0 it& as 0ere re(resentation o' the -ognizing sub5e-t& to /hate%er it 0ay be besides this& -ould ne%er be 'ound i' the in%estigator hi0sel' /ere nothing 0ore than the (ure -ognizing sub5e-t <a /inged -herub /ithout a body=# But he hi0sel' is rooted in that /orld& he 'inds hi0sel' in it as an indi%idual3 this 0eans that his .no/ledge& /hi-h is the ne-essary bearer o' the /hole /orld as re(resentation& is yet al/ays gi%en through the 0ediu0 o' a body& /hose a''e-tions are& as /e ha%e sho/n& the starting (oint 'ro0 /hi-h the intelle-t 'or0s a %ie/ o' that /orld# For the (ure -ognizing sub5e-t as su-h& this body is a re(resentation li.e e%ery other re(resentation& an ob5e-t a0ong ob5e-ts3 in this res(e-t its 0o%e0ents and a-tions are .no/n to hi0 in no other /ay than the -hanges in all other ob5e-ts /hi-h he -an -onte0(late& and /ould be 5ust as strange and in-o0(rehensible to hi0 i' their 0eaning /ere not re%ealed to hi0 in an

entirely di''erent /ay#### For the sub5e-t o' -ognition& /ho a((ears as an indi%idual through his identity /ith the body& this body is gi%en in t/o entirely di''erent /ays4 It is gi%en as a re(resentation 'or intelligent -onsideration& as ob5e-t a0ong ob5e-ts and sub5e-ted to their la/s3 but also& at the sa0e ti0e& in 7uite a di''erent /ay& na0ely& as that /hi-h is dire-tly .no/n to e%eryone& and /hi-h is -alled /ill# E%ery true a-t o' his /ill is also at on-e and un'ailingly a 0o%e0ent o' his body4 he -annot /ill the a-t /ithout (er-ei%ing at the sa0e ti0e that it a((ears as a 0o%e0ent o' the body# The a-t o' /ill and the a-tion o' the body are not t/o di''erent -onditions ob5e-ti%ely re-ognized& -onne-ted by the bond o' -ausality3 they do not stand in the relation o' -ause and e''e-t3 they are one and the sa0e& but are gi%en in t/o entirely di''erent /ays4 on-e 7uite dire-tly& and on-e again 'or the intelligen-e that -onsiders it#;,* By these argu0ents S-ho(enhauer belie%es hi0sel' entitled to see in the hu0an body the 9ob5e-ti%ity; o' the /ill# In his o(inion one 'eels in the a-tions o' the body a dire-t reality& the thing1in1itsel' in the -on-rete# The ob5e-tion to these argu0ents is that the a-tions o' our body -o0e to our -ons-iousness only through sel'1(er-e(tions& and that& as su-h& they are in no /ay su(erior to other (er-e(tions# I' /e /ant to learn to .no/ their nature& /e -an do so only by thin.ing in%estigation& that is& by 'itting the0 into the ideal syste0 o' our -on-e(ts and ideas# Rooted 0ost dee(ly in the nai%e -ons-iousness o' 0an.ind is the o(inion4 Thin.ing is abstra-t& e0(ty o' all -on-rete -ontent# At 0ost it -an gi%e an 9ideal; 0irror (i-ture o' the /orld& but nothing o' the /orld itsel'# To 5udge li.e this is ne%er to ha%e be-o0e -lear about /hat (er-e(tion /ithout the -on-e(t& is# Let us loo. at this real0 o' 0ere (er-e(tions4 it a((ears as a 0ere 5u!ta(osition in s(a-e& a 0ere su--ession in ti0e& an aggregate o' dis-onne-ted entities# None o' the things /hi-h -o0e and go on the stage o' (er-e(tion ha%e any dire-t& (er-e(tible -onne-tion /ith any others# Fro0 this as(e-t& the /orld is a 0ulti(li-ity o' ob5e-ts o' e7ual %alue# None (lays any greater (art in the hustle and bustle o' the /orld than any other# I' it is to be-o0e -lear to us that this or that 'a-t has greater signi'i-an-e than another& /e 0ust -onsult our thin.ing# 2ithout the 'un-tioning o' thin.ing& the rudi0entary organ o' an ani0al /hi-h has no signi'i-an-e in its li'e a((ears to us as e7ual in %alue to the 0ost i0(ortant li0b# The se(arate 'a-ts a((ear in their o/n signi'i-an-e& as /ell as in their signi'i-an-e 'or the rest o' the /orld only /hen thin.ing s(ins its threads 'ro0 one entity to another# This a-ti%ity o' thin.ing is one 'illed /ith -ontent# For it is only through a 7uite de'inite& -on-rete -ontent that I -an .no/ /hy the snail belongs to a lo/er le%el o' organization than the lion# The 0ere sight& the (er-e(tion& gi%es 0e no -ontent /hi-h -an in'or0 0e about the degree o' (er'e-tion o' an organization# Thin.ing brings this -ontent to the (er-e(tion 'ro0 0an8s /orld o' -on-e(ts and ideas# In -ontrast to the -ontent o' (er-e(tion gi%en to us 'ro0 outside& the -ontent o' thought shines 'orth in the inner being o' 0an# The 0anner in /hi-h the -ontent o' thought 'irst a((ears& /e /ill -all intuition# Intuition is 'or thin.ing /hat obser%ation is 'or (er-e(tion# Intuition and obser%ation are the sour-es o' our .no/ledge# An obser%ed ob5e-t or e%ent is 'oreign to us as long as /e do not ha%e in our inner being the -orres(onding intuition /hi-h -o0(letes 'or us that (art o' reality /hi-h is 0issing in the (er-e(tion# To so0eone /ho la-.s the ability to 'ind intuitions -orres(onding to things& the 'ull reality re0ains ina--essible# Iust as the -olor1blind sees

only di''eren-es o' brightness /ithout any -olor 7ualities& so the one /ho la-.s intuition -an obser%e only dis-onne-ted 'rag0ents o' (er-e(tions# To e!(lain a thing& to 0a.e it intelligible& 0eans nothing other than to (la-e it into the -onte!t 'ro0 /hi-h it has been torn o/ing to the nature o' our organization as des-ribed abo%e# So0ething -ut o'' 'ro0 the /orld /hole does not e!ist# Isolation in any 'or0 has only sub5e-ti%e %alidity 'or our organization# For us the /orld unity di%ides itsel' into abo%e and belo/& be'ore and a'ter& -ause and e''e-t& ob5e-t and re(resentation& 0atter and 'or-e& ob5e-t and sub5e-t& et-# 2hat a((ears to our obser%ation as single entities& -o0bines& bit by bit& through the -oherent& undi%ided /orld o' our intuitions& and through thin.ing /e again 'it together into a unity e%erything /e had di%ided through (er-ei%ing# The enig0ati- as(e-t o' an ob5e-t is due to its se(arate e!isten-e# But this se(aration is brought about by us and& /ithin the /orld o' -on-e(ts& -an be -an-elled again# E!-e(t through thin.ing and (er-ei%ing& nothing is gi%en to us dire-tly# The 7uestion no/ arises4 2hat signi'i-an-e has (er-e(tion a--ording to our line o' thought6 2e ha%e& it is true& re-ognized that the (roo' /hi-h -riti-al idealis0 brings 'or/ard 'or the sub5e-ti%e nature o' (er-e(tions& -olla(ses& but the insight that the (roo' is /rong does not ne-essarily 0ean that /hat is asserted is in-orre-t# $riti-al idealis0 does not base its (roo' on the absolute nature o' thin.ing& but relies on the 'a-t that nai%e realis0& /hen 'ollo/ed to its logi-al -on-lusion& -ontradi-ts itsel'# "o/ does the 0atter stand /hen the absoluteness o' thin.ing is re-ognized6 Let us assu0e that a -ertain (er-e(tion& 'or e!a0(le& red& a((ears in 0y -ons-iousness# $ontinued -onsideration /ill sho/ the (er-e(tion to be -onne-ted /ith other (er-e(tions& 'or e!a0(le& a de'inite 'or0& -ertain (er-e(tions o' te0(erature& and o' tou-h# This -o0bination I -all an ob5e-t o' the sense /orld# I -an no/ as.4 O%er and abo%e the (er-e(tions 5ust 0entioned& /hat else is there in that se-tion o' s(a-e /here they a((ear6 I shall 'ind 0e-hani-al& -he0i-al and other (ro-esses in that se-tion o' s(a-e# I no/ go 'urther and in%estigate the (ro-esses I 'ind on the /ay 'ro0 the ob5e-t to 0y sense organs# I -an 'ind 0o%e0ents in an elasti- 0ediu0& and their nature has not the slightest thing in -o00on /ith the original (er-e(tion# I get the sa0e result /hen I go on and in%estigate the 'urther trans0ission bet/een sense organs and brain# In ea-h o' these s(heres I gather ne/ (er-e(tions& but the -onne-ting 0ediu0 (er0eating all these (er-e(tions standing side by side in both s(a-e and ti0e& is thin.ing# The air %ibrations /hi-h -arry sound are gi%en 0e as (er-e(tion& 5ust as is the sound itsel'# Thin.ing alone lin.s all these (er-e(tions to one another& sho/ing the0 in their 0utual relationshi(s# Beyond /hat is dire-tly (er-ei%ed& /e -annot s(ea. o' anything e!-e(t /hat -an be re-ognized through the ideal -onne-tions o' (er-e(tions <that is& /hat -an be dis-o%ered through thin.ing=# That relationshi( bet/een the (er-e(tual ob5e-t and the (er-ei%ing sub5e-t& /hi-h goes beyond /hat -an be (er-ei%ed& is there'ore a (urely ideal one& that is& it -an be e!(ressed only by 0eans o' -on-e(ts# Only i' I -ould (er-ei%e ho/ the (er-e(tual ob5e-t a''e-ts the (er-ei%ing sub5e-t& or& the other /ay round& i' I -ould obser%e the building u( o' the (er-e(tual (i-tures by the sub5e-t& /ould it be (ossible to s(ea. as does 0odern (hysiology and the -riti-al idealis0 based on it# This %ie/

-on'uses an ideal relation <that o' the ob5e-t to the sub5e-t= /ith a (ro-ess /hi-h /e -ould s(ea. o' only i' it /ere (ossible to (er-ei%e it# The (rin-i(le& 9No -olor /ithout a -olor1 seeing eye&; is there'ore not to be ta.en to 0ean that the eye (rodu-es the -olor& but only that an ideal relationshi(& re-ognizable by thin.ing& e!ists bet/een the (er-e(tion& -olor and the (er-e(tion& eye# E0(iri-al s-ien-e /ill ha%e to establish ho/ the nature o' the eye and the nature o' -olors are related to one another& that is& by /hat 0eans the organ o' sight trans0its the (er-e(tion o' -olors& et-# I -an tra-e ho/ one (er-e(tion su--eeds another and ho/ one is related to others in s(a-e& and I -an 'or0ulate this in -on-e(tual ter0s& but I -annot (er-ei%e ho/ a (er-e(tion originates out o' the non1(er-e(tible# All atte0(ts to see. any relations bet/een (er-e(tions other than thought relations 0ust o' ne-essity 'ail# 2hat& then& is a (er-e(tion6 2hen as.ed in general& this 7uestion is absurd# A (er-e(tion al/ays a((ears as a 7uite de'inite& -on-rete -ontent# This -ontent is dire-tly gi%en and is -o0(letely -ontained /ithin the gi%en# The only 7uestion one -an as. -on-erning this gi%en is& 2hat is it a(art 'ro0 being a (er-e(tion3 that is& 2hat is it 'or thin.ing6 The 7uestion -on-erning the 9/hat; o' a (er-e(tion& there'ore& -an re'er only to the -on-e(tual intuition /hi-h -orres(onds to it# Seen in this light& the 7uestion o' the sub5e-ti%ity o' (er-e(tions& in the sense o' -riti-al idealis0& -annot be raised at all# Only /hat is (er-ei%ed as belonging to the sub5e-t -an be ter0ed 9sub5e-ti%e#; No real (ro-ess& in a nai%e sense& -an 'or0 a lin. bet/een the sub5e-ti%e and the ob5e-ti%e& that is& no (ro-ess that -an be (er-ei%ed3 this is (ossible only 'or thin.ing# For us& then& that is ob5e-ti%e /hi-h& to (er-e(tion& lies outside o' the (er-e(tual sub5e-t# y (er-e(tual sub5e-t re0ains (er-e(tible to 0e /hen the table /hi-h stands be'ore 0e has disa((eared 'ro0 0y 'ield o' obser%ation# y obser%ation o' the table has -aused in 0e a -hange /hi-h li.e/ise re0ains# I retain the ability to re(rodu-e a (i-ture o' the table later# This ability to (rodu-e a (i-ture re0ains -onne-ted /ith 0e# :sy-hology des-ribes this (i-ture as a 0e0ory re(resentation# "o/e%er& it is the only thing /hi-h -an -orre-tly be -alled the re(resentation o' the table# For it -orres(onds to the (er-e(tible -hange in 0e& -aused through the (resen-e o' the table in 0y 'ield o' %ision# And indeed& it is not a -hange in so0e 9I1in1itsel'; standing behind the (er-e(tual sub5e-t& but a -hange in the (er-e(tible sub5e-t itsel'# A re(resentation& then& is a sub5e-ti%e (er-e(tion& in -ontrast to the ob5e-ti%e (er-e(tion /hi-h o--urs /hen the ob5e-t is (resent in the 'ield o' %ision# The -on'using o' the 'or0er sub5e-ti%e /ith the latter ob5e-ti%e (er-e(tion leads to the 0isunderstanding o' idealis04 The /orld is 0y re(resentation# The ne!t ste( 0ust be to de'ine the -on-e(t o' re(resentation 0ore e!a-tly# 2hat /e ha%e so 'ar des-ribed o' it is not its -on-e(t3 /hat /e ha%e des-ribed has only (ointed the /ay to /here in the (er-e(tual 'ield re(resentations are to be 'ound# The e!a-t -on-e(t o' re(resentation /ill also then 0a.e it (ossible 'or us to gain a satis'a-tory e!(lanation o' the relationshi( bet/een re(resentation and ob5e-t# This /ill also lead us o%er the border1 line& /here the relationshi( bet/een the hu0an sub5e-t and the ob5e-t belonging to the /orld is brought do/n 'ro0 the (urely -on-e(tual 'ield o' .no/ledge into -on-rete indi%idual li'e# On-e /e .no/ /hat to thin. o' the /orld& it /ill also be easy to ada(t oursel%es to it# 2e -an only be a-ti%e /ith our 'ull hu0an 'or-es /hen /e .no/ the ob5e-ts belonging to the /orld to /hi-h /e de%ote our a-ti%ity#

Addition to the Re%ised Edition <)*)?=4 The %ie/ I ha%e -hara-terized here -an be regarded as one to /hi-h 0an is led at 'irst& as i' by a natural instin-t& the 0o0ent he begins to re'le-t u(on his relation to the /orld# "e then 'inds hi0sel' -aught in a thought 'or0ation /hi-h dissol%es 'or hi0 /hile he 'ra0es it# This thought 'or0ation is su-h that a (urely theoreti-al re'utation o' it does not su''i-e# One has to li%e through it and e!(erien-e it in order to re-ognize ho/ 'ar it leads one astray& and then to 'ind the /ay out# It 0ust be a 'eature o' any dis-ussion -on-erning 0an8s relation to the /orld& not 'or the sa.e o' re'uting others /hose %ie/ about this relation one belie%es to be /rong& but be-ause one 0ust onesel' e!(erien-e to /hat -on'usion e%ery 'irst re'le-tion about su-h a relation -an lead# One 0ust gain that insight /hi-h /ill enable one to re'ute onesel' /ith res(e-t to su-h a 'irst re'le-tion# The abo%e dis-ussion is 0eant in this sense# 2hen one tries to /or. out a %ie/ about 0an8s relation to the /orld& one be-o0es -ons-ious o' the 'a-t that 0an hi0sel' -reates this relation& at least in (art& by 'or0ing re(resentations about the things and e%ents in the /orld# This dra/s his attention a/ay 'ro0 /hat is (resent outside in the /orld and dire-ts it to his inner /orld& to his li'e o' 'or0ing re(resentations# "e begins to say to hi0sel'4 It is i0(ossible 'or 0e to ha%e a relationshi( to any thing or e%ent unless a re(resentation o' it a((ears in 0e# Fro0 noti-ing this 'a-t& it is but a ste( to the o(inion4 All that I e!(erien-e is& a'ter all& only 0y re(resentation3 I .no/ about a /orld outside 0e only inso'ar as it is re(resentation in 0e# 2ith this o(inion& 0an abandons the stand(oint o' nai%e reality /hi-h he has be'ore he begins to re'le-t about his relation to the /orld# Fro0 the nai%e stand(oint& he belie%es that he is dealing /ith real things# But re'le-tion about his o/n being dri%es hi0 a/ay 'ro0 this stand(oint# This re'le-tion does not allo/ hi0 to turn his gaze to/ard a real /orld su-h as nai%e -ons-iousness belie%es it -on'ronts# This re'le-tion turns his gaze only to/ard his re(resentations3 his re(resentations sli( in bet/een his o/n being and that real /orld the nai%e stand(oint belie%es in# an no longer -an loo. through the inter%ening /orld o' re(resentations to any su-h reality# "e has to assu0e that he is blind to this reality# So the thought arises o' a 9thing1in1itsel'; /hi-h is ina--essible to .no/ledge# 1 As long as one -onsiders only the relationshi( to the /orld into /hi-h 0an a((ears to enter through his li'e o' 'or0ing re(resentations& one -annot es-a(e 'ro0 this line o' thought# But one -annot re0ain at the nai%e stand(oint o' reality e!-e(t by arti'i-ially -urbing the thirst 'or .no/ledge# The 'a-t that in 0an the need is (resent 'or .no/ledge about his relation to the /orld indi-ates that the nai%e stand(oint 0ust be abandoned# I' the nai%e stand(oint ga%e us anything that -ould be a-.no/ledged as truth& then /e should not 'eel this need# 1 But one does not arri%e at anything else that -ould be -onsidered as truth i' one 0erely abandons the nai%e stand(oint& but retains 1 /ithout noti-ing it 1 the .ind o' thought /hi-h it i0(oses u(on us# This is the 0ista.e that is 0ade /hen it is said4 I e!(erien-e only 0y re(resentations& and /hile I belie%e that I a0 dealing /ith reality& I a0 a-tually -ons-ious only o' 0y re(resentations o' reality3 I 0ust& there'ore& assu0e that genuine reality& the 9thing in1itsel'&; e!ists only outside the boundary o' 0y -ons-iousness and that I .no/ nothing o' it dire-tly& but that it so0eho/ a((roa-hes 0e and in'luen-es 0e in su-h a /ay that 0y re(resentations -o0e about# To thin. in this /ay is only to add in thought& to the /orld be'ore us& another /orld3 but one 0ust begin the /hole thin.ing (ro-ess o%er again /ith regard to this se-ond /orld# For the un.no/n 9thing1in1itsel'&; in its relation to 0an8s being& is thought o' in e!a-tly the

sa0e /ay as is the .no/n thing o' the nai%e stand(oint o' reality# 1 One only es-a(es the -on'usion that arises in one8s -riti-al re'le-tion -on-erning this stand(oint /hen one noti-es that inside e%erything /e -an e!(erien-e by 0eans o' (er-ei%ing& be it /ithin oursel%es or outside in the /orld& there is so0ething /hi-h -annot su--u0b to the 'ate that a re(resentation inserts itsel' bet/een e%ent and -onte0(lating hu0an being# And this so0ething is thin.ing# 2ith regard to thin.ing& 0an -an re0ain at the nai%e stand(oint o' reality# I' he does not do so& it is only be-ause he has noti-ed that he has to abandon this stand(oint in regard to other things& but o%erloo.s the 'a-t that this insight& /hi-h is true 'or other things& does not a((ly to thin.ing# 2hen he noti-es this& he o(ens the (ortal to yet another insight& that in thin.ing and through thin.ing that 0ust be a-.no/ledged to /hi-h 0an a((ears to blind hi0sel' be-ause he has to (la-e bet/een hi0sel' and the /orld the li'e o' re(resentations# 1 A -riti- highly estee0ed by the author o' this boo. has ob5e-ted that this dis-ussion o' thin.ing re0ains at nai%e realis0 in regard to thin.ing& as it 0ust i' the real /orld and the /orld o' re(resentations are held to be one and the sa0e# "o/e%er& the author belie%es he has sho/n in 5ust this dis-ussion this 'a-t4 that an un(re5udi-ed obser%ation o' thin.ing ine%itably sho/s that 9nai%e realis0; is %alid 'or thin.ing& and that nai%e realis0& inso'ar as it is not %alid 'or other things& is o%er-o0e through the re-ognition o' the true nature o' thin.ing#

THE HUMAN INDIVIDUALITY In atte0(ting to e!(lain re(resentations (hiloso(hers ha%e 'ound that the 0ain di''i-ulty lies in the 'a-t that /e oursel%es are not the e!ternal things& and yet our re(resentations 0ust so0eho/ -orres(ond to things# But& on -loser ins(e-tion& it turns out that this di''i-ulty does not e!ist at all# 2e are -ertainly not the e!ternal things& but together /ith the0 /e belong to one and the sa0e /orld# That se-tion o' the /orld /hi-h I (er-ei%e as 0y sub5e-t is (er0eated by the strea0 o' the uni%ersal /orld (ro-ess# To 0y (er-ei%ing I a((ear& in the 'irst instan-e& en-losed /ithin the boundary o' 0y s.in# But all that is -ontained /ithin the s.in belongs to the -os0os as a /hole# "en-e 'or a relation to e!ist bet/een 0y organis0 and an e!ternal ob5e-t& it is by no 0eans ne-essary that so0ething o' the ob5e-t should sli( into 0e or 0a.e an i0(ression on 0y s(irit& li.e a signet ring on /a!# A 7uestion su-h as4 "o/ do I gain .no/ledge o' the tree ten 'eet a/ay 'ro0 0e6 is /rongly 'or0ulated# It s(rings 'ro0 the %ie/ that the boundaries o' 0y body are absolute barriers& through /hi-h in'or0ation about things 'ilters into 0e# The 'or-es a-ti%e /ithin the li0it o' 0y body are the sa0e as those /hi-h e!ist outside# There'ore& in reality I a0 the things3 not& ho/e%er& inso'ar as I a0 a (er-ei%ing sub5e-t& but inso'ar as I a0 (art o' the uni%ersal /orld (ro-ess# The (er-e(tion o' the tree and 0y I is /ithin the sa0e /hole# There this uni%ersal /orld (ro-ess -alls 'orth the (er-e(tion o' the tree to the sa0e e!tent that here it -alls 'orth the (er-e(tion o' 0y I# 2ere I /orld -reator instead o' /orld .no/er& ob5e-t and sub5e-t <(er-e(tion and I= /ould originate in one a-t# For they de(end on ea-h other# As /orld .no/er I -an dis-o%er the ele0ent they ha%e in -o00on& as entities belonging together& only through thin.ing /hi-h& by 0eans o' -on-e(ts& relates the0 to one another#

ost di''i-ult o' all to o%er-o0e are the so1-alled (hysiologi-al (roo's o' the sub5e-ti%ity o' our (er-e(tions# I' I (ress the s.in o' 0y body& I (er-ei%e this as a sensation o' (ressure# Su-h (ressure /ill be (er-ei%ed by the eye as light& by the ear as sound# For e!a0(le& by the eye I (er-ei%e an ele-tri- sho-. as light& by the ear as sound& by the ner%es o' the s.in as sho-.& and by the nose as a (hos(hori- s0ell# 2hat 'ollo/s 'ro0 these 'a-ts6 Only this4 that /hen I (er-ei%e an ele-tri- sho-. <or a (ressure& as the -ase 0ay be= 'ollo/ed by a light 7uality or a sound& res(e-ti%ely& or a -ertain s0ell& et-#& then& i' no eye /ere (resent& no (er-e(tion o' a light 7uality /ould a--o0(any the (er-e(tion o' 0e-hani-al %ibrations in 0y en%iron0ent3 /ithout the (resen-e o' the ear& no (er-e(tion o' sound& et-# But /hat right has one to say that in the absen-e o' sense1 organs& the /hole (ro-ess /ould not e!ist at all6 Fro0 the 'a-t that an ele-tri-al (ro-ess -alls 'orth light in the eye& those /ho -on-lude that outside our organis0& /hat /e sense as light is only a 0e-hani-al (ro-ess o' 0otion& 'orget that they are only (assing 'ro0 one (er-e(tion to another& and no/here to so0ething o%er and abo%e (er-e(tions# Iust as /e -an say that the eye (er-ei%es a 0e-hani-al (ro-ess o' 0otion in its surroundings as light& /e -an also say that a regulated -hange in an ob5e-t is (er-ei%ed by us as a (ro-ess o' 0otion# I' I dra/ t/el%e (i-tures o' a horse on the -ir-u0'eren-e o' a rotating dis-& re(rodu-ing e!a-tly the (ositions /hi-h the horse8s body su--essi%ely assu0es in 0o%e0ent& then by rotating the dis- I -an (rodu-e the illusion o' 0o%e0ent# I need only loo. through an o(ening in su-h a /ay that in the (ro(er inter%als I see the su--essi%e (ositions o' the horse# I see& not t/el%e se(arate (i-tures o' a horse& but the (i-ture o' a single gallo(ing horse# The abo%e10entioned (hysiologi-al 'a-t -annot& there'ore& thro/ any light on the relation o' (er-e(tion to re(resentation# There'ore& /e 0ust 'ind so0e other /ay# The 0o0ent a (er-e(tion a((ears in 0y 'ield o' obser%ation& thin.ing also be-o0es a-ti%e through 0e# A 0e0ber o' 0y thought1syste0& a de'inite intuition& a -on-e(t& unites itsel' /ith the (er-e(tion# Then /hen the (er-e(tion disa((ears 'ro0 0y 'ield o' %ision& /hat do I retain6 y intuition& /ith the re'eren-e to the (arti-ular (er-e(tion /hi-h 'or0ed itsel' in the 0o0ent o' (er-ei%ing# The degree o' %i%idness /ith /hi-h I -an re-all this re'eren-e later de(ends on the 0anner in /hi-h 0y intelle-tual and bodily organis0 is /or.ing# A re(resentation is nothing but an intuition related to a (arti-ular (er-e(tion3 it is a -on-e(t that on-e /as -onne-ted /ith a (er-e(tion and retains the re'eren-e to this (er-e(tion# y -on-e(t o' a lion is not 'or0ed out o' 0y (er-e(tions o' lions# But 0y re(resentation o' a lion is indeed 'or0ed a--ording to 0y (er-e(tion# I -an -on%ey to so0eone /ho has ne%er seen a lion& the -on-e(t o' a lion# But I -an ne%er bring about in hi0 a %i%id re(resentation o' a lion& /ithout his (er-ei%ing one# A re(resentation there'ore is an indi%idualized -on-e(t# And no/ /e ha%e the e!(lanation as to /hy our re(resentations -an re(resent reality to us# The -o0(lete reality o' so0ething is sub0itted to us in the 0o0ent o' obser%ation through the 'lo/ing together o' -on-e(t and (er-e(tion# The -on-e(t a-7uires& through a (er-e(tion& an indi%idual 'or0& a relation to this (arti-ular (er-e(tion# In this indi%idual 'or0 /hi-h has as a -hara-teristi- 'eature the re'eren-e to the (er-e(tion& the -on-e(t li%es on in us as the re(resentation o' the thing in 7uestion# I' /e -o0e a-ross a se-ond thing /ith /hi-h the

sa0e -on-e(t -onne-ts itsel'& /e re-ognize the se-ond as belonging to the sa0e .ind as the 'irst3 i' /e -o0e a-ross the sa0e thing t/i-e& /e 'ind in our -on-e(tual syste0 not only a -orres(onding -on-e(t& but the indi%idualized -on-e(t /ith its -hara-teristirelation to the sa0e ob5e-t& and thus /e re-ognize the ob5e-t again# The re(resentation& there'ore& stands bet/een (er-e(tion and -on-e(t# It is the de'inite -on-e(t /hi-h (oints to the (er-e(tion# The su0 o' those things about /hi-h I -an 'or0 re(resentations 0ay be -alled 0y (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e#BH The 0an /ho has the greater nu0ber o' indi%idualized -on-e(ts /ill be the 0an o' ri-her (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e# A 0an /ho la-.s all (o/er o' intuition is not -a(able o' a-7uiring (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e# "e again loses the ob5e-ts 'ro0 his 'ield o' %ision be-ause he la-.s the -on-e(ts /hi-h should bring hi0 into relation /ith the0# A 0an /hose (o/er o' thin.ing is /ell de%elo(ed& but /hose ability to (er-ei%e 'un-tions (oorly due to -lu0sy sense1organs& /ill be no better able to gather (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e# It is true that he -an a-7uire -on-e(ts by one 0eans and another& but his intuitions la-. %i%id re'eren-e to de'inite things# The unthin.ing tra%eller and the s-holar li%ing in abstra-t -on-e(tual syste0s are both in-a(able o' a-7uiring ri-h (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e# Reality a((ears to us as (er-e(tion and -on-e(t& and the sub5e-ti%e re(resentati%e o' this reality is 1 re(resentation# I' our (ersonality e!(ressed itsel' only in -ognition& the totality o' all that is ob5e-ti%e /ould be gi%en in (er-e(tion& -on-e(t and re(resentation# "o/e%er& /e are not satis'ied 0erely to re'er the (er-e(tion& by 0eans o' thin.ing& to the -on-e(t& but /e relate it also to our o/n sub5e-ti%ity& to our indi%idual I# The e!(ression o' this indi%idual relationshi( is 'eeling& /hi-h /e e!(erien-e as (leasure or dis(leasure# Thin.ing and 'eeling -orres(ond to the t/o'old nature o' our being& /hi-h /e ha%e already -onsidered# Thin.ing is the ele0ent through /hi-h /e ta.e (art in the uni%ersal (ro-ess o' the -os0os3 'eeling& that through /hi-h /e -an /ithdra/ into the narro/ -on'ines o' our o/n soul li'e# Our thin.ing unites us /ith the /orld3 our 'eeling leads us ba-. into oursel%es& and this 0a.es us indi%iduals# I' /e /ere 0erely thin.ing and (er-ei%ing beings& our /hole li'e /ould 'lo/ along in 0onotonous indi''eren-e# I' /e -ould only -ognize oursel' as a sel'& /e /ould be totally indi''erent to oursel'# Only be-ause /ith sel'1.no/ledge /e e!(erien-e sel'1'eeling& and /ith the (er-e(tion o' ob5e-ts (leasure and (ain& do /e li%e as indi%idual beings /hose e!isten-e is not e!hausted by the -on-e(tual relations in /hi-h /e stand to the rest o' the /orld& but /ho ha%e a s(e-ial %alue 'or the0sel%es as /ell# One 0ight be te0(ted to see in the li'e o' 'eeling an ele0ent 0ore ri-hly saturated /ith reality than is our thin.ing -onte0(lation o' the /orld# But the ans/er to this is that the li'e o' 'eeling& a'ter all& has this ri-her 0eaning only 'or 0y indi%idual sel'# For the /orld 0y li'e o' 'eeling -an attain %alue only i'& as (er-e(tion o' 0y sel'& the 'eeling enters into -onne-tion /ith a -on-e(t and& in this roundabout /ay& lin.s itsel' to the -os0os#

Our li'e is a -ontinual os-illation bet/een our li%ing /ith the uni%ersal /orld (ro-ess and our o/n indi%idual e!isten-e# The 'urther /e as-end into the uni%ersal nature o' thin.ing /here /hat is indi%idual ulti0ately interests us only as e!a0(le& as instan-e o' the -on-e(t& the 0ore the -hara-ter o' the 7uite de'inite indi%idual (ersonality is lost /ithin us# The 'urther /e des-end into the de(ths o' our o/n soul li'e and let our 'eelings resound /ith the e!(erien-es o' the outer /orld& the 0ore /e -ut oursel%es o'' 'ro0 uni%ersal li'e# A true indi%iduality /ill be one /ho rea-hes u( /ith his 'eelings 'arthest into the region o' the ideal# There are (eo(le in /ho0 e%en the 0ost general ideas that enter their heads bear& ne%ertheless& that (arti-ular -oloring /hi-h sho/s un0ista.ably their -onne-tion /ith the indi%idual /ho thin.s the0# There are others /hose -on-e(ts -o0e be'ore us /ithout the least tra-e o' indi%idual -oloring& as i' they had not been (rodu-ed by a being o' 'lesh and blood at all# The a-t o' re(resenting already gi%es our -on-e(tual li'e an indi%idual sta0(# For ea-h one o' us has his s(e-ial (la-e 'ro0 /hi-h he loo.s out u(on the /orld# "is -on-e(ts lin. the0sel%es to his (er-e(tions# "e /ill thin. the general -on-e(ts in his o/n (arti-ular /ay# This (arti-ular deter0ination -o0es about through the (la-e /e o--u(y in the /orld and 'ro0 the (er-e(tions belonging to our s(here o' li'e# Distin-t 'ro0 this deter0ination is another& /hi-h de(ends on our (arti-ular organization# Our organization is& indeed& a s(e-ial& de'inite& indi%idual unity# Ea-h o' us -o0bines (arti-ular 'eelings& and these in the 0ost %arying degrees o' intensity& /ith his (er-e(tions# This is the indi%idual as(e-t o' our (ersonality# It is /hat re0ains o%er /hen /e ha%e allo/ed 'ully 'or all the deter0ining 'a-tors in our 0ilieu# A li'e o' 'eeling de%oid o' all li'e o' thought /ould gradually lose all -onne-tion /ith the /orld# But be-ause it is inherent in 0an to de%elo( his /hole nature& his .no/ledge o' things /ill go hand1in1hand /ith the edu-ation and de%elo(0ent o' his 'eeling1li'e# Feeling is the 0eans /hereby& to begin /ith& -on-e(ts attain -on-rete li'e#

ARE THERE LIMITS TO KNOWLEDGE? 2e ha%e established that the ele0ents 'or e!(laining reality are to be ta.en 'ro0 the t/o s(heres4 (er-ei%ing and thin.ing# As /e ha%e seen& it is our organization that deter0ines the 'a-t that the 'ull& -o0(lete reality o' things& our o/n sub5e-t in-luded& a((ears at 'irst as a duality# $ognition o%er-o0es this duality by -o0bining the t/o ele0ents o' reality4 the (er-e(tion and the -on-e(t gained by thin.ing& into the -o0(lete thing# I' /e -all the /orld as it -on'ronts us be'ore it has attained its true as(e-t by 0eans o' -ognition& 9the /orld o' a((earan-e&; in -ontrast to the uni'ied /hole -o0(osed o' (er-e(tion and -on-e(t& then /e -an say4 The /orld is gi%en us as a duality <dualisti-=& and -ognition trans'or0s it into a unity <0onisti-=# A (hiloso(hy /hi-h starts 'ro0 this basi- (rin-i(le 0ay be -alled a 0onisti- (hiloso(hy& or 0onis0& in -ontrast to the theory o' t/o /orlds& or dualis0# The latter does not assu0e that there are t/o sides o' a single reality& /hi-h

are .e(t a(art 0erely by our organization& but& rather& that there are t/o /orlds& -o0(letely di''erent 'ro0 ea-h other# Then in the one /orld it tries to 'ind the (rin-i(les that -an e!(lain the other# Dualis0 rests on a 0isunderstanding o' /hat /e -all .no/ledge# It di%ides the /hole o' e!isten-e into t/o s(heres& ea-h o' /hi-h has its o/n la/s& and it lets these s(heres stand o((osite to and outside o' ea-h other# It is 'ro0 a dualis0 su-h as this that there arises the distin-tion bet/een the (er-ei%ed ob5e-t and the thing1in1itsel' /hi-h CantB) introdu-ed into s-ien-e and /hi-h so 'ar has not been e!(elled# Fro0 our dis-ussion -an be seen that it is due to the nature o' our intelle-tual organization that a (arti-ular thing -an be gi%en us only as (er-e(tion# Thin.ing then o%er-o0es this se(arateness by re'erring ea-h (er-e(tion to its right'ul (la-e in the /orld /hole# As long as the se(arated (arts o' the /orld /hole are de'ined as (er-e(tions& in this eli0ination /e are si0(ly 'ollo/ing a la/ o' our sub5e-ti%ity# I'& ho/e%er& /e -onsider the su01total o' all (er-e(tions as -onstituting one (art& and -on'ront it /ith the 9thing1in1itsel'; as a se-ond (art& then our (hiloso(hising loses all 'oundation# It then be-o0es a 0ere (laying /ith -on-e(ts# An arti'i-ial o((osition is -onstru-ted& but it is not (ossible to attain a -ontent 'or the se-ond (art o' this o((osition& sin-e su-h -ontent 'or a (arti-ular thing -an be dra/n only 'ro0 (er-e(tion# E%ery .ind o' e!isten-e /hi-h is assu0ed outside the real0 o' (er-e(tion and -on-e(t belongs to the s(here o' un5usti'ied hy(otheses# The 9thing1in1itsel'; belongs in this -ategory# It is 7uite natural that a dualisti- thin.er should be unable to 'ind the -onne-tion bet/een a uni%ersal (rin-i(le /hi-h he hy(otheti-ally assu0es& and the gi%en& .no/n by e!(erien-e# One -an obtain a -ontent 'or the hy(otheti-al uni%ersal (rin-i(le only by borro/ing a -ontent 'ro0 the s(here o' e!(erien-e and then shutting one8s eyes to the 'a-t o' the borro/ing# Other/ise it re0ains an e0(ty -on-e(t& a non1-on-e(t& /hi-h is nothing but a shell o' a -on-e(t# Then the dualisti- thin.er usually 0aintains that the -ontent o' this -on-e(t is not a--essible to our .no/ledge# 2e -an .no/ only that su-h a -ontent 0ust be (resent& but not /hat it is# In both -ases it is i0(ossible to o%er-o0e dualis0# E%en i' one brings a 'e/ abstra-t ele0ents 'ro0 the s(here o' e!(erien-e into the -on-e(t o' the thing1in1itsel'& it still re0ains i0(ossible to deri%e the ri-h -on-rete li'e o' e!(erien-e 'ro0 those 'e/ 7ualities /hi-h& a'ter all& are the0sel%es ta.en 'ro0 (er-e(tion only# Du1Bois Rey0ondB+ thin.s that the i0(er-e(tible ato0s o' 0atter (rodu-e sensation and 'eeling by 0eans o' their (osition and 0otion& and then -o0es to the -on-lusion4 2e -an ne%er 'ind a satis'a-tory e!(lanation o' ho/ 0atter and 0otion (rodu-e sensation and 'eeling& 'or 9It is absolutely and 'ore%er unintelligible that it should be other than indi''erent to a nu0ber o' ato0s o' -arbon& hydrogen& and nitrogen& et-#& ho/ they lie and 0o%e& ho/ they lay and 0o%ed& or ho/ they /ill lie and /ill 0o%e# It is i0(ossible to see ho/ -ons-iousness -ould -o0e into e!isten-e through their intera-tion#; This -on-lusion is -hara-teristi- o' this /hole trend o' thought# :osition and 0otion are abstra-tions deri%ed 'ro0 the ri-h s(here o' (er-e(tions# They are then trans'erred to the i0agined /orld o' ato0s# Then astonish0ent arises that real li'e -annot be e%ol%ed out o' this (rin-i(le /hi-h is sel'10ade and borro/ed 'ro0 the s(here o' (er-e(tions#

That the dualist /ho /or.s /ith a -o0(letely e0(ty -on-e(t o' the 9in1itsel'; o' things -an rea-h no e!(lanation o' the /orld& already 'ollo/s 'ro0 the de'inition o' his (rin-i(le indi-ated abo%e# A dualist is al/ays -o0(elled to set i0(assable barriers to our 'a-ulty o' .no/ledge# The 'ollo/er o' a 0onisti- /orld %ie/ .no/s that e%erything he needs 'or the e!(lanation o' any gi%en (heno0enon in the /orld 0ust lie /ithin this /orld itsel'# 2hat hinders hi0 'ro0 rea-hing the e!(lanation -an be only -ontingent li0itations in s(a-e and ti0e& or short-o0ings o' his organization# And& indeed& not o' the hu0an organization in general& but only o' his o/n (arti-ular one# It 'ollo/s 'ro0 the -on-e(t o' -ognition& as de'ined by us& that one -annot s(ea. o' li0its to .no/ledge# $ognition is not a -on-ern o' the uni%erse in general& but one /hi-h 0en 0ust settle 'or the0sel%es# Things -lai0 no e!(lanation# They e!ist and a-t on one another a--ording to la/s /hi-h thin.ing -an dis-o%er# They e!ist in indi%isible unity /ith these la/s# Our egohood -on'ronts the0& gras(ing at 'irst only /hat /e ha%e -alled (er-e(tions# In the inner -ore o' our egohood& ho/e%er& /e 'ind the (o/er to dis-o%er the other (art o' reality also# Only /hen the egohood has again -o0bined 'or itsel' the t/o ele0ents o' reality /hi-h are indi%isibly united in the /orld& is the thirst 'or .no/ledge satis'ied4 the I has again -o0e to reality# There'ore& the -onditions re7uired 'or -ognition to arise& -o0e about through and 'or the I# The I sets itsel' the (roble0s o' -ognition# And it ta.es the0 'ro0 the ele0ent o' thin.ing& in itsel' absolutely -lear and trans(arent# I' /e as. 7uestions /e -annot ans/er& then the -ontent o' the 7uestion -annot be -lear and distin-t in all its details# The /orld does not set us the 7uestions3 it is /e oursel%es /ho set the0# I -an i0agine that it /ould be 7uite i0(ossible 'or 0e to ans/er a 7uestion /hi-h I ha((ened to 'ind /ritten do/n so0e/here& /ithout .no/ing the s(here 'ro0 /hi-h the -ontent o' the 7uestion /as ta.en# In .no/ledge /e are -on-erned /ith 7uestions /hi-h arise 'or us through the 'a-t that a s(here o' (er-e(tions& -onditioned by ti0e& s(a-e& and our sub5e-ti%e organization& is -on'ronted by a s(here o' -on-e(ts (ointing to a /orld /hi-h is a unity# y tas. is to re-on-ile these t/o s(heres& /ell .no/n to 0e# One -annot s(ea. here o' a li0it o' .no/ledge# It 0ay be that at a (arti-ular 0o0ent& this or that re0ains une!(lained be-ause& through our (la-e in li'e& /e are (re%ented 'ro0 (er-ei%ing all that is in%ol%ed# 2hat is not 'ound to1day& ho/e%er& 0ay be 'ound to0orro/# The li0its due to these -auses are only transitory& and -an be o%er-o0e by the (rogress o' (er-ei%ing and thin.ing# Dualis0 0a.es the 0ista.e o' trans'erring the antithesis o' ob5e-t and sub5e-t& /hi-h has signi'i-an-e only /ithin the s(here o' (er-e(tions& to (urely in%ented entities outside this s(here# But as the se(arate things /ithin the 'ield o' (er-e(tion re0ain se(arated only as long as the (er-ei%er re'rains 'ro0 thin.ing& /hi-h -an-els all se(aration and sho/s it to be due to 0erely sub5e-ti%e 'a-tors& so the dualist& in 'a-t& trans'ers to entities behind the

s(here o' (er-e(tions de'initions /hi-h& e%en 'or (er-e(tions& ha%e no absolute but only relati%e %alidity# In doing this he s(lits u( the t/o 'a-tors -on-erned in the (ro-ess o' -ognition& (er-e(tion and -on-e(t& into 'our4 )= the ob5e-t1in1itsel'& += the (er-e(tion /hi-h the sub5e-t has o' the ob5e-t& ,= the sub5e-t& B= the -on-e(t /hi-h relates the (er-e(tion to the ob5e-t1in1itsel'# The relation bet/een ob5e-t and sub5e-t is -onsidered to be real& that is& the sub5e-t is -onsidered to be really <dyna0i-ally= in'luen-ed by the ob5e-t# This real (ro-ess is said not to a((ear in -ons-iousness# But it is su((osed to e%o.e in the sub5e-t a res(onse to the sti0ulation 'ro0 the ob5e-t# The result o' this res(onse is said to be the (er-e(tion# This at last enters our -ons-iousness# The ob5e-t is said to ha%e an ob5e-ti%e reality <inde(endent o' the sub5e-t=& the (er-e(tion a sub5e-ti%e reality# This sub5e-ti%e reality is said to be re'erred by the sub5e-t to the ob5e-t# This latter re'eren-e is said to be an ideal one# The dualist& in other /ords& s(lits u( the (ro-ess o' -ognition into t/o (arts# One (art& i#e#& the (rodu-tion o' the (er-e(tual ob5e-t out o' the thing1in1itsel'& ta.es (la-e& a--ording to hi0& outside o' -ons-iousness& the other (art& the union o' (er-e(tion /ith -on-e(t and the re'eren-e o' this to the ob5e-t& /ithin -ons-iousness# These (resu((ositions 0a.e it -lear that the dualist belie%es he re-ei%es in his -on-e(ts only so0ething sub5e-ti%e& /hi-h re(resents /hat -on'ronts his -ons-iousness# The ob5e-ti%ely real (ro-ess in the sub5e-t& by 0eans o' /hi-h the (er-e(tion -o0es about& and still 0ore the ob5e-ti%e relationshi(s bet/een things1in1 the0sel%es& re0ain ina--essible to dire-t -ognition 'or su-h a dualist# In his o(inion& 0an -an obtain only -on-e(ts that re(resent the ob5e-ti%ely real# The bond o' unity /hi-h -onne-ts things /ith one another and also ob5e-ti%ely /ith our indi%idual s(irit <as thing1 in1itsel'=& lies beyond -ons-iousness in a being1in1itsel' o' /ho0 /e li.e/ise -an ha%e in our -ons-iousness only a -on-e(t that re(resents it# The dualist belie%es that the /hole /orld /ould be nothing but a 0ere abstra-t s-he0e o' -on-e(ts i' he did not insist on 9real; -onne-tions bet/een the ob5e-ts beside the -on-e(tual ones# In other /ords& the ideal (rin-i(les /hi-h -an be dis-o%ered by thin.ing see0 too airy 'or the dualist& and he see.s& in addition& 9real (rin-i(les; /ith /hi-h to su((ort the0# Let us e!a0ine these 9real (rin-i(les; a little 0ore -losely# The nai%e 0an <nai%e realist= regards the ob5e-ts o' e!ternal e!(erien-e as realities# The 'a-t that his hands -an gras( and his eyes -an see these ob5e-ts is 'or hi0 the (roo' o' their reality# 9Nothing e!ists that -annot be (er-ei%ed; is& in 'a-t& the basi- a!io0 o' the nai%e 0an& and it is held to be e7ually %alid in its -on%erse4 9E%erything /hi-h -an be (er-ei%ed& e!ists#; The best (roo' 'or this assertion is the nai%e 0an8s belie' in i00ortality and in ghosts# "e thin.s o' the soul as a 'ine .ind o' (hysi-al 0atter /hi-h& in s(e-ial -ir-u0stan-es& 0ay a-tually be-o0e %isible to the ordinary 0an <nai%e belie' in ghosts=# In -ontrast to this real /orld o' his& the nai%e realist regards e%erything else& es(e-ially the /orld o' ideas& as unreal& as 90erely ideal#; 2hat /e add to ob5e-ts by& thin.ing is 0ere thoughts about the ob5e-ts# Thought adds nothing real to (er-e(tion# But it is not only /ith re'eren-e to the e!isten-e o' things that the nai%e 0an regards sense (er-e(tion as the sole (roo' o' reality& but also /ith re'eren-e to ha((enings# A--ording to hi0& one thing -an a-t u(on another only /hen a 'or-e a-tually (resent to sense (er-e(tion issues 'ro0 the one and seizes u(on the other# The older (hysi-ists thought that %ery 'ine substan-es e0anate 'ro0 the ob5e-ts and (enetrate through the

sense1organs into the soul# They thought the a-tual seeing o' these substan-es to be i0(ossible only be-ause o' the -oarseness o' our sense organs in -o0(arison /ith the 'ineness o' these substan-es# In (rin-i(le& the reason 'or attributing reality to these substan-es /as the sa0e as that 'or attributing it to the ob5e-ts o' the (hysi-al /orld& na0ely& the 'or0 o' their e!isten-e& /hi-h /as thought to be analogous to that o' (hysi-al reality# The sel'1de(endent nature o' /hat -an be e!(erien-ed& not (hysi-ally but ideally& is not regarded by nai%e -ons-iousness as being real in the sa0e sense# So0ething gras(ed 90erely as idea; is regarded as a -hi0era until sense (er-e(tion -an (ro%ide -on%i-tion o' its reality# In short& in addition to the ideal e%iden-e o' his thin.ing& the nai%e 0an de0ands the real e%iden-e o' his senses# This need o' nai%e 0an is the reason /hy (ri0iti%e 'or0s o' belie' in re%elation arise# For nai%e -ons-iousness& the God /ho is gi%en through thin.ing al/ays re0ains a God 0erely 9thought#; Nai%e -ons-iousness de0ands that the 0ani'estation should be through 0eans a--essible to (hysi-al (er-e(tion# God 0ust a((ear in bodily 'or03 little %alue is atta-hed to the e%iden-e o' thin.ing& but only to the Di%ine Nature being (ro%ed by the -hanging o' /ater into /ine in a /ay /hi-h -an be testi'ied by the senses# The a-t o' -ognition& too& is regarded by nai%e 0an as a (ro-ess analogous to sense1(er-e(tion# Things 0ust 0a.e an i0(ression on the soul or send out i0ages /hi-h (enetrate the senses& et-# 2hat the nai%e 0an -an (er-ei%e /ith his senses he regards as real& and that o' /hi-h he has no su-h (er-e(tion <God& soul& -ognition& et-#= he regards as analogous to /hat is (er-ei%ed# A s-ien-e based on nai%e realis0 /ill -onsist in an e!a-t des-ri(tion o' the -ontent o' (er-e(tion# $on-e(ts are only 0eans to this end# They e!ist to (ro%ide ideal -ounter(arts o' (er-e(tions# For things the0sel%es& they ha%e no signi'i-an-e# For the nai%e realist& only the indi%idual tuli(s /hi-h are seen or -ould be seen& are real# The one idea o' the tuli(& is to hi0 an abstra-tion& is to hi0 an unreal thought1(i-ture& /hi-h the soul has (ut together 'or itsel' out o' the -hara-teristi-s -o00on to all tuli(s# Nai%e realis0& /ith its 'unda0ental (rin-i(le o' the reality o' all (er-ei%ed things& is -ontradi-ted by e!(erien-e& /hi-h sho/s us that the -ontent o' (er-e(tions is o' a transitory nature# The tuli( I see& is real to1day3 in a year it /ill ha%e %anished into nothingness# 2hat (ersists is the s(e-ies tuli(# This s(e-ies& ho/e%er& 'or the nai%e realist is 90erely; an idea& not a reality# Thus& this /orld%ie/ 'inds itsel' in the (osition o' seeing its realities arise and (erish& /hile /hat it regards as unreal& in -ontrast to the real& (ersists# "en-e the nai%e realist has to allo/ 'or the e!isten-e o' so0ething ideal besides the (er-e(tions# "e has to a--e(t entities /hi-h he -annot (er-ei%e by 0eans o' the senses# "e 5usti'ies this by i0agining their e!isten-e to be analogous to that o' (hysi-al ob5e-ts# Su-h hy(otheti-ally assu0ed realities are the in%isible 'or-es by 0eans o' /hi-h ob5e-ts (er-e(tible to the senses a-t on one another# "eredity is thought o' in this /ay3 it goes beyond the indi%idual and is the reason /hy a ne/ being de%elo(s 'ro0 the indi%idual /hi-h is si0ilar to it& and by 0eans o' it the s(e-ies is 0aintained# The li'e (rin-i(le (er0eating the organi- body is also thought o' in this /ay& and so is the soul& 'or /hi-h one al/ays 'inds in nai%e -ons-iousness a -on-e(t based on an analogy to sense reality& and 'inally so& too& the nai%e 0an thin.s o' the Di%ine Being# This Di%ine Being is thought o' as a-ti%e in a

0anner e!a-tly -orres(onding to /hat -an be (er-ei%ed as a-tions o' 0en& that is& the Di%ine Being is thought o' anthro(o0or(hi-ally # odern (hysi-s tra-es sense1i0(ressions ba-. to (ro-esses in the s0allest (arti-les o' bodies and to the in'initely 'ine substan-e& the ether& or to so0ething si0ilar# For e!a0(le& /hat /e sense as /ar0th& is& /ithin the s(a-e o--u(ied by the /ar0th1gi%ing body& 0o%e0ent o' its (arts# "ere again& so0ething i0(er-e(tible is thought o' on the analogy o' /hat is (er-e(tible# The (hysi-al analogue to the -on-e(t 9body; is& in this sense& so0ething li.e the interior o' a totally en-losed s(a-e in /hi-h elasti- balls are 0o%ing in all dire-tions& i0(inging on one another& boun-ing on and o'' the /alls& et-# 2ithout su-h assu0(tions& 'or nai%e realis0& the /orld /ould -olla(se into a dis-onne-ted -haos o' (er-e(tions /ith no 0utual relationshi(s to unite the0# It is -lear& ho/e%er& that nai%e realis0 -an arri%e at these assu0(tions only by in-onsisten-y# I' it re0ained true to its 'unda0ental (rin-i(le that only /hat is (er-ei%ed is real& then it /ould not assu0e a reality /here it (er-ei%es nothing# The i0(er-e(tible 'or-es /hi-h (ro-eed 'ro0 (er-e(tible things are essentially un5usti'ied hy(otheses 'ro0 the stand(oint o' nai%e realis0 itsel'# And as the nai%e realist a-.no/ledges no other realities& he in%ests his hy(otheti-al 'or-es /ith (er-e(tual -ontent# In doing this he a((lies a 'or0 o' e!isten-e <(er-e(tual e!isten-e= to a s(here /here he la-.s the only 0eans that -an gi%e any e%iden-e o' su-h e!isten-e4 (er-ei%ing by 0eans o' (hysi-al senses# This sel'1 -ontradi-tory /orld %ie/ leads to 0eta(hysi-al realis0# Beside the (er-e(tible reality& the 0eta(hysi-al realist -onstru-ts an i0(er-e(tible one /hi-h he thin.s o' on the analogy o' the 'or0er# eta(hysi-al realis0 there'ore& is o' ne-essity dualisti-# 2here the 0eta(hysi-al realist obser%es a relation bet/een (er-e(tible things <0utual a((roa-h through 0o%e0ent& be-o0ing -ons-ious o' an ob5e-t& et-#=& there he regards a reality as e!isting# But the relation that he noti-es he -an& ho/e%er& e!(ress only by 0eans o' thin.ing3 he -annot (er-ei%e it# The relation& /hi-h is (urely ideal& is arbitrarily 0ade into so0ething si0ilar to /hat is (er-e(tible# Thus& a--ording to this line o' thought& the real /orld is -o0(osed o' (er-e(tual ob5e-ts /hi-h are in -easeless 'lu!& arising and disa((earing& and o' i0(er-e(tible 'or-es /hi-h are (er0anent and (rodu-e the (er-e(tual ob5e-ts# eta(hysi-al realis0 is a -ontradi-tory 0i!ture o' nai%e realis0 and idealis0# Its hy(otheti-al 'or-es are i0(er-e(tible entities endo/ed /ith the 7ualities o' (er-e(tions# In addition to the s(here& 'or the 'or0 o' e!isten-e o' /hi-h he has a 0eans o' -ognition in its (er-e(tibility& the 0eta(hysi-al realist has de-ided to a-.no/ledge another s(here to /hi-h this 0eans is not a((li-able& a s(here /hi-h -an be as-ertained only by 0eans o' thin.ing# But he -annot at the sa0e ti0e de-ide also to a-.no/ledge the 'or0 o' e!isten-e /hi-h thin.ing 0ediates& na0ely the -on-e(t <the idea=& as being o' e7ual i0(ortan-e /ith (er-e(tions# I' one is to a%oid the -ontradi-tion o' i0(er-e(tible (er-e(tions& then it 0ust be ad0itted that the relation thin.ing 0ediates bet/een (er-e(tions -an ha%e no other 'or0 o' e!isten-e 'or us than that o' the -on-e(t# 2hen the untenable (art o' 0eta(hysi-al realis0 is re5e-ted& /e then ha%e the /orld be'ore us as the su0 o' (er-e(tions and their -on-e(tual <ideal= relations# Then 0eta(hysi-al realis0

0erges into a /orld %ie/ /hi-h re7uires the (rin-i(le o' (er-e(tibility 'or (er-e(tions and that o' 9thin.ability; 'or the relations bet/een the (er-e(tions# Side by side /ith the real0 o' (er-e(tions and that o' -on-e(ts& this /orld %ie/ -annot a-.no/ledge a third real0 'or /hi-h both (rin-i(les& the so1-alled real (rin-i(le and the ideal (rin-i(le& ha%e e7ual %alidity# 2hen the 0eta(hysi-al realist 0aintains that beside the ideal relation bet/een the (er-e(tual ob5e-t and the (er-ei%ing sub5e-t& there 0ust also e!ist a real relation bet/een the 9thing1in1itsel'; o' the (er-e(tion and the 9thing1in1itsel'; o' the (er-e(tible sub5e-t <o' the so1-alled indi%idual s(irit=& then this assertion is due to the 0ista.en assu0(tion o' the e!isten-e o' a (ro-ess& analogous to a (ro-ess in the sense1/orld& but i0(er-e(tible# Further& /hen the 0eta(hysi-al realist says4 I ha%e a -ons-ious ideal relationshi( /ith 0y /orld o' (er-e(tions& but /ith the real /orld I -an ha%e only a dyna0i- <'or-e= relationshi(& he then 0a.es the abo%e 0ista.e to an e%en greater degree# One -an only s(ea. o' a 'or-e1relationshi( /ithin the /orld o' (er-e(tions <in the s(here o' the sense o' tou-h=& not outside that s(here# Let us -all the /orld %ie/ -hara-terized abo%e& into /hi-h 0eta(hysi-al realis0 0erges i' it dis-ards its -ontradi-tory ele0ents& 0onis0& be-ause it unites one1sided realis0 /ith idealis0 in a higher unity# For the nai%e realist& the real /orld is an aggregate o' ob5e-ts o' (er-e(tion3 'or the 0eta(hysi-al realist also the i0(er-e(tible 'or-es are realities# Instead o' 'or-es& the 0onist has ideal -onne-tions /hi-h he attains by 0eans o' his thin.ing# The la/s o' nature are su-h -onne-tions# For a la/ o' nature is nothing other than the -on-e(tual e!(ression 'or the -onne-tion o' -ertain (er-e(tions# The 0onist ne%er has any need to as. 'or 'a-tors other than (er-e(tions and -on-e(ts& /ith /hi-h to e!(lain reality# "e .no/s that in the /hole s(here o' reality there is no need to as. 'or this# In the s(here o' (er-e(tions& dire-tly a--essible to his (er-ei%ing& he sees hal' o' a reality3 in the union o' this s(here /ith the s(here o' -on-e(ts& he 'inds the 'ull reality# The 0eta(hysi-al realist 0ay 0a.e the ob5e-tion to the adherent o' 0onis04 It -ould be that 'or your organization your .no/ledge is -o0(lete in itsel'& that no (art is la-.ing3 but /hat you do not .no/ is ho/ the /orld is 0irrored in an intelligen-e organized di''erently 'ro0 your o/n# To this the 0onist /ould re(ly4 I' there are intelligen-es other than hu0an& i' their (er-e(tions ha%e a di''erent 'or0 than ours& then all that /ould be o' signi'i-an-e 'or 0e /ould be /hat rea-hes 0e 'ro0 the0 by 0eans o' (er-e(tions and -on-e(ts# By 0eans o' 0y (er-ei%ing and& in 'a-t& by 0eans o' this s(e-i'i-ally hu0an 0anner o' (er-ei%ing& as sub5e-t I a0 (la-ed o%er against the ob5e-t# The -onne-tion o' things is thereby bro.en# The sub5e-t restores this -onne-tion by 0eans o' thin.ing# In doing so& things are re1 inserted into the /orld /hole# Sin-e it is only through our sub5e-t that this /hole a((ears rent in t/o at the (la-e bet/een our (er-e(tion and our -on-e(t& so li.e/ise the union o' these t/o 'a-tors gi%es us a true .no/ledge# For beings /ith a di''erent /orld o' (er-e(tions <i'& 'or e!a0(le& they had t/i-e as 0any sense1organs=& the -onne-tion /ould a((ear bro.en in another (la-e& and the restoration /ould& a--ordingly& ha%e a 'or0 s(e-i'i- 'or su-h beings# The 7uestion -on-erning li0its o' .no/ledge e!ists only 'or the nai%e and 0eta(hysi-al realists& both o' /ho0 see in the -ontent o' the soul only an ideal

re(resentation o' the /orld# For the0& /hat e!ists outside the sub5e-t is so0ething absolute& so0ething sel'1de(endent& and the -ontent o' the sub5e-t is a (i-ture o' this absolute and is -o0(letely e!ternal to it# "o/ -o0(lete is .no/ledge o' this absolute /ould de(end on the greater or lesser degree o' rese0blan-e bet/een the (i-ture and the absolute ob5e-t# A being /ith 'e/er senses than 0an /ould (er-ei%e less o' the /orld& one /ith 0ore senses /ould (er-ei%e 0ore# The 'or0er8s .no/ledge /ould there'ore be less -o0(lete than that o' the latter# For the 0onist& things are di''erent# It is the organization o' the (er-ei%ing being that deter0ines ho/ the /orld unity a((ears to be torn a(art into sub5e-t and ob5e-t# The ob5e-t is not so0ething absolute& but is only so0ething relati%e in relation to this (arti-ular sub5e-t# The bridging o' the -ontrasting entities -an& there'ore& ta.e (la-e again only in the 7uite s(e-i'i- /ay that is -hara-teristi- o' the hu0an sub5e-t# As soon as the I& /hi-h& in (er-ei%ing& is se(arated 'ro0 the /orld& reinserts itsel' into the -onne-tion o' things through thin.ing in%estigation& all 'urther 7uestioning -eases& sin-e all 7uestions arose only as a result o' the se(aration# A di''erently -onstituted being /ould ha%e a di''erently -onstituted .no/ledge# Our .no/ledge su''i-es to ans/er the 7uestions as.ed by our nature# The 0eta(hysi-al realist should as.4 "o/ does /hat is gi%en as (er-e(tion -o0e to be the gi%en3 /hat is it that a''e-ts the sub5e-t6 For the 0onist& the (er-e(tion is deter0ined by the sub5e-t# But in thin.ing& the sub5e-t has& at the sa0e ti0e& the 0eans 'or -an-elling this deter0ination& -aused through the sub5e-t itsel'# The 0eta(hysi-al realist is 'a-ed by a 'urther di''i-ulty /hen he see.s to e!(lain the si0ilarity o' the /orld (i-tures o' di''erent hu0an indi%iduals# "e -annot but as. hi0sel'4 "o/ is it that the /orld (i-ture /hi-h I build u( out o' 0y sub5e-ti%ely deter0ined (er-e(tions and out o' 0y -on-e(ts& turns out to be li.e that /hi-h another indi%idual builds u( out o' the sa0e t/o sub5e-ti%e 'a-tors6 "o/& 'ro0 0y sub5e-ti%e /orld (i-ture& -an I in'er anything about that o' another hu0an being6 The 0eta(hysi-al realist belie%es he -an in'er& 'ro0 the 'a-t that (eo(le -o0e to ter0s /ith one another in (ra-ti-al li'e& that their sub5e-ti%e /orld (i-tures 0ust be si0ilar# Fro0 the si0ilarity o' these /orld (i-tures he then 'urther in'ers that the 9indi%idual s(irits; behind the single (er-ei%ing hu0an sub5e-ts& or the 9I1in1itsel'; behind the sub5e-ts& 0ust also be si0ilar# There'ore this in'eren-e is dra/n 'ro0 a su0 o' e''e-ts to the nature o' their underlying -auses# It is belie%ed that 'ro0 a su''i-iently large nu0ber o' instan-es& the situation -an be so re-ognized that one -an .no/ ho/ the in'erred -auses /ill beha%e in other instan-es# Su-h an in'eren-e is -alled an indu-ti%e in'eren-e# It /ill be ne-essary to 0odi'y the results i'& 'ro0 'urther obser%ation& so0e une!(e-ted ele0ent is dis-o%ered& be-ause the result& a'ter all& is deter0ined only by the (arti-ular 'or0 o' the earlier obser%ation# The 0eta(hysi-al realist 0aintains that this sti(ulated .no/ledge o' -auses is 7uite su''i-ient 'or (ra-ti-al li'e#

Indu-ti%e in'eren-e is the 0ethodi-al 'oundation o' 0odern 0eta(hysi-al realis0# At one ti0e it /as belie%ed that out o' -on-e(ts -ould be e%ol%ed so0ething that is no longer a -on-e(t# It /as belie%ed that 'ro0 -on-e(ts -ould be deri%ed the 0eta(hysi-al realities /hi-h o' ne-essity& 0eta(hysi-al realis0 0ust ha%e# This .ind o' (hiloso(hizing is no/ su(erseded# Instead& it is belie%ed that 'ro0 a su''i-iently large nu0ber o' (er-e(tual 'a-ts one -an in'er the -hara-ter o' the thing1in1itsel' /hi-h underlies these 'a-ts# Iust as in the (ast one tried to deri%e the 0eta(hysi-al 'ro0 -on-e(ts& so to1day one tries to deri%e it 'ro0 (er-e(tions# As -on-e(ts are trans(arent in their -larity& it /as belie%ed that one -ould also dedu-e the 0eta(hysi-al 'ro0 the0 /ith absolute -ertainty# :er-e(tions are not o' su-h trans(aren-y# Ea-h later (er-e(tion is al/ays a little di''erent 'ro0 those o' the sa0e .ind that (re-eded it# There'ore& anything in'erred 'ro0 the earlier (er-e(tion is& in reality& so0e/hat 0odi'ied by ea-h 'ollo/ing one# The as(e-t o' the 0eta(hysi-al arri%ed at in this /ay& there'ore& -an be said to be only relati%ely -orre-t& 'or it is sub5e-t to -orre-tion by 'uture instan-es# Eduard %on "art0ann8s 0eta(hysi-s is o' a .ind that is deter0ined by this 0ethodi-al (rin-i(le# This is e!(ressed in the 0otto he ga%e on the title1(age o' his 'irst 0a5or /or.4 9S(e-ulati%e results a--ording to the indu-ti%e 0ethod o' natural s-ien-e#; The 'or0 /hi-h the 0eta(hysi-al realist gi%es to his things1in1the0sel%es today is obtained by indu-ti%e in'eren-es# "is -onsideration o' the (ro-ess o' .no/ledge has -on%in-ed hi0 that a -onne-tion o' things& /hi-h is ob5e-ti%ely real& e!ists side by side /ith the 9sub5e-ti%e; -onne-tion that -an be .no/n through (er-e(tion and -on-e(t# The nature o' this ob5e-ti%e reality he belie%es he -an deter0ine by indu-ti%e in'eren-es 'ro0 his (er-e(tions# Addition to the Re%ised Edition& <)*)?=4 $ertain re(resentations /hi-h arise 'ro0 in%estigations o' natural (heno0ena tend& again and again& to disturb un(re5udi-ed obser%ation 1 as the e''ort has been 0ade to des-ribe it abo%e 1 o' ho/ /e e!(erien-e -on-e(ts and (er-e(tions# Su-h in%estigations sho/ that in the light1s(e-tru0 the eye (er-ei%es -olors 'ro0 red to %iolet# "o/e%er& /ithin the s(e-tru08s s(here o' radiation& but beyond the %iolet there are 'or-es to /hi-h -orres(onds no -olor (er-e(tion o' the eye& but a -he0i-al e''e-t and& si0ilarly& beyond the li0it o' the red there e!ist radiations /hi-h ha%e only e''e-ts o' /ar0th# In%estigation o' these and si0ilar (heno0ena has led to the o(inion that the range o' 0an8s s(here o' (er-e(tions is deter0ined by the range o' his senses& and that he /ould ha%e be'ore hi0 a %ery di''erent /orld i' he had 0ore or altogether di''erent senses# Those /ho are in-lined to 'lights o' i0agination& 'or /hi-h the glittering dis-o%eries o' re-ent s-ienti'i- resear-h in (arti-ular o''er su-h te0(ting o((ortunities& 0ay -o0e to the -on-lusion4 Nothing -an enter 0an8s 'ield o' obser%ation e!-e(t /hat is able to a''e-t the senses o' his bodily organization& and he has no right to regard /hat he (er-ei%es& by 0eans o' his li0ited organization& as being in any /ay a standard 'or as-ertaining reality# E%ery ne/ sense /ould gi%e hi0 a di''erent (i-ture o' reality# 1 2ithin its (ro(er li0its& this o(inion is entirely -orre-t# But one /ho allo/s this o(inion to (re%ent hi0 'ro0 obser%ing /ithout (re5udi-e the relationshi( bet/een -on-e(t and (er-e(tion& as e!(lained here& /ill (ut obsta-les in the /ay to any realisti.no/ledge o' 0an and /orld# To e!(erien-e thin.ing in its o/n nature& that is& to e!(erien-e the a-ti%e /or.ing1out o' the s(here o' -on-e(ts& is so0ething entirely

di''erent 'ro0 the e!(erien-e o' so0ething (er-e(tible through the senses# 2hate%er senses 0an 0ight (ossibly ha%e& not one /ould gi%e hi0 reality i' through the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing& he did not (er0eate /ith -on-e(ts the (er-e(tions they -on%eyed to hi03 and indeed& e%ery sense& o' /hate%er .ind& i' thus (er0eated& gi%es 0an the (ossibility to li%e /ithin reality# S(e-ulations about 7uite di''erent (er-e(tual (i-tures -on%eyed by other senses& has nothing to do /ith the 7uestion -on-erning 0an8s relation to reality# It is essential to re-ognize that e%ery (er-e(tual (i-ture deri%es its 'or0 'ro0 the organization o' the (er-ei%ing being& but the (er-e(tual (i-ture /hen (er0eated by thin.ing /hi-h is li%ingly e!(erien-ed leads 0an into reality# A 'an-i'ul des-ri(tion o' ho/ di''erent the /orld /ould a((ear to other than hu0an senses -annot a-t as an in-enti%e to 0an to see. 'or .no/ledge -on-erning his relationshi( to the /orld3 rather /ill this ha((en through the insight that e%ery (er-e(tion gi%es us only a (art o' the reality it -on-eals& that& there'ore& it leads a/ay 'ro0 its reality# This then brings us to the 'urther insight that it is thin.ing /hi-h leads into that (art o' reality /hi-h the (er-e(tion -on-eals /ithin itsel'# An un(re5udi-ed obser%ation o' the relation bet/een (er-e(tions& and -on-e(ts /or.ed out by thin.ing& as here des-ribed& 0ay also be disturbed by the 'a-t that in the s(here o' a((lied (hysi-s it be-o0es ne-essary to s(ea. not at all o' dire-tly (er-e(tible ele0ents& but o' non1(er-e(tible 0agnitudes& su-h as lines o' ele-tri- or 0agneti- 'or-e& et-# It 0ay a((ear as i' the ele0ents o' reality& s(o.en o' in (hysi-s& had nothing to do either /ith /hat is (er-e(tible or /ith -on-e(ts a-ti%ely /or.ed out by thin.ing# But su-h a %ie/ is based on sel'1de-e(tion# 2hat 0atters is that all that is /or.ed out in (hysi-s 1 as long as it is not based on un5usti'iable hy(otheses /hi-h 0ust be e!-luded 1 is obtained by 0eans o' (er-e(tions and -on-e(ts# By a -orre-tly /or.ing instin-t 'or .no/ledge in the (hysi-ist& /hat is a((arently a non1(er-e(tible -ontent /ill al/ays be (la-ed into the 'ield o' (er-e(tions& and /ill be thought o' in -on-e(ts belonging to this 'ield# The 0agnitudes in ele-tri- and 0agneti- 'ields& et-#& are attained& o/ing to their nature& by no other (ro-ess o' -ognition than the one /hi-h ta.es (la-e bet/een (er-e(tion and -on-e(t# 1 An in-rease or a trans'or0ation o' the hu0an senses /ould gi%e a di''erent (er-e(tual (i-ture3 it /ould be an enri-h0ent or a trans'or0ation o' hu0an e!(erien-e# But a real .no/ledge o' this e!(erien-e also -ould be attained only through the inter(lay o' -on-e(t and (er-e(tion# A dee(ening o' .no/ledge de(ends u(on the a-ti%e (o/er o' intuition -ontained in thin.ing <see (# )),=# In the li%ing e!(erien-e /ithin thin.ing& this intuition -an di%e do/n into lesser or greater de(ths o' reality# Through e!tension o' the (er-e(tual (i-ture this di%ing do/n o' intuition -an re-ei%e sti0ulation and thus be indire-tly strengthened# But ne%er should this di%ing into the de(ths to attain reality be -on'used /ith being -on'ronted /ith a /ider or narro/er (er-e(tual (i-ture& in /hi-h there /ould al/ays be -ontained only a hal'1reality deter0ined by the organization o' the -ognizing being# I' one a%oids getting lost in abstra-tions& it /ill be re-ognized ho/ signi'i-ant& also 'or .no/ledge o' the being o' 0an& is the 'a-t that in (hysi-s one has to in-lude the e!isten-e& in the 'ield o' (er-e(tions& o' ele0ents 'or /hi-h no sense organ is dire-tly tuned as 'or -olor or sound# The essential being o' 0an is deter0ined not only by /hat -on'ronts hi0 through his organization as dire-t (er-e(tion& but also by the 'a-t that he e!-ludes so0ething else 'ro0 this dire-t (er-e(tion# Iust as li'e needs& in addition to the -ons-ious /a.ing state& an un-ons-ious slee(ing state& so& 'or 0an8s sel'1e!(erien-e is needed besides the s(here o' his sense (er-e(tions& another s(here also 1 indeed& a 0u-h larger one 1 o' ele0ents not (er-e(tible to the senses& but e!isting /ithin the sa0e

'ield /here sense1(er-e(tions originate# All this /as already indire-tly indi-ated in the 'irst edition o' this boo.# The author here adds these a0(li'i-ations to the -ontent be-ause he has 'ound by e!(erien-e that 0any readers ha%e not read a--urately enough# 1 Another thing to be -onsidered is that the idea o' (er-e(tion& as (resented in this boo.& is not to be -on'used /ith the idea o' e!ternal sense1(er-e(tion& /hi-h is but a s(e-ial instan-e o' (er-e(tion# The reader /ill gather 'ro0 /hat has already been said& but e%en 0ore 'ro0 /hat /ill 'ollo/& that here (er-e(tion in-ludes e%erything that 0an 0eets& (hysi-ally or s(iritually& be'ore he has gras(ed it in a-ti%ely /or.ed out -on-e(ts# 2e do not need /hat /e usually 0ean by senses in order to ha%e (er-e(tions o' a soul or s(iritual .ind# It 0ay be said that su-h e!tension o' the ordinary use o' a /ord is inad0issible# >et su-h e!tension is absolutely ne-essary i' one is not to be barred by the -urrent use o' a /ord 'ro0 enlarging the .no/ledge o' -ertain 'ields# I' the /ord (er-e(tion is a((lied to (hysi-al (er-e(tion only& then one -annot arri%e at a -on-e(t that -an be o' use 'or attaining .no/ledge e%en o' this <(hysi-al= (er-e(tion# O'ten it is ne-essary to enlarge a -on-e(t in order that it 0ay (reser%e in a narro/er 'ield the 0eaning a((ro(riate to it# Or it is so0eti0es ne-essary to add so0ething di''erent to the (re%ious -ontent o' a -on-e(t in order that its 'irst -ontent 0ay be 5usti'ied or e%en read5usted# For e!a0(le& it is said in this boo. <(# )+B=4 9A re(resentation& there'ore& is an indi%idualized -on-e(t#; It has been ob5e-ted that this is an unusual use o' the /ord# But this use o' the /ord is ne-essary i' /e are to 'ind out /hat a re(resentation really is# 2hat /ould be-o0e o' the (rogress o' .no/ledge i'& /hen -o0(elled to read5ust -on-e(ts& one is al/ays to be 0et /ith the ob5e-tion4 9This is an unusual use o' the /ord;6

THE FACTORS OF LIFE Let us re-a(itulate the results arri%ed at in the (re%ious -ha(ters# The /orld -on'ronts 0an as a 0ulti(li-ity& as a su0 o' se(arate entities# an hi0sel' is one o' these se(arate entities& a being a0ong other beings# This as(e-t o' the /orld /e -hara-terized si0(ly as that /hi-h is gi%en& and inas0u-h as /e do not e%ol%e it by -ons-ious a-ti%ity& but 'ind it (resent& /e -alled it (er-e(tion# 2ithin the /orld o' (er-e(tions /e (er-ei%e oursel'# This sel' (er-e(tion /ould re0ain 0erely one a0ong the 0any other (er-e(tions& did not so0ething arise 'ro0 the 0idst o' this sel'1(er-e(tion /hi-h (ro%es -a(able o' -onne-ting (er-e(tions in general and there'ore also the su0 o' all other (er-e(tions /ith that o' oursel'# This so0ething /hi-h e0erges is no longer 0ere (er-e(tion& neither is it& li.e (er-e(tions& si0(ly gi%en# It is brought about by our a-ti%ity# To begin /ith& it a((ears united /ith /hat /e (er-ei%e as oursel'# But in a--ordan-e /ith its inner signi'i-an-e it rea-hes out beyond the sel'# It besto/s on the se(arate (er-e(tions ideal de'initions& and these relate the0sel%es to one another and ste0 'ro0 a unity# 2hat is attained by sel'1(er-e(tion& it de'ines ideally in the sa0e /ay as it de'ines all other (er-e(tions& (la-ing this as sub5e-t& or 9I&; o%er against the ob5e-ts# This so0ething is thin.ing& and the ideal de'initions are the -on-e(ts and ideas# Thin.ing& there'ore& 'irst 0ani'ests itsel' in the (er-e(tion o' the sel'& but it is not 0erely sub5e-ti%e& 'or the sel' -hara-terizes itsel' as sub5e-t only /ith the hel( o' thin.ing# This relationshi( to onesel' by 0eans o' thoughts is a li'e1de'inition o' our (ersonality# Through it /e lead a (urely

ideal e!isten-e# Through it /e 'eel oursel%es to be thin.ing beings# This li'e1de'inition /ould re0ain a (urely -on-e(tual <logi-al= one i' no other de'initions o' our sel' /ere added to it# 2e should then be beings /hose li'e /ould be e!hausted in establishing (urely ideal relations bet/een (er-e(tions the0sel%es& and bet/een the0 and oursel'# I' /e -all the establishing o' su-h a thought -onne-tion& an a-t o' -ognition& and the resulting -ondition o' our sel' .no/ledge& then a--ording to the abo%e0entioned (resu((osition& /e should ha%e to -onsider oursel%es as beings /ho 0erely -ognize or .no/# "o/e%er& the (resu((osition does not -orres(ond to the 'a-ts# 2e relate (er-e(tions to oursel%es not 0erely ideally& through -on-e(ts& but also& as /e ha%e seen& through 'eeling# There'ore /e are not beings /ith a 0erely -on-e(tual li'e1-ontent# The nai%e realist e%en sees in the li'e o' 'eeling a 0ore genuine li'e o' the (ersonality than in the (urely ideal ele0ent o' .no/ledge# And 'ro0 his stand(oint he is right in inter(reting the 0atter in this /ay# For 'eeling on the sub5e-ti%e side to begin /ith& is e!a-tly the sa0e as (er-e(tion on the ob5e-ti%e side# Fro0 the basi- (rin-i(le o' nai%e realis0& that e%erything that -an be (er-ei%ed is real& it 'ollo/s that 'eeling is the guarantee o' the reality o' one8s o/n (ersonality# onis0& ho/e%er& as understood here& 0ust -on'er u(on 'eeling the sa0e su((le0ent that it -onsiders ne-essary 'or all (er-e(tions i' these are to be (resent as a -o0(lete reality# For 0onis0& 'eeling is an in-o0(lete reality /hi-h& in the 'or0 it is 'irst gi%en to us& does not as yet -ontain its se-ond 'a-tor& the -on-e(t or idea# This is /hy in a-tual li'e& 'eelings& li.e (er-e(tions& a((ear be'ore -ognition has o--urred# At 'irst /e ha%e 0erely a 'eeling o' e!isten-e& and it is only in the -ourse o' gradual de%elo(0ent that /e rea-h the (oint /here the -on-e(t o' our sel' da/ns /ithin the di0 'eeling o' our e!isten-e# But /hat 'or us a((ears only later is 'unda0entally and indi%isibly bound u( /ith 'eeling# This 'a-t leads the nai%e 0an to the belie' that in 'eeling& e!isten-e is (resent dire-tly& in .no/ledge only indire-tly# There'ore the de%elo(0ent o' the 'eeling1li'e a((ears to hi0 0ore i0(ortant than anything else# "e /ill belie%e that he has gras(ed the -onne-tion o' things only /hen he has 'elt it# "e atte0(ts to 0a.e 'eelings rather than .no/ing the 0eans o' -ognition# But as 'eeling is so0ething 7uite indi%idual& so0ething e7ui%alent to (er-e(tion& a (hiloso(her o' 'eeling 0a.es into the uni%ersal (rin-i(le& a (rin-i(le /hi-h has signi'i-an-e only /ithin his (ersonality# "e tries to (er0eate the /hole /orld /ith his o/n sel'# 2hat the 0onist& in the sense /e ha%e des-ribed& stri%es to gras( by 0eans o' -on-e(ts& the (hiloso(her o' 'eeling tries to attain by 0eans o' 'eeling& and -onsiders this relationshi( /ith ob5e-ts to be the one that is 0ost dire-t# The %ie/ 5ust -hara-terized& the (hiloso(hy o' 'eeling& is o'ten -alled 0ysti-is0# The error in 0ysti-is0 based on 'eeling alone is that the 0ysti- /ants to e!(erien-eB, in 'eeling /hat should be attained as .no/ledge3 he /ants to de%elo( so0ething /hi-h is indi%idual& into so0ething uni%ersal# Feeling is (urely indi%idual& it is the relation o' the e!ternal /orld to our sub5e-t& inso'ar as this relation -o0es to e!(ression in 0erely sub5e-ti%e e!(erien-e# There is yet another e!(ression o' the hu0an (ersonality# The I& through its thin.ing& li%es /ithin the uni%ersal li'e o' the /orld3 through thin.ing the 9I; relates (urely ideally <-on-e(tually=

the (er-e(tion to itsel'& and itsel' to the (er-e(tion# In 'eeling& it e!(erien-es a relation o' the ob5e-t to its o/n sub5e-t# In the /ill& the o((osite is the -ase# In /ill& /e are again -on'ronted /ith a (er-e(tion& na0ely that o' the indi%idual relation o' our o/n sel' to the ob5e-t# E%erything in the /ill /hi-h is not a (urely ideal 'a-tor is 5ust as 0u-h a 0erely (er-ei%ed ob5e-t as any ob5e-t in the e!ternal /orld# Ne%ertheless& here again the nai%e realist belie%es that he has be'ore hi0 so0ething 'ar 0ore real than -an be rea-hed by thin.ing# "e sees in the /ill an ele0ent in /hi-h he is dire-tly a/are o' a (ro-ess& a -ausation& in -ontrast to thin.ing& /hi-h 0ust 'irst gras( the (ro-ess in -on-e(ts# 2hat the I brings about by its /ill re(resents to su-h a %ie/& a (ro-ess /hi-h is e!(erien-ed dire-tly# An adherent o' this (hiloso(hy belie%es that in the /ill he has really got hold o' a -orner o' the uni%ersal (ro-ess# 2hereas all other e%ents he -an 'ollo/ only by (er-ei%ing the0 'ro0 outside& he belie%es that in his /ill he is e!(erien-ing a real (ro-ess 7uite dire-tly# The 'or0 o' e!isten-e in /hi-h the /ill a((ears to hi0 /ithin the sel' be-o0es 'or hi0 a dire-t (rin-i(le o' reality# "is o/n /ill a((ears to hi0 as a s(e-ial -ase o' the uni%ersal (ro-ess& and he there'ore -onsiders the latter to be uni%ersal /ill# The /ill be-o0es the uni%ersal (rin-i(le 5ust as in 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling& 'eeling be-o0es the (rin-i(le o' .no/ledge# This %ie/ is a :hiloso(hy o' the 2ill <Thelis0=#BB "ere so0ething /hi-h -an be e!(erien-ed only indi%idually is 0ade into the -onstituent 'a-tor o' the /orld# The (hiloso(hy o' /ill -an be -alled a s-ien-e as little as -an 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling# For both 0aintain that to (er0eate things /ith -on-e(ts is insu''i-ient# Both de0and& side by side /ith an ideal1(rin-i(le o' e!isten-e& a real (rin-i(le also# And this /ith a -ertain 5usti'i-ation# But sin-e 'or this so1-alled real (rin-i(le& (er-ei%ing is our only 0eans o' -o0(rehension& it 'ollo/s that 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling and (hiloso(hy o' /ill are both o' the o(inion that /e ha%e t/o sour-es o' .no/ledge4 thin.ing and (er-ei%ing& (er-ei%ing being 0ediated through 'eeling and /ill as indi%idual e!(erien-e# A--ording to 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling and (hiloso(hy o' /ill& /hat 'lo/s 'ro0 the sour-e o' e!(erien-eBBa -annot be ta.en u( dire-tly into /hat 'lo/s 'ro0 the sour-e o' thin.ing3 there'ore the t/o 'or0s o' .no/ledge& (er-ei%ing and thin.ing& re0ain standing side by side /ithout a higher 0ediation# Besides the ideal (rin-i(le attainable through .no/ledge& there is also su((osed to e!ist a real (rin-i(le /hi-h& although it -an be e!(erien-ed -annot be gras(ed by thin.ing# In other /ords4 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling and (hiloso(hy o' /ill are both 'or0s o' nai%e realis03 they both adhere to the (rin-i(le4 2hat is dire-tly (er-ei%ed is real# $o0(ared /ith nai%e realis0 in its original 'or0& they are guilty o' the 'urther in-onsisten-y o' 0a.ing one de'inite .ind o' (er-ei%ing <'eeling or /ill= into the one and only 0eans o' .no/ing e!isten-e3 and this they should not do /hen they adhere in general to the (rin-i(le4 2hat is (er-ei%ed is real# A--ording to this& 'or -ognition& e!ternal (er-e(tions should ha%e e7ual %alue /ith inner (er-e(tions o' 'eeling :hiloso(hy o' /ill be-o0es 0eta(hysi-al realis0 /hen it -onsiders /ill also to be (resent in those s(heres o' e!isten-e /here a dire-t e!(erien-e o' it& as in one8s o/n sub5e-t& is not (ossible# It hy(otheti-ally assu0es a (rin-i(le outside the sub5e-t& 'or /hi-h sub5e-ti%e e!(erien-e is the sole -riterion o' reality# The (hiloso(hy o' /ill as a

'or0 o' 0eta(hysi-al realis0 is o(en to the -riti-is0 indi-ated in the (re-eding -ha(ter3 it has to o%er-o0e the -ontradi-tory ele0ent inherent in e%ery 'or0 o' 0eta(hysi-al realis0& and a-.no/ledge that the /ill is a uni%ersal /orld (ro-ess only inso'ar as it relates itsel' ideally to the rest o' the /orld# Addition to the Re%ised Jersion& )*)?# The reason it is so di''i-ult to obser%e and gras( the nature o' thin.ing lies in the 'a-t that its nature all too easily eludes the -onte0(lating soul& as soon as one tries to 'o-us attention on it# 2hat then is le't is so0ething li'eless& abstra-t& the -or(se o' li%ing thin.ing# I' this abstra-t alone is -onsidered& then it is easy& by -ontrast& to be dra/n into the 9li%ing; ele0ent in 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling& or into the 0eta(hysi-s o' the /ill& and to 'ind it strange that anyone should e!(e-t to gras( the nature o' reality in 90ere thought#; But one /ho really (enetrates to the li'e /ithin thin.ing /ill rea-h the insight that to e!(erien-e e!isten-e 0erely in 'eeling or in /ill -annot in any /ay be -o0(ared /ith the inner ri-hness& the in/ardly at rest yet at the sa0e ti0e ali%e e!(erien-e& o' the li'e /ithin thin.ing& and no longer /ill he say that the other -ould be ran.ed abo%e this# It is 5ust be-ause o' this ri-hness& be-ause o' this inner 'ullness o' li%ing e!(erien-e& that its re'le-tion in the ordinary li'e o' soul a((ears li'eless and abstra-t# No other hu0an soul1a-ti%ity is so easily underesti0ated as thin.ing# 2ill and 'eeling /ar0 the hu0an soul e%en /hen e!(erien-ed only in re-olle-tion# Thin.ing all too easily lea%es the soul -old in re-olle-tion3 the soul1li'e then a((ears to ha%e dried out# But this is only the strong shado/ -ast by its /ar0 lu0inous reality& /hi-h di%es do/n into the (heno0ena o' the /orld# This di%ing do/n is done by a (o/er that 'lo/s /ithin the thin.ing a-ti%ity itsel'& the (o/er o' s(iritual lo%e# The ob5e-tion should not be 0ade that to see lo%e in a-ti%e thin.ing is to trans'er into thin.ing a 'eeling& na0ely lo%e# This ob5e-tion is in truth a -on'ir0ation o' /hat is said here# For he /ho turns to/ard the li%ing essen-e o' thin.ing /ill 'ind in it both 'eeling and /ill& and both o' these in their dee(est reality3 /hereas 'or so0eone /ho turns a/ay 'ro0 thin.ing and instead turns to/ard 90ere; 'eeling or /ill& 'or hi0 these /ill lose their true reality# One /ho is /illing to e!(erien-e intuiti%ely in thin.ing& /ill also be able to do 5usti-e to /hat is e!(erien-ed in the real0 o' 'eeling and in the ele0ent o' /ill& /hereas 0ysti-is0 o' 'eeling and 0eta(hysi-s o' /ill are in-a(able o' doing 5usti-e to the a-ti%ity o' (er0eating e!isten-e /ith intuiti%e thin.ing# They all too easily -o0e to the -on-lusion that they ha%e 'ound reality& /hereas the intuiti%e thin.er (rodu-es in abstra-t thoughts /ithout 'eeling& and 'ar re0o%ed 'ro0 reality& a shado/y& -hilling (i-ture o' the /orld#

THE IDEA OF FREEDOM For -ognition the -on-e(t o' a tree is -onditioned by the (er-e(tion o' the tree# 2hen -on'ronted /ith a (arti-ular (er-e(tion I -an li't out only one de'inite -on-e(t 'ro0 the general syste0 o' -on-e(ts# The -onne-tion bet/een -on-e(t and (er-e(tion is deter0ined indire-tly and ob5e-ti%ely through thin.ing a--ording to the (er-e(tion# The -onne-tion o' the (er-e(tion /ith its -on-e(t is re-ognized a'ter the a-t o' (er-e(tion3 but that they belong to one another is already inherent in the ob5e-t itsel'#

The (ro-ess is di''erent /hen the relation o' 0an to the /orld is -onsidered& as it arises /ithin .no/ledge# In the (re-eding e!(lanation the atte0(t has been 0ade to sho/ that it is (ossible to thro/ light on this relation i' one obser%es it /ithout (re5udi-e# A real understanding o' su-h an obser%ation leads to the insight that thin.ing -an be dire-tly e!(erien-ed as a sel'1-ontained reality# In order to e!(lain thin.ing as su-h& those /ho 'ind it ne-essary to add so0ething to it& su-h as (hysi-al brain1(ro-esses or un-ons-ious s(iritual (ro-esses lying behind the -ons-ious thin.ing /hi-h is being obser%ed& underesti0ate /hat -an be seen /hen thin.ing is obser%ed /ithout (re5udi-e# During his obser%ation o' thin.ing& the obser%er li%es dire-tly /ithin a s(iritual& sel'1sustaining a-ti%ity o' a li%ing reality# Indeed one -an say that he /ho /ants to gras( the reality o' s(irit in the 'or0 in /hi-h it 'irst (resents itsel' to 0an& -an do this in his o/n sel'1 sustaining thin.ing# 2hen thin.ing is obser%ed& t/o things -oin-ide /hi-h else/here 0ust al/ays a((ear a(art4 -on-e(t and (er-e(tion# I' this is not re-ognized& then in the -on-e(ts /hi-h ha%e been /or.ed out a--ording to (er-e(tions& one is unable to see anything but shado/y -o(ies o' the (er-e(tions& and /ill ta.e the (er-e(tions to be the 'ull reality# Further& one /ill build u( a 0eta(hysi-al s(here on the (attern o' the (er-ei%ed /orld& and ea-h (erson& a--ording to his %ie/s& /ill -all this /orld a /orld o' ato0s& a /orld o' /ill& a /orld o' un-ons-ious s(irit& and so on# And he /ill not noti-e that /ith all this he 0erely hy(otheti-ally builds u( a 0eta(hysi-al /orld on the (attern o' his /orld o' (er-e(tions# But i' he realizes /hat he has be'ore hi0 in thin.ing& then he /ill also re-ognize that in the (er-e(tion only a (art o' reality is (resent& and that the other (art that belongs to it and 'irst allo/s it to a((ear as 'ull reality& is e!(erien-ed in the a-t o' (er0eating the (er-e(tion /ith thin.ing# Then in /hat arises in -ons-iousness as thin.ing& he /ill also see not a shado/y -o(y o' so0e reality& but s(iritual reality itsel'# And o' this he -an say that it be-o0es (resent in his -ons-iousness through intuition# Intuition is a -ons-ious e!(erien-e o' a (urely s(iritual -ontent& ta.ing (la-e in the s(here o' (ure s(irit# Only through an intuition -an the reality o' thin.ing be gras(ed# Only /hen& by obser%ing thin.ing /ithout (re5udi-e& one has /restled one8s /ay through to re-ognizing the truth that the nature o' thin.ing is intuiti%e& is it (ossible to gain a real understanding o' the body1soul organization o' 0an# Then one re-ognizes that this organization -annot a''e-t the nature o' thin.ing# Kuite ob%ious 'a-ts see0 to -ontradi-t this at 'irst# For ordinary e!(erien-e& hu0an thin.ing only ta.es (la-e -onne-ted /ith& and by 0eans o'& the organization# This -o0es so strongly to the 'ore that the true 'a-ts -an only be seen /hen it has been re-ognized that nothing 'ro0 the organization (lays into thin.ing as su-h# And then it is i0(ossible not to noti-e ho/ e!traordinary is the relation o' the hu0an organization to thin.ing# For this organization has no e''e-t at all on thin.ing3 rather it /ithdra/s /hen the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing ta.es (la-e3 it sus(ends its o/n a-ti%ity& it 0a.es roo0& and in the s(a-e that has be-o0e 'ree& thin.ing a((ears# The s(iritual substan-e that a-ts in thin.ing has a t/o'old tas.4 'irst it (resses ba-. the hu0an organization in its a-ti%ity& and ne!t& it ste(s into the (la-e o' it# The 'irst& the (ressing ba-. o' the bodily organization& is also a -onse7uen-e o' the thin.ing a-ti%ity& and indeed o' that (art o' this a-ti%ity /hi-h (re(ares the 0ani'estation o' thin.ing# This e!(lains the sense in /hi-h thin.ing 'inds its -ounter(art in the bodily organization# And /hen this is

re-ognized& one /ill no longer 0ista.e this -ounter(art 'or thin.ing itsel'# I' so0eone /al.s o%er so't ground& his 'eet lea%e i0(ressions in the soil# But one is not te0(ted to say that the 'or-es o' the ground ha%e 'or0ed these i0(rints 'ro0 belo/# One /ill not as-ribe to these 'or-es any (arti-i(ation in the -reating o' the 'oot(rints# So too& one /ho& /ithout (re5udi-e& obser%es the nature o' thin.ing /ill not as-ribe to the i0(rints in the bodily organization any (arti-i(ation in the nature o' thin.ing& 'or the i0(rints in the organization -o0e about through the 'a-t that thin.ing (re(ares its 0ani'estation through the body#; L'ootnote4 The signi'i-an-e o' the abo%e %ie/ in relation to (sy-hology& (hysiology& et-#& in %arious dire-tions has been set 'orth by the author in /or.s (ublished a'ter this boo.# "ere the ai0 is only to -hara-terize /hat -an be re-ognized by an un(re5udi-ed obser%ation o' thin.ing#M No/ a signi'i-ant 7uestion arises# I' the hu0an organis0 does not (arta.e in the s(iritual substan-e o' thin.ing& /hat signi'i-an-e has this organis0 /ithin 0an8s being as a /hole6 No/ /hat ha((ens in this organis0 through thin.ing has nothing to do /ith the nature o' thin.ing& but indeed it has to do /ith the arising o' the I1-ons-iousness /ithin thin.ing# The real 9I; e!ists /ithin the being o' thin.ing& but not so the I1-ons-iousness# This /ill be re-ognized i' only thin.ing is obser%ed /ithout (re5udi-e# The 9I; is to be 'ound /ithin thin.ing3 the 9I1-ons-iousness; arises through the 'a-t that the i0(rints o' the a-ti%ity o' thin.ing are engra%ed u(on the general -ons-iousness in the sense e!(lained abo%e# <The I1-ons-iousness there'ore arises through the bodily organis0# But by this is not 0eant that the I1-ons-iousness& on-e it has arisen& re0ains de(endent on the bodily organis0# On-e arisen& it is ta.en u( into thin.ing and hen-e'orth shares its s(iritual nature#= The hu0an organis0 is the 'oundation o' the 9I1-ons-iousness#; It is also the sour-e o' /ill1a-ti%ity# It 'ollo/s 'ro0 the (re-eding e!(lanation that an insight into the -onne-tion bet/een thin.ing& -ons-ious I& and /ill a-ti%ity -an only be obtained i' /e 'irst obser%e ho/ /ill1a-ti%ity issues 'ro0 the hu0an organis0#BBb The 'a-tors to be -onsidered in a (arti-ular a-t o' /ill are the 0oti%e and the dri%ing 'or-e# The 0oti%e is either a -on-e(t or a re(resentation3 the dri%ing 'or-e is the /ill ele0ent and is dire-tly -onditioned by the hu0an organis0# The -on-e(tual 'a-tor& or 0oti%e& is the 0o0entary sour-e 'ro0 /hi-h the /ill is deter0ined3 the dri%ing 'or-e is the (er0anent sour-e o' deter0ination in the indi%idual# A 0oti%e o' /ill 0ay be a (ure -on-e(t or a -on-e(t /ith a de'inite re'eren-e to /hat is (er-ei%ed& i#e# a re(resentation# General and indi%idual -on-e(ts <re(resentations= be-o0e 0oti%es o' /ill by in'luen-ing the hu0an indi%idual and deter0ine hi0 to a-t in a (arti-ular dire-tion# But one and the sa0e -on-e(t& or one and the sa0e re(resentation& in'luen-es di''erent indi%iduals di''erently# It i0(els di''erent (eo(le to di''erent a-tions# 2ill& there'ore& does not -o0e about 0erely as a result o' the -on-e(t& or re(resentation& but also through the indi%idual dis(osition o' hu0an beings# This indi%idual dis(osition /e /ill -all 1 in this res(e-t one -an 'ollo/ Eduard %on "art0annBD 1 the -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# The /ay in /hi-h

-on-e(ts and re(resentations in'luen-e the -hara-terologi-al dis(osition o' a (erson gi%es his li'e a de'inite 0oral or ethi-al sta0(# The -hara-terologi-al dis(osition is 'or0ed through the 0ore or less -onstant li'e1-ontent o' our sub5e-t& that is& through the -ontent o' our re(resentations and 'eelings# 2hether a (resent re(resentation sti0ulates 0e to /ill or not& de(ends on ho/ the re(resentation is related to the -ontent o' the rest o' 0y re(resentations& and also to 0y (arti-ular 'eelings# The -ontent o' 0y re(resentations is deter0ined in turn by all those -on-e(ts /hi-h in the -ourse o' 0y indi%idual li'e ha%e -o0e into -onta-t /ith (er-e(tions& that is& ha%e be-o0e re(resentations# This again de(ends on 0y greater or lesser -a(a-ity 'or intuition& and on the range o' 0y obser%ations& that is& on the sub5e-ti%e and the ob5e-ti%e 'a-tors o' e!(erien-e&B@ on 0y inner deter0ination and 0y (la-e in li'e# The -hara-terologi-al dis(osition is 0ore (arti-ularly deter0ined by the li'e o' 'eeling# 2hether I 0a.e a de'inite re(resentation or -on-e(t the 0oti%e o' 0y a-tion /ill de(end on /hether it gi%es 0e (leasure or (ain# 1 These are the ele0ents /hi-h -o0e into -onsideration in an a-t o' /ill# The i00ediately (resent re(resentation or -on-e(t /hi-h be-o0es 0oti%e& deter0ines the ai0& the (ur(ose o' 0y /ill3 0y -hara-terologi-al dis(osition deter0ines 0e to dire-t 0y a-ti%ity to/ard this ai0# The re(resentation& to go 'or a /al. in the ne!t hal'1hour& deter0ines the ai0 o' 0y a-tion# But this re(resentation is ele%ated to a 0oti%e o' /ill only i' it 0eets /ith a suitable -hara-terologi-al dis(osition& that is& i' during 0y li'e until no/ I ha%e 'or0ed re(resentations -on-erning the (ur(ose o' /al.ing& its %alue 'or health& and 'urther& i' the re(resentation o' /al.ing -o0bines in 0e /ith a 'eeling o' (leasure# 2e there'ore 0ust distinguish4 )= the (ossible sub5e-ti%e dis(ositions /hi-h are suitable 'or turning de'inite re(resentations and -on-e(ts into 0oti%es3 and += the (ossible re(resentations and -on-e(ts /hi-h are -a(able o' so in'luen-ing 0y -hara-terologi-al dis(osition that /illing is the result# The 'irst re(resents the dri%ing 'or-e& the se-ond& the ai0s o' 0orality# 2e -an 'ind the dri%ing 'or-e o' 0orality by in%estigating the ele0ents /hi-h -o0(rise indi%idual li'e# The 'irst le%el o' indi%idual li'e is (er-ei%ing& 0ore (arti-ularly& (er-ei%ing by 0eans o' the senses# "ere /e are -on-erned /ith that region o' our indi%idual li'e /here (er-ei%ing& /ithout a 'eeling or a -on-e(t -o0ing bet/een& is dire-tly trans'or0ed into /illing# The dri%ing 'or-e in 0an& /hi-h -o0es into -onsideration here& /e shall si0(ly -all instin-t# The satis'a-tion o' our lo/er& (urely ani0al needs <hunger& se!ual inter-ourse& et-#= ta.es (la-e in this /ay# 2hat is 0ost -hara-teristi- o' instin-ti%e li'e is the i00edia-y /ith /hi-h a (arti-ular (er-e(tion releases the /ill# This .ind o' deter0ination o' the /ill& /hi-h is -hara-teristi- only o' lo/er sense1li'e to begin /ith& -an also be e!tended to the (er-e(tions o' the higher senses# 2e let a deed 'ollo/ u(on the (er-e(tion o' so0e e%ent or other in the outer /orld /ithout 'urther re'le-tion and /ithout lin.ing any (arti-ular 'eeling to the (er-e(tion& as in 'a-t ha((ens in -on%entional so-ial li'e# The dri%ing 'or-e o' su-h -ondu-t is /hat is -alled ta-t or 0oral eti7uette# The 0ore o'ten su-h a dire-t release o' a-ti%ity by a (er-e(tion ta.es (la-e& the 0ore the

(erson -on-erned is able to a-t (urely under the guidan-e o' ta-t& that is4 ta-t be-o0es his -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# The se-ond le%el o' hu0an li'e is 'eeling# De'inite 'eelings lin. the0sel%es to the (er-e(tions o' the outer /orld# These 'eelings -an be-o0e the dri%ing 'or-es o' deeds# 2hen I see a star%ing (erson& (ity 'or hi0 -an be-o0e the dri%ing 'or-e o' 0y a-tion# Su-h 'eelings& 'or e!a0(le& are sha0e& (ride& honor& hu0ility& re0orse& (ity& re%enge& gratitude& (iety& loyalty& lo%e and duty#B@a The third le%el o' li'e is thin.ing and 'or0ing re(resentations# A re(resentation or a -on-e(t -an be-o0e 0oti%e 'or an a-tion through 0ere re'le-tion# Re(resentations be-o0e 0oti%es be-ause in the -ourse o' li'e /e -ontinuously lin. -ertain ai0s o' /ill /ith (er-e(tions /hi-h .ee( returning in 0ore or less 0odi'ied 'or0# This is /hy& /hen (eo(le not entirely /ithout e!(erien-e ha%e -ertain (er-e(tions& there al/ays also enter into their -ons-iousness re(resentations o' deeds /hi-h they the0sel%es ha%e -arried out in a si0ilar instan-e& or ha%e seen -arried out# These re(resentations ho%er be'ore the0 as deter0ining 0odels 'or all later de-isions3 they be-o0e united /ith their -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# 2e -ould -all this dri%ing 'or-e o' the /ill& (ra-ti-al e!(erien-e# :ra-ti-al e!(erien-e gradually 0erges into (urely ta-t'ul -ondu-t# This ha((ens /hen de'inite ty(i-al (i-tures o' a-tions ha%e be-o0e so 'ir0ly -onne-ted in our -ons-iousness /ith re(resentations o' -ertain situations in li'e that in any gi%en -ase /e s.i( o%er all deliberation based on e!(erien-e and (ass o%er dire-tly 'ro0 (er-e(tion into /illing# The highest le%el o' indi%idual li'e is that o' -on-e(tual thin.ing /ithout re'eren-e to a de'inite (er-e(tual -ontent# 2e deter0ine the -ontent o' a -on-e(t through (ure intuition 'ro0 the ideal s(here# Su-h a -on-e(t -ontains no re'eren-e to de'inite (er-e(tions at 'irst# I' /e (ass o%er into /illing under the in'luen-e o' a -on-e(t (ointing to a (er-e(tion& that is& a re(resentation& then it is this (er-e(tion /hi-h deter0ines us indire-tly %ia the -on-e(tual thin.ing# 2hen /e a-t under the in'luen-e o' intuitions& then the dri%ing 'or-e o' our deed is (ure thin.ing# Sin-e in (hiloso(hy it is -usto0ary to -all the 'a-ulty o' (ure thin.ing& reason& it /ould be 5usti'iable to -all the 0oral dri%ing 'or-e -hara-teristi- o' this le%el& (ra-ti-al reason# The -learest a--ount o' this dri%ing 'or-e o' the /ill has been gi%en by CreyenbNhl#BA <:hiloso(his-he onatshe'te& Jol# OJIII& No# ,=# I -ount his arti-le on this sub5e-t a0ong the 0ost i0(ortant -ontributions to (resent1 day (hiloso(hy& (arti-ularly to ethi-s# CreyenbNhl -hara-terizes this dri%ing 'or-e as (ra-ti-al a(riori& that is& an i0(ulse to a-tion s(ringing dire-tly 'ro0 0y intuition# It is -lear that in the stri-test sense o' the /ord& su-h an i0(ulse -an no longer be -onsidered as belonging to the -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# For here /hat a-ts as dri%ing 'or-e is no longer so0ething 0erely indi%idual in 0e& but is the ideal and there'ore the uni%ersal -ontent o' 0y intuition# As soon as I see the 5usti'i-ation 'or 0a.ing this -ontent the 'oundation and starting1(oint o' an a-tion& I (ass o%er into /illing& irres(e-ti%e o' /hether I had the -on-e(t already& or /hether it enters 0y -ons-iousness only i00ediately be'ore a-ting& that is& irres(e-ti%e o' /hether or not it /as already (resent in 0e as dis(osition#

An a-tion is a real a-t o' /ill only /hen a 0o0entary i0(ulse o' a-tion& in the 'or0 o' a -on-e(t or re(resentation& in'luen-es the -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# Su-h an i0(ulse then be-o0es the 0oti%e o' /ill# oti%es o' 0orality are re(resentations and -on-e(ts# There are (hiloso(hers o' ethi-s /ho also see in 'eeling a 0oti%e 'or 0orality3 they 0aintain& 'or e!a0(le& that the ai0 o' 0oral -ondu-t is the 'urtheran-e o' the greatest (ossible 7uantity o' (leasure in the indi%idual /ho a-ts# But in itsel' a (leasure -annot be a 0oti%e3 only a re(resented (leasure -an# The re(resentation o' a 'uture 'eeling& but not the 'eeling itsel'& -an in'luen-e 0y -hara-terologi-al dis(osition# For in the 0o0ent o' a-ting the 'eeling itsel' is not yet there3 0oreo%er it is to be (rodu-ed by the a-tion# The re(resentation o' one8s o/n or so0eone else8s /el'are& ho/e%er& is rightly regarded as a 0oti%e o' /ill# The (rin-i(le4 through one8s deed to bring about the greatest a0ount o' (leasure 'or onesel'& that is& to attain (ersonal ad%antage& is egois0# It is stri%en 'or either by ruthlessly -onsidering only one8s o/n /el'are& e%en at the -ost o' the ha((iness o' others <(ure egois0=& or by 'urthering the /el'are o' others be-ause indire-tly one e!(e-ts a 'a%orable in'luen-e u(on one8s o/n sel' through the ha((iness o' others& or be-ause one 'ears to endanger one8s o/n interest by in5uring others <0orality o' (ruden-e=# The (arti-ular -ontent o' egoisti-al (rin-i(les o' 0orality /ill de(end u(on /hat re(resentations a (erson has o' his o/n or o' another8s ha((iness# A (erson /ill deter0ine the -ontent o' his egoisti-al stri%ing a--ording to /hat he -onsiders to be the good things in li'e <lu!ury& ho(e o' ha((iness& deli%eran-e 'ro0 %arious 0is'ortunes& et-#=# Another 0oti%e is the (urely -on-e(tual -ontent o' a-tions# This -ontent does not re'er to a (arti-ular a-tion only& as in the -ase o' the re(resentation o' one8s o/n (leasures& but to the reason 'or an a-tion deri%ed 'ro0 a syste0 o' 0oral (rin-i(les# In the 'or0 o' abstra-t -on-e(ts these 0oral (rin-i(les 0ay go%ern 0oral li'e /ithout the single indi%idual troubling hi0sel' about the origin o' the -on-e(ts# In that -ase& /e si0(ly 'eel the sub5e-tion to the 0oral -on-e(t /hi-h& li.e a -o00and& o%ershado/s our deeds as a 0oral ne-essity# The reason 'or this ne-essity /e lea%e to those /ho de0and our 0oral sub5e-tion& that is& to the 0oral authority /e a-.no/ledge <the head o' the 'a0ily& the state& so-ial -usto0& the authority o' the -hur-h& di%ine re%elation=# A (arti-ular instan-e o' these 0oral (rin-i(les is /hen the -o00and announ-es itsel' to us& not through an e!ternal authority& but through our o/n inner being <0oral autono0y=# In this -ase& /ithin oursel%es /e sense the %oi-e to /hi-h /e ha%e to sub0it# This %oi-e 'inds e!(ression in -ons-ien-e# It 0eans 0oral (rogress /hen 0an does not si0(ly ta.e the -o00and o' an outer or inner authority as 0oti%e 'or his a-tion& but stri%es to re-ognize the reason /hy a (arti-ular (rin-i(le o' -ondu-t should a-t as 0oti%e in hi0# This is the ad%an-e 'ro0 0orality based on authority& to -ondu-t based on 0oral insight# At this le%el o' 0orality the (erson /ill -onsider the needs o' 0oral li'e and /ill let this .no/ledge deter0ine his a-tions# Su-h needs are4 )= the greatest (ossible /el'are o' hu0anity& (urely 'or its o/n sa.e3 += the (rogress o' -ulture& or the 0oral de%elo(0ent o' 0an.ind to e%er greater

(er'e-tion3 ,= the realization o' indi%idual ai0s o' 0orality& /hi-h are gras(ed (urely intuiti%ely# The greatest (ossible /el'are o' hu0anity /ill naturally be understood di''erently by di''erent (eo(le# The abo%e (rin-i(le does not re'er to a de'inite re(resentation o' this /el'are& but to the 'a-t that ea-h (erson /ho a-.no/ledges this (rin-i(le stri%es to do /hat in his o(inion best 'urthers the /el'are o' hu0anity# The (rogress o' -ulture is seen as a s(e-ial instan-e o' the abo%e10entioned 0oral (rin-i(le by those /ho -onne-t 'eelings o' (leasure /ith the ad%antages o' -ulture& but they /ill ha%e to a--e(t into the bargain the de-line and destru-tion o' 0u-h that also -ontributes to the /el'are o' 0an.ind# "o/e%er& it is also (ossible that in the (rogress o' -ulture so0eone sees a 0oral ne-essity& 7uite a(art 'ro0 the 'eeling o' (leasure -onne-ted /ith it# Then 'or hi0& the (rogress o' -ulture is a (arti-ular 0oral (rin-i(le& distin-t 'ro0 the one 0entioned (re%iously# The (rin-i(le o' the general /el'are& as /ell as that o' the (rogress o' -ulture& is based u(on a re(resentation& that is& u(on ho/ one relates the -ontent o' 0oral ideas to -ertain e!(erien-es <(er-e(tions=# But the highest thin.able (rin-i(le o' 0orality is one /hi-h -ontains no su-h relation 'ro0 the start& but s(rings 'ro0 the sour-e o' (ure intuition and only a'ter/ard see.s the relation to (er-e(tions <to li'e=# "ere the de-ision as to /hat is to be /illed (ro-eeds 'ro0 a di''erent s(here than that o' the (re%ious e!a0(les# In all his -ondu-t& one in 'a%or o' the (rin-i(le o' the general /el'are /ill 'irst as. /hat his ideals /ill -ontribute to this general /el'are# "e /ho a-.no/ledges the 0oral (rin-i(le o' the (rogress o' -ulture& /ill do the sa0e# But at this le%el he -ould do so0ething e%en higher4 i' in a (arti-ular -ase he /ere not to (ro-eed 'ro0 one single de'inite ai0 o' 0orality& but /ere to re-ognize a -ertain %alue in all (rin-i(les o' 0orality and /ere al/ays to as. /hether the one or the other /ould be 0ore i0(ortant here# It 0ay ha((en that in -ertain -ir-u0stan-es one -onsiders the (rogress o' -ulture& in others& the general /el'are& and in yet others& the 'urtheran-e o' his o/n /el'are& to be the right ai0 and 0oti%e o' his a-tions# But /hen all su-h reasons ta.e se-ond (la-e& then 'irst and 'ore0ost the -on-e(tual intuition itsel' -o0es into -onsideration# 2hen this ha((ens& then all other 0oti%es retreat 'ro0 the leading (osition and the idea1-ontent o' the a-tion alone is e''e-ti%e as its 0oti%e# A0ong the le%els o' -hara-terologi-al dis(osition& /e ha%e sho/n the one /hi-h a-ts as (ure thin.ing& as (ra-ti-al reason& to be the highest# Fro0 the 0oti%es& /e ha%e no/ sho/n -on-e(tual intuition to be the highest# On -loser -onsideration& it /ill soon be seen that at this le%el o' 0orality dri%ing 'or-e and 0oti%e -oin-ide& that is& neither a (redeter0ined -hara-terologi-al dis(osition nor an e!ternal 0oral (rin-i(le a--e(ted on authority& in'luen-es our -ondu-t# The deed there'ore is neither a -on%entional one& -arried out a--ording to so0e rule or other& nor one auto0ati-ally (er'or0ed in res(onse to an e!ternal i0(ulse3 rather it is one /hi-h is deter0ined solely through its ideal -ontent#

Su-h -ondu-t (resu((oses the -a(a-ity 'or 0oral intuition# 2hoe%er la-.s the ability to e!(erien-e the 0oral (rin-i(le that a((lies in a (arti-ular instan-e& /ill ne%er a-hie%e truly indi%idual /illing# The e!a-t o((osite to this 0oral (rin-i(le is the Cantian4 A-t so that the (rin-i(les o' your a-tions -an be %alid 'or all 0en# This (rin-i(le is death to all indi%idual i0(ulses o' a-tion# "o/ all 0en /ould a-t -annot be a standard 'or 0e& but rather /hat is right 'or 0e to do in the (arti-ular instan-e# To this& a su(er'i-ial 5udg0ent -ould (erha(s ob5e-t4 "o/ -an an a-tion be indi%idually ada(ted to the (arti-ular instan-e and the (arti-ular situation& and yet at the sa0e ti0e be deter0ined (urely ideally by intuition6 This ob5e-tion is due to a -on'usion o' the 0oral 0oti%e and the (er-e(tible -ontent o' the a-tion# The (er-e(tible -ontent -ould be a 0oti%e& and is one& 'or e!a0(le& /hen an a-t is done 'or the (rogress o' -ulture or out o' (ure egois0& et-#& but it is not the 0oti%e /hen the reason 'or a-tion is a (ure 0oral intuition# y I naturally ta.es noti-e o' this (er-e(tual -ontent& but is not deter0ined by it# This -ontent is used only to 'or0 a -ogniti%e -on-e(t& but the 0oral -on-e(t that belongs to it& the I does not ta.e 'ro0 the ob5e-t# The -ogniti%e -on-e(t o' a gi%en situation -on'ronting 0e is also a 0oral -on-e(t only i' I base 0y %ie/ on a (arti-ular 0oral (rin-i(le# I' 0y %ie/(oint is li0ited to the general 0oral (rin-i(le o' the (rogress o' -ulture& then I go through li'e along a 'i!ed route# Fro0 e%ery e%ent I (er-ei%e /hi-h -an o--u(y 0e& a 0oral duty also s(rings& na0ely& to do 0y best to/ard (la-ing the (arti-ular e%ent in the ser%i-e o' the (rogress o' -ulture# In addition to the -on-e(t /hi-h re%eals to 0e the natural la/ inherent in an e%ent or ob5e-t& there is also a 0oral label atta-hed to it /hi-h -ontains 'or 0e& as a 0oral being& an ethi-al dire-tion as to ho/ I a0 to beha%e# This 0oral label is 5usti'ied at a -ertain le%el& but at a higher le%el it -oin-ides /ith the idea that arises in 0e /hen I 'a-e the -on-rete instan-e# en di''er greatly in their -a(a-ity 'or intuition# In one (erson ideas bubble u( easily& /hile another (erson has to a-7uire the0 /ith 0u-h labor# The situation in /hi-h 0en li%e& /hi-h is the s-ene o' their a-tions& is no less di''erent# "o/ a 0an a-ts /ill there'ore de(end on the /ay his -a(a-ity 'or intuition 'un-tions in the 'a-e o' a gi%en situation# The su0 o' ideas a-ti%e /ithin us& the a-tual -ontent o' our intuitions& is /hat& 'or all the uni%ersality o' the idea1/orld& is indi%idually -onstituted in ea-h hu0an being# Inso'ar as this intuiti%e -ontent is dire-ted to/ard a-tion& it is the 0oral -ontent o' the indi%idual# To let this -ontent -o0e to e!(ression is the highest 0oral dri%ing 'or-e and also the highest 0oti%e 'or the one /ho has re-ognized that ulti0ately all other 0oral (rin-i(les unite in this -ontent# This stand(oint -an be -alled ethi-al indi%idualis0# The dis-o%ery o' the 7uite indi%idual intuition /hi-h -orres(onds to the situation& is the de-iding 'a-tor in an intuiti%ely deter0ined a-tion# At this le%el o' 0orality one -an s(ea. only o' general -on-e(ts o' 0orality <nor0s& la/s= inso'ar as these result 'ro0 the generalization o' indi%idual i0(ulses# General nor0s al/ays (resu((ose -on-rete 'a-ts 'ro0 /hi-h they -an be deri%ed# But 'a-ts 0ust 'irst be (rodu-ed by hu0an deeds#

2hen /e loo. 'or the la/s <-on-e(ts= underlying the -ondu-t o' indi%iduals& (eo(les and e(o-hs& /e obtain a syste0 o' ethi-s& not as a s-ien-e o' 0oral rules& but as a natural (hiloso(hy o' 0orality# It is true that la/s obtained in this /ay are related to hu0an -ondu-t& as the la/s o' nature are related to a (arti-ular (heno0enon# But they are not at all identi-al /ith the i0(ulses u(on /hi-h /e base our -ondu-t# I' one /ants to gras( the 0eans by /hi-h 0an8s a-tion s(rings 'ro0 his 0oral /ill& then one 0ust 'irst -onsider the relation o' this /ill to the a-tion# One 0ust 'irst sele-t a-tions /here this relation is the deter0ining 'a-tor# I' I& or so0eone else& re'le-t on su-h an a-tion later& then -an be dis-o%ered u(on /hat (rin-i(le o' 0orality the a-tion is based# 2hile I a0 a-ting I a0 0o%ed to a-t by the 0oral (rin-i(le inso'ar as it li%es in 0e intuiti%ely3 the 0oral (rin-i(le is united /ith 0y lo%e 'or /hat I /ant to a--o0(lish by 0y deed# I as. no 0an and no -ode& Shall I do this6 1 rather I do it the 0o0ent I ha%e gras(ed the idea o' it# This alone 0a.es it 0y a-tion# The deeds o' a (erson /ho a-ts solely be-ause he a-.no/ledges a de'inite 0oral standard& -o0e about as a result o' a (rin-i(le /hi-h is (art o' his 0oral -ode# "e is 0erely the agent# "e is a higher .ind o' auto0aton# I' so0e i0(ulse to a-tion enters his -ons-iousness& then at on-e the -lo-./or. o' his 0oral (rin-i(le /ill be set in 0otion and run to rule& in order to bring about a deed /hi-h is $hristian& or hu0ane& or is dee0ed unsel'ish& or to 'urther the (rogress o' -ulture# Only /hen I 'ollo/ 0y lo%e 'or the ob5e-t is it I 0ysel' /ho a-ts# At this le%el o' 0orality I do not a-t be-ause I a-.no/ledge a ruler o%er 0e& an e!ternal authority& or a so1-alled inner %oi-e# I do not a-.no/ledge any e!ternal (rin-i(le 'or 0y -ondu-t& be-ause I ha%e 'ound the sour-e o' 0y -ondu-t /ithin 0ysel'& na0ely& 0y lo%e 'or the deed# I do not (ro%e intelle-tually /hether 0y deed is good or bad3 I do it out o' 0y lo%e 'or it# y a-tion /ill be 9good; i' 0y intuition& i00ersed in lo%e& e!ists in the right /ay /ithin the relationshi( bet/een things3 this -an be e!(erien-ed intuiti%ely3 the a-tion /ill be 9bad; i' this is not the -ase# Nor do I as. 0ysel'4 "o/ /ould another (erson a-t in 0y (la-e6 1 rather I a-t& as I& as this (arti-ular indi%iduality& 'ind 0y /ill 0oti%ated to a-t# I a0 not guided dire-tly by /hat ha((ens to be the usual thing& the general habit& so0e general hu0an -ode or 0oral standard& but solely by 0y lo%e 'or this deed# I 'eel no -o0(ulsion 1 neither the -o0(ulsion o' nature /hi-h rules 0e through 0y instin-ts& nor the -o0(ulsion o' 0oral -o00ands# Rather& I si0(ly -arry out /hat lies /ithin 0e# Those /ho de'end general 0oral standards /ill (erha(s ob5e-t4 I' ea-h (erson stri%es to e!(ress and do only /hat he (leases& then there is no di''eren-e bet/een a good deed and a -ri0e3 e%ery de(ra%ed i0(ulse in 0e has the sa0e right to e!(ress itsel' as has the intention to do 0y best# The 'a-t that I ha%e a deed in 0ind& a--ording to an idea& -annot set 0y standard as a 0oral hu0an being& but only the test as to /hether it is a good or e%il deed# Only i' it is good should I -arry it out# y re(ly to this ob%ious ob5e-tion& /hi-h nonetheless is based on a 0isunderstanding o' /hat is 0eant here& is this4 One /ho /ants to understand the nature o' hu0an /ill 0ust di''erentiate bet/een the (ath /hi-h brings this /ill to a -ertain degree o' de%elo(0ent& and the uni7ue -hara-ter /hi-h the /ill assu0es as it a((roa-hes its goal# On the /ay to/ard this goal standards do (lay their 5usti'ied (art# The goal -onsists in the realization o' ai0s o' 0orality& gras(ed (urely intuiti%ely# an attains su-h ai0s to the degree that he is at all able to raise hi0sel' to the intuiti%e idea1-ontent o' the /orld# In (arti-ular

instan-es su-h ai0s are usually 0i!ed /ith other ele0ents& either as dri%ing 'or-e or as 0oti%e# Ne%ertheless& in the hu0an /ill intuition -an be the deter0ining 'a-tor& /holly or in (art# A (erson does /hat he ought to do& he (ro%ides the stage u(on /hi-h 9ought; be-o0es deed3 it is absolutely his o/n deed /hi-h he brings to e!(ression# The i0(ulse here -an only be -o0(letely indi%idual# And& in 'a-t& only an a-t o' /ill /hi-h s(rings 'ro0 intuition -an be indi%idual# To -all the a-ts o' -ri0inals and /hat is e%il an e!(ression o' the indi%iduality& in the sa0e sense as the e0bodi0ent o' (ure intuition& is only (ossible i' blind urges are re-.oned as (art o' the hu0an indi%iduality# But the blind urge /hi-h dri%es a (erson to -ri0e does not s(ring 'ro0 intuition and does not belong to /hat is indi%idual in 0an& but rather to /hat is 0ost general in hi0& to /hat is e7ually %alid in all 0en& and out o' /hi-h 0an /or.s his /ay by 0eans o' /hat is indi%idual in hi0# 2hat is indi%idual in 0e is not 0y organis0 /ith its urges and 'eelings& but rather the uni%ersal /orld o' ideas /hi-h lights u( /ithin this organis0# y urges& instin-ts& (assions -on'ir0 nothing 0ore than that I belong to the general s(e-ies& 0an3 the 'a-t that so0ething ideal -o0es to e!(ression in a (arti-ular /ay /ithin these urges& (assions and 'eelings& -on'ir0s 0y indi%iduality# Through 0y instin-ts and urges I a0 a (erson o' /ho0 there are t/el%e to the dozen3 through the (arti-ular 'or0 o' the idea& by 0eans o' /hi-h I na0e 0ysel' 9I; /ithin the dozen& I a0 an indi%idual# Only a being other than 0ysel' -ould distinguish 0e 'ro0 others by the di''eren-e in 0y ani0al nature3 through 0y thin.ing& that is& through the a-ti%e gras( o' /hat e!(resses itsel' as an ideal /ithin 0y organis0& do I distinguish 0ysel' 'ro0 others# There'ore one de'initely -annot say that the a-tion o' a -ri0inal s(rings 'ro0 the idea in hi0# Indeed& this is 5ust /hat is -hara-teristi- o' a -ri0inal deed4 it ste0s 'ro0 ele0ents in 0an /hi-h are e!ternal to the ideal1ele0ent in hi0# An a-tion is 'elt to be 'ree inso'ar as the reason 'or it s(rings 'ro0 the ideal (art o' 0y indi%idual being3 any other (art o' an a-tion& irres(e-ti%e o' /hether it is -arried out under the -o0(ulsion o' nature or under the obligation o' a 0oral -ode& is 'elt to be un'ree# an is 'ree inso'ar as he is able& in e%ery 0o0ent o' his li'e& to 'ollo/ hi0sel'# A 0oral deed is 0y deed only i' it -an be -alled 'ree in this sense# 2hat here ha%e to be -onsidered are the (resu((ositions ne-essary 'or a /illed a-tion to be 'elt as 'ree3 ho/ this (urely ethi-ally gras(ed idea o' 'reedo0 realizes itsel' in hu0an nature& /ill be seen in /hat 'ollo/s# A deed done out o' 'reedo0 does not at all e!-lude& but in-ludes 0oral la/s& but it /ill be a deed done 'ro0 a higher s(here -o0(ared /ith those di-tated solely by su-h la/s# 2hy should 0y deed ser%e the general /el'are any less /hen it is done out o' lo%e& than /hen I do it solely 'or the reason that I 'eel that to ser%e the general /el'are is a duty6 The -on-e(t o' 0ere duty e!-ludes 'reedo0 be-ause it does not in-lude /hat is indi%idual& but de0ands sub5e-tion o' the indi%idual to a general standard# Freedo0 o' a-tion is thin.able only 'ro0 the stand(oint o' ethi-al indi%idualis0# But ho/ is it (ossible 'or (eo(le to li%e in a -o00unity i' ea-h (erson stri%es to assert only his o/n indi%iduality6 This ob5e-tion is -hara-teristi- o' 0isunderstood 0oralis0# A

(erson holding this %ie/(oint belie%es that a -o00unity o' (eo(le is (ossible only i' all 0en are united by general 'i!ed 0oral rules# "e si0(ly does not understand the oneness and har0ony o' the idea1/orld# "e does not realize that the idea1/orld /hi-h is a-ti%e in 0e is none other than the one a-ti%e in 0y 'ello/10an# This unity o' ideas is indeed nothing but a result o' 0en8s e!(erien-e o' li'e#BA Only this -an it be# For i' the unity o' the idea1/orld -ould be re-ognized by any 0eans other than by indi%idual obser%ation& then general rules and not (ersonal e!(erien-e /ould be %alid in its s(here# Indi%iduality is (ossible only /hen ea-h indi%idual is a-7uainted /ith others through indi%idual obser%ation alone# The di''eren-e bet/een 0e and 0y 'ello/ 0en is not at all be-ause /e li%e in t/o 7uite di''erent s(iritual /orlds& but be-ause 'ro0 the /orld o' ideas /hi-h /e share& he re-ei%es di''erent intuitions 'ro0 0ine# "e /ants to li%e out his intuitions& I 0ine# I' /e both really dra/ 'ro0 the idea& and are not obeying any e!ternal i0(ulses <(hysi-al or s(iritual=& then /e -annot but 0eet in the sa0e stri%ing& in ha%ing the sa0e intentions# A 0oral 0isunderstanding& a -lash bet/een 0en /ho are 0orally 'ree& is out o' the 7uestion# Only the 0orally un'ree /ho 'ollo/ natural instin-ts or so0e a--e(ted -o00and o' duty& turn a/ay 'ro0 a 'ello/10an i' he does not 'ollo/ the sa0e instin-t and the sa0e -o00and as the0sel%es# To li%e in lo%e o' the a-tion and to let li%e& ha%ing understanding 'or the other (erson8s /ill& is the 'unda0ental (rin-i(le o' 'ree hu0an beings# They .no/ no other 9ought; than that /ith /hi-h their /ill is intuiti%ely in a--ord3 ho/ they shall /ill in a (arti-ular instan-e& their (o/er o' ideation /ill tell the0# I' hu0an nature /ere not 'unda0entally so-ial& no e!ternal la/s -ould 0a.e it soE Only be-ause indi%idual hu0an beings are one in the s(iritual (art o' their being& -an they li%e out their li%es side by side# The 'ree 0an is -on'ident that others /ho are 'ree belong to the sa0e s(iritual /orld as he does& and that they /ill 0eet hi0 in their intentions# The 'ree 0an does not de0and agree0ent 'ro0 his 'ello/ 0en& but he e!(e-ts it& be-ause it lies in hu0an nature# This does not re'er to the e!isting ne-essity 'or this or that e!ternal arrange0ent& but rather to the dis(osition& the attitude o' soul through /hi-h 0an& in his e!(erien-e o' hi0sel' a0ong 'ello/ 0en 'or /ho0 he -ares& -o0es nearest to doing 5usti-e to hu0an dignity# There are 0any /ho /ill say that the -on-e(t o' a 'ree hu0an being outlined here is a -hi0era& is no/here to be 'ound as a reality& and that /e ha%e to deal /ith real (eo(le 'ro0 /ho0 one -an ho(e 'or 0orality only /hen they obey so0e 0oral la/& /hen they regard their 0oral 0ission as a duty& and do not 'reely 'ollo/ their in-linations and (re'eren-es# 1 I -ertainly do not doubt this# Only a blind 0an -ould do so# But then& a/ay /ith all hy(o-risy o' 0orality i' this is to be the ulti0ate -on-lusion# Then si0(ly say4 "u0an nature 0ust be -o0(elled as long as it is not 'ree# 2hether the un'reedo0 is dealt /ith by (hysi-al 0eans or through 0oral la/s& /hether 0an is un'ree be-ause he 'ollo/s his i00easurable se!ual instin-t& or be-ause he is he00ed in by the 'etters o' -on%entional 0orality& is 7uite i00aterial 'ro0 a -ertain (oint o' %ie/# But one should not 0aintain that su-h a 0an -an rightly -all his a-tions his o/n& 'or he is dri%en to the0 by e!ternal (o/ers# But there are hu0an beings /ho raise the0sel%es abo%e all these -o0(elling rules& 'ree s(irits /ho 'ind their o/n sel' in the 5u0ble o' habits& regulations& religious obser%an-e& et-# They are 'ree inso'ar as they 'ollo/ only the0sel%es3 un'ree

inso'ar as they sub0it the0sel%es# 2hi-h o' us -an say that he is really 'ree in all that he deed But in ea-h o' us e!ists a higher being in /ho0 the 'ree 0an -o0es to e!(ression# Our li'e is -o0(osed o' 'ree and un'ree deeds# But /e -annot -o0(lete the -on-e(t o' 0an /ithout in-luding the 'ree s(irit as the (urest -hara-teristi- o' hu0an nature# A'ter all& /e are truly hu0an only inso'ar as /e are 'ree# That is an ideal& 0any /ill say# 2ithout doubt 1 but it is an ideal /hi-h /or.s itsel' to the sur'a-e 'ro0 /ithin our nature as a reality# It is no 9thought out; or i0agined ideal& but one in /hi-h there is li'e& one /hi-h -learly announ-es its (resen-e e%en in its least (er'e-t 'or0 o' e!isten-e# I' 0an /ere 0erely a (rodu-t o' nature& the sear-h 'or ideals& that is& 'or ideas /hi-h 'or the 0o0ent are ina-ti%e but /hose realization /e de0and& /ould not be (ossible# In the -ase o' e!ternal ob5e-ts the idea is deter0ined by the (er-e(tion# 2e ha%e done our share /hen /e ha%e re-ognized the -onne-tion bet/een idea and (er-e(tion# But /ith 0an this is not so# "is -ontent is not deter0ined /ithout hi03 his true -on-e(t as a 0oral being <'ree s(irit= is not ob5e-ti%ely united /ith the (er-e(tual (i-ture 90an; 'ro0 the start 0erely in order to be -on'ir0ed by .no/ledge later# By his o/n a-ti%ity 0an 0ust unite his -on-e(t /ith the (er-e(tion& 0an# $on-e(t and (er-e(tion only -oin-ide here i' 0an hi0sel' brings it about# But he -annot do this till he has 'ound the -on-e(t o' the 'ree s(irit& that is& his o/n -on-e(t# In the ob5e-ti%e /orld a line o' di%ision is dra/n by our organization bet/een (er-e(tion and -on-e(t3 -ognition o%er-o0es this di%ision# In our sub5e-ti%e nature this di%ision is no less (resent3 0an o%er-o0es it in the -ourse o' his de%elo(0ent by bringing his -on-e(t to e!(ression in his out/ard e!isten-e# Both 0an8s intelle-tual as /ell as his 0oral li'e (oint to his t/o'old nature4 (er-ei%ing <dire-t e!(erien-e= and thin.ing# In the intelle-tual li'e the t/o1'oldness is o%er-o0e through .no/ledge3 in the 0oral li'e through a-tually bringing the 'ree s(irit to realization# E%ery being has its inborn -on-e(t <the la/ o' its e!isten-e and a-ti%ity=& but in e!ternal ob5e-ts the -on-e(t is indi%isibly -onne-ted /ith the (er-e(tion and se(arated 'ro0 it only /ithin our s(iritual organis0# In 0an -on-e(t and (er-e(tion are to begin /ith& a-tually a(art& to be united by hi0 5ust as a-tually# One -ould ob5e-t4 To our (er-e(tion o' a 0an a de'inite -on-e(t -orres(onds at e%ery 0o0ent o' his li'e& 5ust as is the -ase /ith e%erything else# I -an 'or0 a -on-e(t o' a ty(i-al 0an& and I 0ay also 'ind su-h a 0an gi%en to 0e as a (er-e(tion# I' to this I also bring the -on-e(t o' the 'ree s(irit& then I ha%e t/o -on-e(ts 'or the sa0e ob5e-t# This line o' thought is one1sided# As (er-e(tual ob5e-t I a0 sub5e-ted to (er(etual -hange# As a -hild I /as one thing& another as a youth& yet another as a 0an# In 'a-t& at e%ery 0o0ent the (er-e(tual (i-ture o' 0ysel' is di''erent 'ro0 /hat it /as a 0o0ent ago# These -hanges 0ay ta.e (la-e in su-h a /ay that either it is al/ays the sa0e <the ty(i-al= 0an /ho e!(resses hi0sel' in the0& or they be-o0e the e!(ression o' the 'ree s(irit# The (er-e(tual ob5e-t o' 0y a-tion is sub5e-ted to these -hanges# In the (er-e(tual ob5e-t 90an; the (ossibility o' trans'or0ation is gi%en& 5ust as in the (lant1seed there lies the (ossibility o' be-o0ing a 'ully de%elo(ed (lant# The (lant trans'or0s itsel' be-ause o' the ob5e-ti%e la/s /hi-h are inherent in it3 0an re0ains in his i0(er'e-t state unless he ta.es hold o' the substan-e to be trans'or0ed /ithin hi0 and

trans'or0s it through his o/n (o/er# Nature 0a.es 0an 0erely into a (rodu-t o' nature3 so-iety 0a.es hi0 into a being /ho a-ts rationally& but he alone -an 0a.e hi0sel' into a 'ree being# At a de'inite stage in his de%elo(0ent nature releases 0an 'ro0 its 'etters3 so-iety -arries his de%elo(0ent a stage 'urther3 the 'inal (olish he -an only a((ly hi0sel'# There'ore& 'ro0 the stand(oint o' 'ree 0orality it is not asserted that as 'ree s(irit is the only 'or0 in /hi-h a 0an -an e!ist# Free s(irituality is the ulti0ate stage o' 0an8s de%elo(0ent# And it is not denied that -ondu-t a--ording to rules has its 5usti'i-ation as a stage o' de%elo(0ent# "o/e%er& this -annot be a-.no/ledged as the highest le%el o' 0orality# But the 'ree s(irit in 0an o%er-o0es rules in the sense that he does not a--e(t only -o00ands as 0oti%es& but also regulates his -ondu-t in a--ordan-e /ith his i0(ulses <intuitions=# 2hen Cant says o' duty4B? 9DutyE >ou subli0e& you great na0e& you en-o0(ass nothing belo%ed or endearing& but you de0and sub0ission&; you 9lay do/n a la/ ### be'ore /hi-h all in-linations be-o0e silent& e%en i' in se-ret they also go against it&; then 0an& -ons-ious o' the 'ree s(irit& ans/ers4 9Freedo0E >ou 'riendly& hu0ane na0e& you en-o0(ass all that is 0orally belo%ed& all that is 0ost /orthy o' 0y hu0anity& you 0a.e 0e no one8s ser%ant& you do not 0erely lay do/n a la/& but /ait 'or /hat 0y 0oral lo%e /ill o' itsel' re-ognize as la/& be-ause it 'eels un'ree /hen 'a-ed /ith any la/ si0(ly 'or-ed u(on it#; This is the -ontrast bet/een 0ere la/1abiding 0orality and 0orality born o' 'reedo0# The (hilistine /ho sees 0orality e0bodied in so0e e!ternal rule& 0ay (erha(s e%en regard the 'ree s(irit as a dangerous (erson# But this is si0(ly be-ause his %ie/ is li0ited to a -ertain (eriod o' ti0e# I' he /ere able to see beyond this& he /ould soon 'ind that the 'ree s(irit need go beyond the la/s o' his state as seldo0 as the (hilistine hi0sel'& and is ne%er in any real o((osition to the0# For all the la/s o' the state ha%e s(rung 'ro0 the intuitions o' 'ree s(irits& 5ust as ha%e all other ob5e-ti%e la/s o' 0orality# No la/ is e!er-ised through a 'a0ily authority /hi-h /as not at so0e ti0e intuiti%ely gras(ed and laid do/n by an an-estor# Si0ilarly the -on%entional la/s o' 0orality /ere 'irst laid do/n by de'inite (eo(le and so too the la/s o' the state 'irst arise in the head o' a states0an# These indi%idualities ha%e established la/s o%er other (eo(le& and only he is un'ree /ho 'orgets this origin and either loo.s u(on these la/s as e!tra1hu0an -o00ands& that is& as ob5e-ti%e 0oral -on-e(ts o' duty inde(endent o' 0an& or turns the0 into the -o00anding %oi-e thought o' 1 in a 'alsely 0ysti-al /ay 1 as -o0(elling hi0 in his o/n inner being# "o/e%er& he /ho does not 'orget the origin o' su-h la/s& but loo.s 'or it in 0an& /ill re-.on /ith the0 as belonging to the sa0e idea1/orld as that 'ro0 /hi-h he too dra/s his 0oral intuitions# I' he belie%es his o/n intuitions to be better& then he /ill try to re(la-e those in e!isten-e /ith his o/n3 but i' he 'inds the e!isting ones 5usti'ied& he /ill a-t in a--ordan-e /ith the0 as i' they /ere his o/n# The 'or0ula 0ust not be -oined4 an is 0eant to realize a 0oral /orld order /hi-h e!ists inde(endent o' hi0# Inso'ar as .no/ledge o' 0an is -on-erned& one 0aintaining this stands at the (oint /here natural s-ien-e stood /hen it belie%ed that the goat has

horns in order to be able to butt# Fortunately natural s-ientists ha%e re5e-ted su-h a -on-e(t o' (ur(ose as a dead theory# It is 0ore di''i-ult to get rid o' su-h theories in ethi-s# "o/e%er& 5ust as horns do not e!ist be-ause o' butting& but butting e!ists through horns& so 0an does not e!ist be-ause o' 0orality& but 0orality e!ists through 0an# The 'ree hu0an being a-ts 0orally be-ause he has a 0oral idea& but he does not a-t in order that 0orality 0ay -o0e about# "u0an indi%iduals& /ith the 0oral ideas belonging to their nature& are the (resu((osition 'or a 0oral /orld1order# The hu0an indi%idual is the sour-e o' all 0orality and the -enter o' earthly li'e# State and so-iety ha%e -o0e about only be-ause they are the ne-essary results o' li'e shared by indi%idual hu0an beings# That state and so-iety should rea-t in turn u(on the li'e o' the indi%idual is understandable& 5ust as it is understandable that butting& /hi-h e!ists through the horns& rea-ts in turn u(on the 'urther de%elo(0ent o' the goat8s horns& /hi-h /ould /aste a/ay by (rolonged disuse# Si0ilarly& the indi%idual /ould /aste a/ay i' he led a se(arate e!isten-e outside a hu0an -o00unity# This is 5ust /hy the so-ial order arises& so that it -an rea-t 'a%orably u(on the indi%idual#

PHILOSOPHY OF FREEDOM (SPIRITUAL ACTIVITY) AND MONISM The nai%e 0an /ho regards as real only /hat he -an see /ith his eyes and gras( /ith his hands& also needs to ha%e 0oti%es 'or his 0oral li'e that are (er-e(tible to the senses# "e needs so0eone /ho /ill i0(art these 0oti%es to hi0 in a /ay that he -an understand by 0eans o' his senses# "e /ill let the0 be di-tated to hi0 as -o00ands by a (erson /ho0 he -onsiders /iser and 0ore (o/er'ul than hi0sel'& or /ho0 he a-.no/ledges& 'or so0e other reason& to be a (o/er standing abo%e hi0# In this /ay the 0oral (rin-i(les already 0entioned -o0e about through being (res-ribed by authority o' 'a0ily& state& so-iety& -hur-h& or the Di%inity# An unde%elo(ed (erson still trusts in the authority o' a single indi%idual3 a so0e/hat 0ore ad%an-ed (erson lets his 0oral -ondu-t be di-tated by a 0a5ority <state& so-iety=# But it is al/ays (er-e(tible (o/ers u(on /hi-h he relies# 2hen at last the -on%i-tion da/ns u(on hi0 that 'unda0entally all these are /ea. hu0an beings 5ust li.e hi0sel'& then he /ill see. guidan-e 'ro0 a higher (o/er& 'ro0 a di%ine Being& /ho0& ho/e%er& he endo/s /ith sense1(er-e(tible 7ualities# "e lets the -on-e(tual -ontent o' his 0oral li'e be di-tated to hi0 by this Being& again in a (er-e(tible /ay& 'or e!a0(le /hen God a((ears in the burning bush& or 0o%es a0ong 0en in bodily hu0an 'or0 and in a 0anner (er-e(tible to their ears tells the0 /hat to do and /hat not to do# The highest le%el o' de%elo(0ent o' nai%e realis0 in the 0oral s(here is rea-hed /hen the 0oral -o00and <0oral idea= has been se(arated 'ro0 e%ery 'oreign entity& and is hy(otheti-ally thought o' as an absolute 'or-e in one8s o/n inner being# 2hat at 'irst is sensed as the e!ternal %oi-e o' God& is no/ sensed as an inde(endent (o/er /ithin 0an& and is s(o.en o' in a /ay that sho/s the inner (o/er to be identi'ied /ith the %oi-e o' -ons-ien-e#

2hen this ha((ens& the le%el o' nai%e -ons-iousness has been abandoned and /e enter the region /here 0oral la/s be-o0e inde(endent rules# They no longer ha%e a bearer& but ha%e be-o0e 0eta(hysi-al entities& e!isting by the0sel%es# They are si0ilar to the in%isible1%isible 'or-es o' the 0eta(hysi-al realist /ho does not loo. 'or the reality o' things in the hu0an soul8s (arti-i(ation in this reality through thin.ing& but /ho hy(otheti-ally i0agines reality as an addition to a-tual e!(erien-e# E!tra1hu0an 0oral rules& there'ore& al/ays a--o0(any 0eta(hysi-al realis0# eta(hysi-al realis0 -annot do other/ise than see. the origin o' 0orality too in a s(here beyond hu0an rea-h# And here there are se%eral (ossibilities# I' the (resu((osed Being is thought o' as in itsel' unthin.ing& a-ting a--ording to (urely 0e-hani-al la/s& as 0aterialis0 thin.s o' it& then out o' itsel' it 0ust also (rodu-e& by (urely 0e-hani-al ne-essity& the hu0an indi%idual and all that belongs to hi0# The -ons-iousness o' 'reedo0 -an then be only an illusion# For /hile I belie%e 0ysel' to be the -reator o' 0y deeds& it is the 0aterial substan-es o' /hi-h I a0 -o0(osed& together /ith their (ro-esses& that are at /or. /ithin 0e# I belie%e 0ysel' to be 'ree& /hereas in reality all 0y a-tions are but results o' the 0aterial (ro-esses /hi-h are the 'oundation o' 0y bodily and s(iritual organis0# A--ording to this (oint o' %ie/& it is si0(ly be-ause /e do not .no/ the 0oti%es -o0(elling us& that /e ha%e the 'eeling o' 'reedo0# 92e 0ust e0(hasize that the 'eeling o' 'reedo0 is due to the absen-e o' e!ternal -o0(elling 0oti%es#; 9Our a-tions as /ell as our thin.ing are sub5e-t to ne-essity#;B* Another (ossibility is that the e!tra1hu0an absolute is seen as a s(iritual Being behind the /orld o' (heno0ena# Then the i0(ulse to a-tion /ill also be sought in su-h a s(iritual (o/er# The 0oral (rin-i(les to be 'ound in 0an8s reason /ill be regarded as issuing 'ro0 this Being1in1itsel'& /hi-h has its o/n (arti-ular intentions /ith regard to 0an# oral la/s a((ear to su-h a dualist as di-tated by the Absolute& and through his reason& 0an si0(ly has to dis-o%er and -arry out these de-isions o' the Absolute Being# The 0oral /orld1order a((ears to the dualist as the (er-e(tible re'le-tion o' a higher order that stands behind it# Earthly 0orality is the 0ani'estation o' the e!tra1hu0an /orld order# It is not 0an that 0atters in this 0oral order& but the Being1in1itsel'& the e!tra1 hu0an Being# an ought to do /hat this Being /ills# Eduard %on "art0ann& /ho sees the Being1in1itsel' as the Godhead /hose %ery e!isten-e is su''ering& belie%es that this di%ine Being has -reated the /orld in order that through the /orld he /ill be redee0ed 'ro0 his in'initely great (ain# This (hiloso(her there'ore regards the 0oral de%elo(0ent o' 0an.ind as a (ro-ess /hi-h e!ists 'or the (ur(ose o' redee0ing the Godhead# 9Only through the building u( o' a 0oral /orld1order by sensible& res(onsible indi%iduals -an the ai0 o' the /orld1(ro-ess be -arried through####; 9E!isten-e in its reality is the in-arnation o' the Godhead 1 the /orld (ro-ess is the :assion o' the God be-o0ing 'lesh& and at the sa0e ti0e the (ath o' rede0(tion o' "i0 /ho /as -ru-i'ied in the 'lesh3 and 0orality is the -o1o(eration in the shortening o' this (ath o' su''ering and rede0(tion#;DH "ere 0an does not a-t be-ause he /ills& but he ought to a-t be-ause it is God8s /ill to be redee0ed# Iust as the 0aterialisti- dualist 0a.es 0an into an auto0aton /hose -ondu-t is 0erely the result o' (urely 0e-hani-al la/s& so the s(iritualisti- dualist <that is& he /ho sees the Absolute& the Being1in1itsel'& as a s(iritual entity in /hi-h 0an has no -ons-ious

share= 0a.es hi0 into a sla%e o' the /ill o' the Absolute# Freedo0 is out o' the 7uestion in 0aterialis0 as /ell as in one1sided s(iritualis0& in 'a-t in any .ind o' 0eta(hysi-al realis0 /hi-h does not e!(erien-e& but in'ers so0ething e!tra1hu0an as the true reality# Nai%e as /ell as 0eta(hysi-al realis0& in order to be -onsistent& 0ust deny 'reedo0 'or one and the sa0e reason& sin-e they regard 0an as being si0(ly the agent or e!e-utor o' (rin-i(les /hi-h are 'or-ed u(on hi0 by ne-essity# Nai%e realis0 .ills 'reedo0 through sub5e-tion to the authority either o' a (er-e(tible being or o' an entity thought o' as si0ilar to a (er-e(tible being& or else through sub0ission to the authority o' the abstra-t inner %oi-e /hi-h is inter(reted as 9-ons-ien-e3; the 0eta(hysi-al realist& /ho 0erely in'ers so0ething e!tra1hu0an& -annot a-.no/ledge 'reedo0 be-ause he lets 0an be deter0ined& 0e-hani-ally or 0orally& by a 9Being1in1itsel'#; onis0 0ust a-.no/ledge the (artial 5usti'i-ation o' nai%e realis0 be-ause it a-.no/ledges the 5usti'i-ation o' the /orld o' (er-e(tions# So0eone /ho is in-a(able o' bringing 'orth 0oral ideas through intuition& /ill ha%e to re-ei%e the0 'ro0 others# Inso'ar as a 0an re-ei%es his 0oral (rin-i(les 'ro0 outside& he is (ositi%ely un'ree# But 0onis0 as-ribes e7ual signi'i-an-e to the idea -o0(ared /ith (er-e(tion# And the idea -an -o0e to 0ani'estation in the hu0an indi%idual# Inso'ar as 0an 'ollo/s the i0(ulses -o0ing 'ro0 this side& he 'eels 'ree# But 0onis0 denies all 5usti'i-ation to a 0eta(hysi-s /hi-h 0erely dra/s in'eren-es& and -onse7uently also to i0(ulses o' a-tion ste00ing 'ro0 a so1-alled 9Being1in1itsel'&; A--ording to the 0onisti- %ie/& 0an8s a-tion is un'ree /hen he obeys so0e (er-e(tible e!ternal -o0(ulsion3 it is 'ree /hen he obeys hi0sel'# onis0 -annot a-.no/ledge any .ind o' un-ons-ious -o0(ulsion hidden behind (er-e(tion and -on-e(t# 2hen so0eone 0aintains that a 'ello/ 0an /as not 'ree /hen he (er'or0ed an a-tion& it 0ust be (ossible to (ro%e the e!isten-e /ithin the (er-e(tible /orld o' the thing& the (erson& or the institution that 0ade the 0an a-t3 but i' an a((eal is 0ade to -auses 'or the a-tion lying outside the s(here o' (hysi-al and s(iritual reality& then 0onis0 -annot enter the dis-ussion# A--ording to 0onis0& in his a-ti%ity 0an is (artly un'ree& (artly 'ree# "e is un'ree in the /orld o' (er-e(tions& but brings the 'ree s(irit to realization in hi0sel'# The 0oral -o00ands /hi-h the 0eta(hysi-al realist 0erely in'ers and -annot but -onsider as issuing 'ro0 a higher (o/er& 'or the 0onist are thoughts o' 0en3 'or the 0onist the 0oral /orld order is neither a -o(y o' a (urely 0e-hani-al natural order& nor o' an e!tra1hu0an /orld order& but entirely a 'ree underta.ing o' 0an# an does not ha%e to -arry out the /ill o' so0e Being e!isting beyond his rea-h3 he -arries out his o/n /ill3 he does not bring to realization the de-isions and intentions o' another Being& but brings his o/n to realization# onis0 does not see the (ur(ose o' a 'oreign rulershi( behind 0an& deter0ining hi0 'ro0 outside& but rather that inso'ar as they bring intuiti%e ideas to realization& hu0an beings (ursue solely their o/n hu0an (ur(oses# And indeed& ea-h indi%idual (ursues his o/n (arti-ular (ur(ose# For the /orld o' ideas e!(resses itsel' not in a -o00unity o' 0en& but only in the indi%idual 0an# The -o00on goal o' a grou( o' 0en is nothing but the result o' the se(arate /ill1a-ti%ities o' the indi%idual (ersons& and usually o' a 'e/ outstanding ones /ho0 the rest 'ollo/ as their authorities# Ea-h one

o' us is destined to be-o0e a 'ree s(irit& 5ust as e%ery rose seed is destined to be-o0e a rose# The 0onisti- %ie/& in the s(here o' truly 0oral -ondu-t& is a (hiloso(hy o' 'reedo0# And as it is also a (hiloso(hy o' reality& it re5e-ts 0eta(hysi-al and unreal restri-tions o' 0an8s 'ree s(irit 5ust as it a-.no/ledges (hysi-al and histori-al <nai%ely real= restri-tions o' the nai%e 0an# Sin-e 0onis0 does not regard 0an as a 'inished (rodu-t& as a being /ho at e%ery 0o0ent o' his li'e un'olds his 'ull nature& it see0s 'utile to dis-uss /hether 0an& as su-h& is 'ree or not# an is seen as a being in the (ro-ess o' sel'1de%elo(0ent& and one 0ay as. /hether& in the -ourse o' this de%elo(0ent the stage o' the 'ree s(irit -an be attained# onis0 .no/s that nature does not release 0an 'ro0 its -are -o0(lete and 'inished as a 'ree s(irit& but it leads hi0 u( to a -ertain le%el 'ro0 /hi-h& still un'ree& he -ontinues to de%elo( until he rea-hes the (oint /here he 'inds his o/n sel'# To 0onis0 it is ob%ious that a being a-ting under (hysi-al or 0oral -o0(ulsion -annot be 0oral in a real sense# It regards the le%el o' transition through auto0ati- -ondu-t <a--ording to natural urges and instin-ts= and through obedient -ondu-t <a--ording to 0oral rules= as ne-essary (reli0inary stages o' 0orality& but it also re-ognizes the (ossibility 'or 0an to o%er-o0e both transitory le%els through his 'ree s(irit# A truly 0oral /orld %ie/ is released by 0onis0& both 'ro0 the 'etters o' nai%e 0oral (rin-i(les in 0an8s inner /orld& and 'ro0 the 0oral (rin-i(les o' the s(e-ulating 0eta(hysi-ist in the e!ternal /orld# The nai%e (rin-i(les o' 0orality -an be eli0inated 'ro0 the /orld as little as -an (er-e(tions# The 0eta(hysi-al %ie/ is re5e-ted be-ause 0onis0 see.s all the 'a-tors 'or e!(laining /orld1(heno0ena /ithin the /orld& and none outside it# Iust as 0onis0 'inds it unne-essary to entertain thoughts o' (rin-i(les o' .no/ledge other than those inherent in 0an& <(# )BH= so it also de'initely 'inds it unne-essary to entertain thoughts o' (rin-i(les o' 0orality other than those inherent in 0an# "u0an 0orality& li.e hu0an .no/ledge& is deter0ined through hu0an nature# And 5ust as .no/ledge /ould 0ean so0ething 7uite di''erent to beings other than 0an& so other beings /ould also ha%e a di''erent 0orality# orality 'or the 0onist is a s(e-i'i-ally hu0an 7uality& and 'reedo0 is the 'or0 in /hi-h hu0an 0orality 'inds e!(ression# First Addition to the Re%ised Edition& )*)?# Di''i-ulty in 5udging /hat is (resented in the t/o (re-eding -ha(ters 0ay arise be-ause one belie%es onesel' to be -on'ronted by a -ontradi-tion# On the one hand& the e!(erien-e o' thin.ing is s(o.en o' as ha%ing a general signi'i-an-e o' e7ual %alue 'or e%ery hu0an -ons-iousness3 on the other hand& it is sho/n that though the ideas realized in 0oral li'e are o' the sa0e .ind as those /or.ed out by thin.ing& they -o0e to e!(ression in ea-h hu0an -ons-iousness in an indi%idual /ay# I' one -annot o%er-o0e seeing a 9-ontradi-tion&; in this& and -annot re-ognize that it is 5ust in a li%ing e!(erien-e o' this a-tually (resent -ontrast that a gli0(se into 0an8s true being is re%ealed& then it is also i0(ossible to see either the idea o' .no/ledge or the idea o' 'reedo0 in their true light# For those /ho thin. o' -on-e(ts as 0erely dra/n <abstra-ted= 'ro0 the sense1/orld& and /ho do not gi%e 'ull re-ognition to intuitions& the thought (resented here as the reality 0ust see0 a 90ere -ontradi-tion#; For an insight

that re-ognizes ho/ ideas are intuiti%ely e!(erien-ed as a sel'1sustaining reality& it is -lear that in the s(here o' the /orld o' ideas 0an (enetrates in -ognition into so0ething /hi-h is uni%ersal 'or all 0en& but /hen he deri%es 'ro0 that sa0e idea /orld the intuitions 'or his a-ts o' /ill& then he indi%idualizes a 0e0ber o' this idea /orld by 0eans o' the sa0e a-ti%ity /hi-h& as a general hu0an one& he un'olds in the s(iritual ideal (ro-ess o' -ognition# For this reason /hat a((ears as a logi-al -ontradi-tion& na0ely the uni%ersal -hara-ter o' -ogniti%e ideas and the indi%idual -hara-ter o' 0oral ideas& /hen e!(erien-ed in its true reality& be-o0es a li%ing -on-e(t# A -hara-teristi- 'eature o' hu0an nature -onsists in the 'a-t that /hat -an be intuiti%ely gras(ed os-illates in 0an li.e a li%ing (endulu0 bet/een .no/ledge /hi-h is uni%ersally %alid& and the indi%idual e!(erien-e o' this uni%ersal ele0ent# For the 0an /ho -annot re-ognize one s/ing o' the (endulu0 in its reality& thin.ing /ill re0ain 0erely a sub5e-ti%e hu0an a-ti%ity3 'or the one /ho -annot re-ognize the other s/ing& all indi%idual li'e a((ears to -ease in 0an8s a-ti%ity o' thin.ing# To the 'irst (erson& -ognition is unintelligible& to the se-ond& 0oral li'e is unintelligible# Both /ill -all in all sorts o' re(resentations in order to e!(lain the one or the other& all o' /hi-h 0iss the (oint& be-ause both (ersons& 'unda0entally& either do not re-ognize that thin.ing -an be e!(erien-ed& or ta.e it to be an a-ti%ity /hi-h 0erely abstra-ts# Se-ond Addition to the Re%ised Edition& )*)?# On (age )?*& 0aterialis0 /as re'erred to# I a0 /ell a/are that there are thin.ers li.e the abo%e10entioned Th# Piehen& /ho do not in the least -onsider the0sel%es 0aterialists& but /ho 0ust ne%ertheless be des-ribed as su-h 'ro0 the (oint o' %ie/ e!(ressed in this boo.# It is not a 0atter that so0eone says that 'or hi0 the /orld is not restri-ted to 0erely 0aterial e!isten-e and there'ore he is not a 0aterialist# It is a 0atter o' /hether or not he de%elo(s -on-e(ts /hi-h are a((li-able only to a 0aterial e!isten-e# One /ho says4 9Our -ondu-t& li.e our thin.ing& is ne-essitated&; e!(resses a -on-e(t a((li-able only to 0aterial (ro-esses& but a((li-able neither to a-tions nor to e!isten-e3 and i' he thin.s his -on-e(ts through& he /ill ha%e to thin. 0aterialisti-ally# That he does not do this is only the out-o0e o' that in-onsisten-y /hi-h is so o'ten the result o' a thin.ing not -arried through# 1 One o'ten hears it said no/adays that the 0aterialis0 o' the nineteenth -entury no longer (lays a (art in s-ien-e# But in reality this is not so at all# It is only that at (resent it is o'ten not noti-ed that no other ideas are a%ailable than those /hi-h -an be a((lied only to so0ething 0aterial# This %eils (resent day 0aterialis0& /hereas in the se-ond hal' o' the nineteenth -entury it /as (lain 'or all to see# And (resent day %eiled 0aterialis0 is no less intolerant o' a %ie/ that gras(s the /orld s(iritually than /as the o(enly1ad0itted 0aterialis0 o' the last -entury# "o/e%er& it de-ei%es 0any /ho belie%e they 0ust re5e-t a -o0(rehension o' the /orld /hi-h in-ludes s(irit& be-ause a'ter all& the natural s-ienti'i- -o0(rehension o' the /orld 9has long ago abandoned 0aterialis0#;

WORLD PURPOSE AND LIFE PURPOSE (THE DESTINATION OF MAN) A0ong the 0any -urrents o' thought (ursued in the -ultural li'e o' 0an.ind& it is (ossible to tra-e one /hi-h -an be des-ribed as the o%er-o0ing o' the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose in those

s(heres to /hi-h it does not belong# :ur(ose belongs to a s(e-ial se7uen-e o' (heno0ena# In reality one -an only s(ea. o' (ur(ose /hen& in -ontrast to the relation bet/een -ause and e''e-t /here an earlier e%ent deter0ines a later one& the re%erse is the -ase and the later e%ent in'luen-es the earlier# This a((lies only to hu0an a-tion# an -arries out a deed /hi-h he re(resents to hi0sel' 'irst o' all& and he lets the re(resentation deter0ine his a-tion# The later& the deed& /ith the hel( o' the re(resentation in'luen-es the earlier& the (erson /ho a-ts# This detour through the a-t o' re(resenting is al/ays ne-essary 'or a -onne-tion to ha%e (ur(ose# In a (ro-ess /hi-h -an be di%ided into -ause and e''e-t& (er-e(tion 0ust be distinguished 'ro0 -on-e(t# The (er-e(tion o' the -ause (re-edes the (er-e(tion o' the e''e-t3 -ause and e''e-t /ould si0(ly re0ain side by side in our -ons-iousness i' /e /ere not able to -onne-t the0 /ith one another through their -orres(onding -on-e(ts# The (er-e(tion o' an e''e-t -an 'ollo/ only u(on the (er-e(tion o' the -ause# The e''e-t -an ha%e a real in'luen-e u(on the -ause only through the -on-e(tual 'a-tor# For the (er-e(tual 'a-tor o' the e''e-t is si0(ly not (resent (rior to the (er-e(tual 'a-tor o' the -ause# I' so0eone says that the blosso0 is the (ur(ose o' the root& that is& that the blosso0 in'luen-es the root& then he -an say this only -on-erning that 'a-tor in the blosso0 /hi-h he -on'ir0s in it through his thin.ing# The (er-e(tual 'a-tor o' the blosso0 had as yet no e!isten-e at the ti0e the root -a0e into being# For a -onne-tion o' things to ha%e (ur(ose it is ne-essary to ha%e not 0erely an ideal -onne-tion <the la/ in it= o' the later /ith the earlier& but also the -on-e(t <the la/= o' the e''e-t 0ust really& i#e# by 0eans o' a (er-e(tible (ro-ess& in'luen-e the -ause# "o/e%er& a (er-e(tible in'luen-e o' a -on-e(t u(on so0ething else is to be obser%ed only in hu0an a-tions# This is there'ore the only s(here in /hi-h the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose is a((li-able# Nai%e -ons-iousness& /hi-h regards as real only /hat is (er-e(tible& atte0(ts 1 as /e said be'ore 1 to (la-e so0ething (er-e(tible /here only ideal 'a-tors are to be re-ognized# In (er-e(tible e%ents it also loo.s 'or (er-e(tible -onne-tions& or& i' it does not 'ind the0& i0agines the0 to be there# The -on-e(t o' (ur(ose& %alid 'or sub5e-ti%e a-tions& is an ele0ent that easily lends itsel' to su-h i0aginary -onne-tions# The nai%e 0an .no/s ho/ he brings about an e%ent& and 'ro0 this he -on-ludes that nature 0ust do li.e/ise# In the (urely ideal -onne-tions o' nature he sees not only i0(er-e(tible 'or-es but also i0(er-e(tible real (ur(oses# an 0a.es his tools to 'it a (ur(ose3 on the sa0e (attern& the nai%e realist lets the $reator build u( all organis0s# Only %ery gradually does this 0ista.en -on-e(t o' (ur(ose disa((ear 'ro0 the s-ien-es# In (hiloso(hy& e%en today& it still does a great deal o' 0is-hie'# The (ur(ose o' the /orld is thought to e!ist outside the /orld& and 0an8s destination <there'ore also his (ur(ose= outside 0an& and so on# onis0 re5e-ts the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose in e%ery s(here& /ith the sole e!-e(tion o' hu0an a-tion# It loo.s 'or la/s o' nature& but not 'or (ur(oses o' nature# :ur(oses o' nature are arbitrary assu0(tions& 5ust li.e the i0(er-e(tible 'or-es <(# ),?=# And 'ro0 the stand(oint o' 0onis0& li'e (ur(oses that 0an does not set hi0sel' are un5usti'iable assu0(tions# Only that is (ur(ose'ul /hi-h 0an has 'irst 0ade so& 'or only through the realization o' an idea does a (ur(ose arise# And ideas are e''e-ti%e in a realisti- sense in 0an alone# There'ore hu0an li'e has only the (ur(ose and the destination that the hu0an being gi%es it# To the 7uestion4 2hat is 0an8s tas. in li'e6 0onis0 -an only ans/er4 The tas. he sets

hi0sel'# y 0ission in the /orld is not (redeter0ined& but at e%ery 0o0ent is the one I -hoose# I do not begin li'e along a 'i!ed route# Only by hu0an beings are ideas realized a--ording to (ur(ose# It is there'ore inad0issible to s(ea. o' the e0bodi0ent o' ideas through history# All su-h (hrases as4 9"istory is the de%elo(0ent o' 0an.ind to/ard 'reedo0&; or the realization o' the 0oral /orld order& and so on& are untenable 'ro0 the 0onisti- (oint o' %ie/# The adherents o' the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose belie%e that by abandoning it they /ould also ha%e to abandon all order and uni'or0ity in the /orld# Listen& 'or e!a0(le& to Robert "a0erling4DHa 9As long as there are instin-ts in nature& it is 'oolish to deny (ur(oses in it# Iust as the stru-ture o' a li0b o' the hu0an body is not deter0ined and -onditioned by an idea o' this li0b& 'loating in the air& but by the -onne-tion /ith the greater totality& the body& to /hi-h the li0b belongs& so the stru-ture o' e%ery being in nature& be it (lant& ani0al& or 0an& is not deter0ined and -onditioned by an idea o' it 'loating in the air& but by the 'or0ati%e (rin-i(le o' the great totality o' nature /hi-h e!(resses and organizes itsel' a--ording to a (ur(ose#; And on (age )*) o' the sa0e %olu0e4 9The theory o' (ur(ose 0aintains only that in s(ite o' the thousand dis-o0'orts and 0iseries o' the li'e o' -reatures& lo'ty (ur(ose and (lan are un0ista.ably (resent in the 'or0ations and in the de%elo(0ent o' nature# 1 A (ur(ose and a (lan& ho/e%er& that -o0e to realization only /ithin the bounds o' natural la/s& and -annot ai0 at a Uto(ia in /hi-h li'e is not -on'ronted by death& gro/th by de-ay& /ith all the 0ore or less un(leasant& but 7uite una%oidable inter0ediary stages bet/een the0# 2hen the o((onents o' the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose bring a laboriously1-olle-ted rubbish1hea( o' (artial or -o0(lete& i0aginary or real e!a0(les sho/ing la-. o' (ur(ose& against a /orld 'ull o' /onders o' (ur(ose su-h as nature sho/s in all its real0s& then I 'ind it 5ust as droll#; 1 2hat is it that here is -alled (ur(ose6 A -on-ordan-e o' (er-e(tions that 'or0 a totality# But sin-e all (er-e(tions are based on la/s <ideas= /hi-h /e dis-o%er by 0eans o' our thin.ing& it 'ollo/s that the (lanned -on-ord bet/een single (arts o' a (er-e(tual totality is 5ust the ideal -on-ord bet/een the single (arts o' the idea totality -ontained in the (er-e(tual totality# 2hen it is said that an ani0al or a 0an is not deter0ined by an idea 'loating in the air& then this is a 0isleading /ay o' (utting it& and the -onde0ned %ie/ -eases to be absurd /hen rightly 'or0ulated# $ertainly an ani0al is not deter0ined by an idea 'loating in the air& but indeed is deter0ined by an idea inborn in it and -onstituting the la/ o' its nature# It is 5ust be-ause the idea is not outside o' the ob5e-t& but is e''e-ti%e in it as its nature& that one -annot s(ea. o' (ur(ose# Iust those /ho deny that the beings o' nature are deter0ined 'ro0 outside </hether by an idea 'loating in the air or e!isting

outside the -reature in the 0ind o' a /orld $reator& is i00aterial in this -onte!t= should ad0it that these beings are not deter0ined by (ur(ose and (lan 'ro0 outside& but by -ause and la/ 'ro0 /ithin# I -onstru-t a 0a-hine a--ording to a (ur(ose /hen I bring its (arts in -onne-tion /ith one another in a /ay that they did not a-7uire 'ro0 nature# The (ur(ose -ontained in the arrange0ent -onsists in the 'a-t that I ha%e (la-ed the idea o' the /or.ing o' the 0a-hine into its 'oundation# The 0a-hine thereby be-o0es a (er-e(tual ob5e-t /ith a -orres(onding idea# The beings o' nature are also entities o' this .ind# One /ho says that so0ething -ontains (ur(ose be-ause it is built a--ording to la/s -an use the sa0e des-ri(tion 'or the beings o' nature& i' he li.es# "o/e%er& the la/s at /or. in nature 0ust not be -on'used /ith the (ur(oses in sub5e-ti%e hu0an a-tion# For a (ur(ose to be (resent& it is al/ays ne-essary that the e''e-ti%e -ause is a -on-e(t& and indeed it 0ust be the -on-e(t o' the e''e-t# But no/here in nature are -on-e(ts in e%iden-e as -auses3 -on-e(ts al/ays a((ear only as the ideal -onne-tion bet/een -ause and e''e-t# $auses are (resent in nature only in the 'or0 o' (er-e(tions# Dualis0 s(ea.s o' /orld (ur(ose and nature (ur(ose# 2here& 'or (er-e(tion& a lin. -an be seen bet/een -ause and e''e-t a--ording to la/& there the dualist assu0es that one sees only the -o(y o' a -onne-tion in /hi-h the absolute Being has realized its (ur(oses# For 0onis0& along /ith the absolute Being that -annot be e!(erien-ed and is only in'erred& the reason 'or assu0ing any /orld (ur(ose also 'alls a/ay# Addition to the Re%ised Jersion& )*)?# No one /ho thin.s through /ithout (re5udi-e /hat is (resented here& -ould -o0e to the -on-lusion that the author re5e-ts the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose 'or all 'a-ts not (rodu-ed by 0an& be-ause his %ie/ is si0ilar to that o' those thin.ers /ho& by re5e-ting this -on-e(t& -reate the (ossibility o' (resenting& 'irst& e%erything e!-e(t hu0an a-tion 1 and then hu0an a-tion too 1 as being only a natural (ro-ess# The 'a-t that thin.ing is (resented here as a (urely s(iritual (ro-ess should be a (rote-tion against su-h 0isunderstanding# The reason 'or here re5e-ting the -on-e(t o' (ur(ose 'or the s(iritual /orld also& inso'ar as it lies outside hu0an a-tion& is be-ause in that /orld so0ething higher is re%ealed than (ur(ose realized in hu0an li'e# And /hen the (ur(ose o' 0an.ind8s destination& thought o' on the (attern o' hu0an (ur(ose& is re'erred to here as a 0ista.en -on-e(t& it is 0eant that the indi%idual hu0an beings set the0sel%es (ur(oses& and the result o' these is the total a-ti%ity o' 0an.ind# This result is then so0ething higher than its (arts& the single hu0an (ur(oses#

MORAL IMAGINATION (DARWINISM AND MORALITY) A 'ree s(irit a-ts a--ording to his i0(ulses3 these are intuitions -hosen by 0eans o' thin.ing 'ro0 the totality o' his /orld o' ideas# The reason an un'ree s(irit singles out a (arti-ular intuition 'ro0 his idea /orld in order to use it as a basis 'or a deed& lies in the /orld o' (er-e(tion gi%en to hi0& i#e#& in his (ast e!(erien-e# Be'ore 0a.ing a de-ision he re-alls /hat so0eone else has done or re-o00ended as suitable in a si0ilar instan-e& or /hat God has -o00anded to be done in su-h a -ase and so on& and he a-ts a--ordingly# For a 'ree s(irit these (re-onditions are not the only i0(ulses to a-tion# "e 0a.es an

absolutely original de-ision# In doing so he /orries neither about /hat others ha%e done in su-h an instan-e& nor /hat -o00ands they ha%e laid do/n# "e has (urely ideal reasons /hi-h 0o%e hi0 to single out 'ro0 the su0 o' his -on-e(ts a (arti-ular one and to trans'or0 it into a-tion# But his a-tion /ill belong to (er-e(tible reality# 2hat he brings about /ill there'ore be identi-al /ith a 7uite de'inite (er-e(tual -ontent# The -on-e(t /ill be realized in a (arti-ular -on-rete e%ent# As -on-e(t& it /ill not -ontain this (arti-ular e%ent# It /ould be related to the e%ent only in the sa0e /ay as a -on-e(t in general is related to a (er-e(tion& 'or e!a0(le& as the -on-e(t& lion is related to a (arti-ular lion# The lin. bet/een -on-e(t and (er-e(tion is the re(resentation <-(# (# )+B& '#=# For the un'ree s(irit this inter0ediate lin. is gi%en 'ro0 the outset# At the outset the 0oti%es are (resent in his -ons-iousness as re(resentations# 2hen he /ants to do so0ething he does it as he has seen it done or as he is told to do it in the (arti-ular instan-e# "ere authority is 0ost e''e-ti%e by /ay o' e!a0(les& that is& by -on%eying 7uite de'inite (arti-ular a-tions to the -ons-iousness o' the un'ree s(irit# The $hristian& as un'ree s(irit& a-ts less on the tea-hing than on the e!a0(le o' the Redee0er# Rules ha%e less %alue /hen they re'er to (ositi%e deeds than /hen they re'er to /hat should not be done# La/s a((ear in the 'or0 o' general -on-e(ts only /hen they 'orbid so0ething& not /hen they bid things to be done# La/s -on-erning /hat he should do 0ust be gi%en to the un'ree s(irit in a 7uite -on-rete 'or04 $lean the /al. in 'ront o' your doorE :ay your ta!es in su-h and su-h an a0ount to the Treasury De(art0ent& et-# La/s /hi-h are 0eant to (re%ent deeds ta.e on -on-e(tual 'or04 Thou shalt not stealE Thou shalt not -o00it adulteryE But these la/s also in'luen-e the un'ree s(irit only through re'eren-e to a -on-rete re(resentation su-h as that o' the -orres(onding earthly (unish0ent& the (angs o' -ons-ien-e& eternal da0nation& and so on# As soon as the i0(ulse to a-tion is (resent in general -on-e(tual 'or0 <'or e!a0(le4 Thou shalt do good to thy 'ello/ 0enE Thou shalt li%e in a /ay that best 'urthers thy /el'areE=& then in ea-h -ase 0ust be 'ound 'irst o' all the -on-rete re(resentation o' the deed <the relation o' the -on-e(t to a (er-e(tual -ontent=# For the 'ree s(irit& /ho is dri%en neither by any e!a0(le nor by 'ear o' (unish0ent& et-#& it is al/ays ne-essary to trans'or0 the -on-e(t into a re(resentation# By 0eans o' i0agination re(resentations are (rodu-ed by 0an out o' his /orld o' ideas# There'ore /hat the 'ree s(irit needs in order to -arry out his ideas& in order to bring the0 to 'ruition& is 0oral i0agination# oral i0agination is the sour-e 'ro0 /hi-h the 'ree s(irit a-ts# "en-e& only (eo(le /ith 0oral i0agination are also 0orally (rodu-ti%e in the real sense o' the /ord# Those /ho 0erely (rea-h 0orality& that is& (eo(le /ho de%ise 0oral rules /ithout being able to -ondense the0 into -on-rete re(resentations& are 0orally un(rodu-ti%e# They are li.e those -riti-s /ho .no/ ho/ to e!(lain rationally /hat a /or. o' art should be li.e& but are in-a(able o' any artisti- -reation the0sel%es# In order to (rodu-e a re(resentation& 0an8s 0oral i0agination 0ust set to /or. in a de'inite s(here o' (er-e(tion# en8s deeds do not -reate (er-e(tions& but trans'or0 already e!isting (er-e(tions& that is& i0(art a ne/ 'or0 to the0# In order to be able to trans'or0 a de'inite (er-e(tual ob5e-t& or a su0 o' su-h ob5e-ts& in a--ordan-e /ith a 0oral re(resentation& one 0ust ha%e gras(ed the la/s at /or. in the (er-e(tual (i-ture

<the /ay it has /or.ed hitherto& to /hi-h one no/ /ants to gi%e a ne/ 'or0 or a ne/ dire-tion=# Further& one 0ust 'ind a /ay by /hi-h these la/s -an be trans'or0ed into ne/ ones# This (art o' 0oral a-ti%ity de(ends on a .no/ledge o' the s(here o' (heno0ena /ith /hi-h one has to do# It 0ust there'ore be sought in a bran-h o' general s-ienti'i.no/ledge# "en-e 0oral deeds (resu((ose not only the 'a-ulty o' 0oral ideation as /ell as 0oral i0agination& but also the ability to trans'or0 the s(here o' (er-e(tions /ithout brea.ing the la/s o' their natural -onne-tion# L'ootnote4 Only su(er'i-iality -ould 'ind in the use o' the /ord 9'a-ulty; in this and other (assages& a re%ersion to the tea-hings o' older (sy-hology -on-erning soul 'a-ulties# The e!a-t 0eaning o' this /ord& as used here& /ill be seen /hen -o0(ared /ith /hat is said on ((# )),1))B#M This ability is 0oral te-hni7ue# It -an be learned in the sense in /hi-h s-ien-e in general -an be learned# Be-ause (eo(le usually are better able to 'ind the -on-e(ts 'or the already -reated /orld than (rodu-ti%ely out o' i0agination to de-ide 'uture deeds& not yet in e!isten-e& it %ery /ell 0ay be (ossible that (ersons /ithout 0oral i0agination re-ei%e 0oral re(resentations 'ro0 others& and s.ill'ully i0(rint these into a-tual reality# The o((osite 0ay also o--ur4 that (ersons /ith 0oral i0agination are /ithout the te-hni-al s.ill& and there'ore 0ust 0a.e use o' others 'or -arrying out their re(resentations# Inso'ar as .no/ledge o' the ob5e-ts in the s(here o' our a-ti%ity is ne-essary& our a-tion /ill de(end u(on this .no/ledge# 2hat 0ust be -onsidered here are la/s o' nature# "ere /e ha%e to do /ith natural s-ien-e& not /ith ethi-s# oral i0agination and the 'a-ulty o' 0oral ideation -an be-o0e ob5e-ts o' .no/ledge only a'ter they ha%e been (rodu-ed by the indi%idual# By then they no longer regulate li'e& but ha%e already regulated it# They 0ust be e!(lained in the sa0e /ay as all other e''e-ti%e -auses <they are (ur(oses only 'or the sub5e-t=# 2e there'ore deal /ith the0 as /ith a natural (hiloso(hy o' 0oral re(resentations# In addition to the abo%e& one -annot ha%e ethi-s in the 'or0 o' a s-ien-e o' standards# The standardized -hara-ter o' 0oral la/s has been retained at least inso'ar as to enable one to e!(lain ethi-s in the sa0e sense as dieteti-s& /hi-h dedu-e general rules 'ro0 the li'e1-ondition o' the organis0 in order that on this basis they -an in'luen-e the body in a (arti-ular /ay#D) This -o0(arison is 0ista.en& be-ause our 0oral li'e is not -o0(arable /ith the li'e o' the organis0# The 'un-tion o' the organis0 ta.es (la-e /ithout our doing anything about it3 /e 'ind its la/s (resent& ready10ade& and there'ore -an in%estigate the0 and then a((ly /hat /e dis-o%er# But 0oral la/s are 'irst -reated by us# 2e -annot a((ly the0 until they ha%e been -reated# The 0ista.e arises through the 'a-t that 0oral la/s& inso'ar as their -ontent is -on-erned& are not ne/ly -reated at e%ery 0o0ent& but are handed o%er# Those that /e ta.e o%er 'ro0 our an-estors a((ear as gi%en& li.e the natural la/s o' the organis0# But they -an ne%er be a((lied by a later generation /ith the sa0e rights as -an dieteti- rules# For they a((ly to indi%iduals and not& li.e natural la/s& to e!a0(les o' a s(e-ies# As an organis0 I a0 su-h an e!a0(le o' a s(e-ies& and I shall li%e in a--ordan-e /ith nature i' I a((ly the natural la/s o' the s(e-ies to 0y (arti-ular -ase# As a 0oral being I a0 an indi%idual and ha%e la/s /hi-h are /holly 0y o/n#D)a

This %ie/ see0s to -ontradi-t the 'unda0ental tea-hing o' 0odern natural s-ien-e des-ribed as the theory o' e%olution# But it only see0s to do so# By e%olution is 0eant the real de%elo(0ent o' the later out o' the earlier in a--ordan-e /ith natural la/# By e%olution in the organi- /orld is 0eant that the later <0ore (er'e-t= organi- 'or0s are real des-endents o' the earlier <i0(er'e-t= 'or0s& and ha%e de%elo(ed 'ro0 the0 in a--ordan-e /ith natural la/s# A--ording to his %ie/& the adherent o' the theory o' organi- e%olution /ould ha%e to re(resent to hi0sel' that there /as on-e a ti0e on earth /hen it /ould ha%e been (ossible to /at-h the gradual de%elo(0ent o' re(tiles out o' (roto1a0niotes&D+ i' one -ould ha%e been (resent there as obser%er and had been endo/ed /ith a su''i-iently long s(an o' li'e# "e also /ould ha%e to re(resent to hi0sel' that it /ould ha%e been (ossible to obser%e the de%elo(0ent o' the solar syste0 out o' the Cant1La(la-e (ri0erdial nebulaD, i'& during that in'initely long ti0e& one -ould ha%e o--u(ied a suitable s(ot out in the /orld1ether# The 'a-t that in su-h a re(resentation& both the nature o' (rotoa0niotes and that o' the Cant1La(la-e (ri0ordial nebula /ould ha%e to be thought o' in a /ay other than that o' the 0aterialisti- thin.er& /ill not be -onsidered here# But it should not o--ur to any e%olutionist to 0aintain that he -an e!tra-t 'ro0 his -on-e(t o' the (roto1a0niote the -on-e(t o' the re(tile /ith all its -hara-teristi-s& i' he had ne%er seen a re(tile# And 5ust as little -ould one e!tra-t the solar syste0 'ro0 the Cant1La(la-e (ri0ordial nebula& i' this -on-e(t is thought o' as being deter0ined only 'ro0 the dire-t (er-e(tion o' the (ri0ordial nebula# In other /ords& this 0eans4 i' the e%olutionist thin.s -onsistently& then he is able to 0aintain only that out o' earlier (hases o' e%olution later ones -o0e about as real 'a-ts& that i' /e are gi%en the -on-e(t o' the i0(er'e-t and the -on-e(t o' the (er'e-t& /e -an re-ognize the -onne-tion3 but ne%er should he say that the -on-e(t deri%ed 'ro0 /hat /as earlier su''i-es to de%elo( 'ro0 it /hat -a0e later# In the s(here o' ethi-s this 0eans that one -an re-ognize the -onne-tion o' later 0oral -on-e(ts /ith earlier ones& but not that as 0u-h as a single ne/ 0oral idea -ould be e!tra-ted 'ro0 earlier ones# As a 0oral being& the indi%idual (rodu-es his o/n -ontent# This -ontent /hi-h he (rodu-es is 'or ethi-s so0ething gi%en& 5ust as re(tiles are so0ething gi%en 'or natural s-ien-e# Re(tiles ha%e e%ol%ed out o' (roto1a0niotes& but 'ro0 the -on-e(t o' the (rotoa0niote the natural s-ientist -annot e!tra-t the -on-e(t o' the re(tile# Later 0oral ideas de%elo( out o' earlier ones& but 'ro0 the 0oral -on-e(ts o' an earlier -ultural e(o-h ethi-s -annot e!tra-t those 'or a later one# The -on'usion arises be-ause /hen /e in%estigate nature the 'a-ts are there be'ore /e gain .no/ledge o' the0& /hereas in the -ase o' 0oral a-tion /e oursel%es 'irst (rodu-e the 'a-ts /hi-h /e a'ter/ards -ognize# In the e%olutionary (ro-ess o' the 0oral /orld order /e do /hat nature does at a lo/er le%el4 /e alter so0ething (er-e(tible# As /e ha%e seen& an ethi-al rule -annot be -ognized straight a/ay li.e a la/ o' nature3 it 0ust 'irst be -reated# Only /hen it is (resent -an it be-o0e the ob5e-t o' -ognition# But -an /e not 0a.e the old the standard 'or the ne/6 Is it not ne-essary 'or 0an to 0easure by the standard o' earlier 0oral rules /hat he (rodu-es through his 0oral i0agination6 For so0ething that is to re%eal itsel' as 0orally (rodu-ti%e& this /ould be as i0(ossible as it /ould be to 0easure a ne/ s(e-ies in nature by an old one and say& Be-ause re(tiles do not har0onize /ith the (rotoa0niotes& their 'or0 is un5usti'ied <diseased=#

Ethi-al indi%idualis0 then& is not in o((osition to an e%olutionary theory i' rightly understood& but is a dire-t -ontinuation o' it# It 0ust be (ossible to -ontinue "ae-.el8s genealogi-al tree&DB 'ro0 (rotozoa to 0an as organi- being& /ithout interru(tion o' the natural se7uen-e& and /ithout a brea-h in the uni'or0 de%elo(0ent& right u( to the indi%idual as a 0oral being in a de'inite sense# But ne%er /ill it be (ossible to dedu-e the nature o' a later s(e-ies 'ro0 the nature o' an an-estral s(e-ies# True as it is that the 0oral ideas o' the indi%idual ha%e (er-e(tibly e%ol%ed out o' those o' his an-estors& it is also true that an indi%idual is 0orally barren i' he hi0sel' has no 0oral ideas# The sa0e ethi-al indi%idualis0 that I ha%e built u( on the 'oundation o' the (re-eding -onsideration& -ould also be deri%ed 'ro0 an e%olutionary theory# The 'inal result /ould be the sa0e& only the (ath by /hi-h it /as rea-hed /ould be di''erent# The a((earan-e o' -o0(letely ne/ 0oral ideas through 0oral i0agination is& in relation to an e%olutionary theory& no 0ore o' a 0ar%el than is the a((earan-e o' a ne/ .ind o' ani0al 'ro0 (re%ious ones# Only su-h a theory 0ust& as 0onisti- /orld %ie/& re5e-t in 0oral li'e and also in s-ien-e& e%ery in'luen-e 'ro0 a Beyond <0eta(hysi-al= /hi-h is 0erely in'erred and -annot be e!(erien-ed by 0eans o' ideas# This a((roa-h /ould then be 'ollo/ing the sa0e (rin-i(le /hi-h urges 0an on /hen he see.s to dis-o%er the -auses 'or ne/ organi- 'or0s and in doing so does not -all u(on any inter'eren-e by so0e Being 'ro0 outside the /orld& /ho is to -all 'orth e%ery ne/ .ind a--ording to a thought o' a ne/ -reation& by 0eans o' su(ernatural in'luen-e# Iust as 0onis0 has no need o' su(ernatural thoughts o' -reation 'or e!(laining li%ing organis0s& neither does it deri%e the 0orality o' the /orld 'ro0 -auses /hi-h do not lie /ithin the /orld /e -an e!(erien-e# The 0onist does not 'ind that the nature o' a /ill i0(ulse& as a 0oral one& is e!hausted by being tra-ed ba-. to a -ontinuous su(ernatural in'luen-e u(on 0oral li'e <di%ine /orld rulershi( 'ro0 outside=& to a (arti-ular re%elation at a (arti-ular 0o0ent in ti0e <gi%ing o' the Ten $o00and0ents=& or to the a((earan-e o' God on the earth <$hrist=# E%erything that ha((ens to and in 0an through all this be-o0es a 0oral ele0ent only i' /ithin hu0an e!(erien-e it be-o0es an indi%idual8s o/n# For 0onis0& 0oral (ro-esses are (rodu-ts o' the /orld li.e e%erything else in e!isten-e& and their -auses 0ust be sought in the /orld& i#e#& in 0an& sin-e 0an is the bearer o' 0orality# Ethi-al indi%idualis0& there'ore& is the -ro/ning o' that edi'i-e to /hi-h Dar/inDD and "ae-.el as(ired 'or natural s-ien-e# It is s(iritualized s-ien-e o' e%olution -arried o%er into 0oral li'e# 2hoe%er 'ro0 the outset restri-ts the -on-e(t natural /ithin an arbitrary boundary& in a narro/10inded 0anner& 0ay easily 'ail to 'ind any roo0 in it 'or the 'ree indi%idual deed# The -onsistent e%olutionist is in no danger o' re0aining at su-h a narro/10inded %ie/# "e -annot let natural de%elo(0ent -o0e to an end /ith the a(e& /hile granting to 0an a 9su(ernatural; origin3 in his sear-h 'or 0an8s an-estors he 0ust see. s(irit already in nature3 also& he -annot re0ain at the organi- 'un-tions o' 0an and -onsider only these to be natural3 he -annot but -onsider the 'ree& 0oral li'e o' 0an to be the s(iritual -ontinuation o' organi- li'e#

In a--ordan-e /ith his 'unda0ental (rin-i(les the e%olutionist -an 0aintain only that a ne/ 0oral deed -o0es about through a .ind o' (ro-ess other than a ne/ s(e-ies in nature3 the -hara-teristi- 'eature o' the deed& that is& its de'inition as a 'ree deed& he 0ust lea%e to dire-t obser%ation o' the deed# So& too& he only 0aintains that 0en ha%e de%elo(ed out o' not yet hu0an an-estors# "o/ 0en are -onstituted 0ust be deter0ined by obser%ation o' 0en the0sel%es# The results o' this obser%ation -annot (ossibly -ontradi-t a true history o' e%olution# Only i' it /ere asserted that the results e!-lude a natural de%elo(0ent /ould it -ontradi-t re-ent tenden-ies in natural s-ien-e# L'ootnote4 2e are entitled to s(ea. o' thoughts <ethi-al ideas= as ob5e-ts o' obser%ation# For& although the (rodu-ts o' thin.ing do not enter the 'ield o' obser%ation& so long as thin.ing goes on& they 0ay /ell be-o0e ob5e-ts o' obser%ation subse7uently& and in this /ay /e -an -o0e to .no/ the -hara-teristi- 'eature o' the deed#M Ethi-al indi%idualis0& then& -annot be o((osed by natural s-ien-e /hen the latter is (ro(erly understood3 obser%ation sho/s 'reedo0 to be -hara-teristi- o' the (er'e-t 'or0 o' hu0an -ondu-t# This 'reedo0 0ust be attributed to the hu0an /ill& inso'ar as this /ill brings (urely ideal intuitions to realization# For these do not -o0e about through e!ternal ne-essity& but e!ist through the0sel%es# 2hen /e re-ognize an a-tion to be an i0age o' su-h an ideal intuition& /e 'eel it to be 'ree# In this -hara-teristi- 'eature o' a deed lies its 'reedo0# Fro0 this (oint o' %ie/& ho/ do 0atters stand /ith regard to the distin-tion& 0entioned earlier <(# B) '#= bet/een the t/o state0ents4 9To be 'ree 0eans to be able to do /hat one /ants&; and the other4 9To be able& to desire or not to desire& as one (leases& is the real 0eaning o' the dog0a o' 'ree /ill;6 "a0erling bases his %ie/ o' 'ree /ill on 5ust this distin-tion and de-lares the 'irst state0ent to be -orre-t& the se-ond to be an absurd tautology# "e says4 9I -an do /hat I /ant# But to say& I -an /ill /hat I /ant& is an e0(ty tautology#; No/ /hether I -an do& that is& trans'or0 into reality /hat I /ant& /hat I ha%e set be'ore 0e as the idea o' 0y doing& de(ends on e!ternal -ir-u0stan-es and on 0y te-hni-al s.ill <-(# (# +H?=# To be 'ree 0eans to be able to deter0ine 'or onesel' by 0oral i0agination the re(resentations <i0(ulses= on /hi-h the a-tion is based# Freedo0 is i0(ossible i' so0ething e!ternal to 0e <0e-hani-al (ro-esses or a 0erely in'erred God /hose e!isten-e -annot be e!(erien-ed= deter0ines 0y 0oral re(resentations# In other /ords& I a0 'ree only i' I (rodu-e these re(resentations 0ysel'& not /hen I a0 only able to -arry out the i0(ulse /hi-h so0eone else has indu-ed in 0e# A 'ree being is so0eone /ho is able to /ill /hat he -onsiders right# One /ho does so0ething other than /hat he /ills& 0ust be dri%en to it by 0oti%es /hi-h do not lie /ithin hi0sel'# Su-h a 0an is un'ree in his a-tion# There'ore& to be able to /ill /hat one -onsiders right or not right& as one (leases& 0eans to be 'ree or un'ree& as one (leases# This& o' -ourse& is 5ust as absurd as it is to see 'reedo0 in the ability to be able to do /hat one is 'or-ed to /ill# But the latter is /hat "a0erling 0aintains /hen he says4 9It is (er'e-tly true that the /ill is al/ays deter0ined by 0oti%es& but it is absurd to say that it is there'ore un'ree3 'or a greater 'reedo0 one -an neither /ish 'or nor i0agine than the 'reedo0 to let one8s /ill realize itsel' in a--ordan-e /ith its strength and deter0ination#;

Indeed& a greater 'reedo0 -an be /ished 'or& and only this greater is true 'reedo0# Na0ely4 to de-ide 'or onesel' the 0oti%e <'oundation= o' one8s /ill# There -an be -ir-u0stan-es under /hi-h a 0an 0ay be indu-ed to re'rain 'ro0 doing /hat he /ants to do# But to let others (res-ribe to hi0 /hat he ought to do& that is& to do /hat another& and not /hat he hi0sel' -onsiders right& this he /ill a--e(t only inso'ar as he does not 'eel 'ree# E!ternal (o/ers 0ay (re%ent 0y doing /hat I /ant3 they then si0(ly 'or-e 0e to be ina-ti%e or to be un'ree# It is only /hen they ensla%e 0y s(irit& dri%e 0y 0oti%es out o' 0y head and /ant to (ut theirs in the (la-e o' 0ine& that they intentionally ai0 at 0a.ing 0e un'ree# This is /hy the $hur-h is not only against the 0ere doing& but 0ore (arti-ularly against i0(ure thoughts& that is& against the i0(ulses o' 0y a-tion# The $hur-h 0a.es 0e un'ree i' it -onsiders i0(ure all i0(ulses it has not itsel' indi-ated# A $hur-h or other -o00unity -auses un'reedo0 /hen its (riests or tea-hers ta.e on the role o' .ee(ers o' -ons-ien-e& that is& /hen the belie%ers 0ust re-ei%e 'ro0 the0 <at the $on'essional= the i0(ulses 'or their a-tions# Addition to Re%ised Edition& )*)?# In this inter(retation o' the hu0an /ill is (resented /hat 0an -an e!(erien-e in his a-tions and& through this& -o0e to the -ons-ious e!(erien-e4 y /ill is 'ree# It is o' (arti-ular signi'i-an-e that the right to -hara-terize the /ill as 'ree is attained through the e!(erien-e4 In 0y /ill an ideal intuition -o0es to realization# This e!(erien-e -an only -o0e about as a result o' obser%ation& but it is obser%ation in the sense that the hu0an /ill is obser%ed /ithin a strea0 o' e%olution& the ai0 o' /hi-h is to attain 'or the /ill the (ossibility o' being -arried by (ure ideal intuition# This -an be attained be-ause in ideal intuition nothing is a-ti%e but its o/n sel'1 sustaining essen-e# I' su-h an intuition is (resent in hu0an -ons-iousness& then it is not de%elo(ed out o' the (ro-esses o' the organis0 <-(# (# )@) ''#=& but the organi- a-ti%ity has /ithdra/n to 0a.e roo0 'or the ideal a-ti%ity# I' I obser%e /ill /hen it is an i0age o' intuition& then 'ro0 this /ill the ne-essary organi- a-ti%ity has /ithdra/n# The /ill is 'ree# This 'reedo0 o' /ill no one -an obser%e /ho is unable to obser%e ho/ 'ree /ill -onsists in the 'a-t that& 'irst& through the intuiti%e ele0ent the ne-essary a-ti%ity o' the hu0an organis0 is la0ed& (ressed ba-.& and in its (la-e is set the s(iritual a-ti%ity o' idea1'illed /ill# Only one /ho is unable to 0a.e this obser%ation o' the t/o1'old as(e-t o' /ill that is 'ree& /ill belie%e that e%ery /ill1i0(ulse is un'ree# One /ho -an 0a.e the obser%ations /ill attain the insight that 0an is un'ree inso'ar as he is unable to -arry through -o0(letely the (ro-ess o' re(ressing the organi- a-ti%ity& but that this un'reedo0 stri%es to attain 'reedo0& and that this 'reedo0 is by no 0eans an abstra-t ideal& but is a dire-ti%e 'or-e inherent in hu0an nature# an is 'ree to the degree that he is able to realize in his /ill the sa0e 0ood o' soul he also e!(erien-es /hen he is -ons-ious o' elaborating (ure ideal <s(iritual= intuitions#

THE VALUE OF LIFE (PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM)

The 7uestion -on-erning li'e8s %alue is a -ounter(art to the 7uestion -on-erning its (ur(ose or destination <-(# ((# )*? ''#=# In this -onne-tion /e 0eet /ith t/o -ontrasting %ie/s& and bet/een the0 all i0aginable atte0(ts at -o0(ro0ise# One %ie/ says4 The /orld is the best (ossible& and to li%e and be a-ti%e in it is a blessing o' untold %alue# E%erything e!ists har0oniously and is 'ull o' (ur(ose3 it is /orthy o' ad0iration# E%en /hat is a((arently bad and e%il 0ay be seen to be good 'ro0 a higher (oint o' %ie/& 'or it re(resents a bene'i-ial -ontrast to the good3 /e are 0ore able to a((re-iate the good /hen it is -ontrasted /ith e%il# oreo%er& e%il is not genuinely real4 it is only that /e see as e%il a lesser degree o' good# E%il is the absen-e o' good3 it has no signi'i-an-e in itsel'# The other %ie/ 0aintains4 Li'e is 'ull o' 0isery and /ant& e%ery/here dis(leasure out/eighs (leasure& (ain out/eighs 5oy# E!isten-e is a burden& and under all -ir-u0stan-es non1e!isten-e /ould be (re'erable to e!isten-e# The 0ain re(resentati%es o' the 'or0er %ie/& i#e#& o(ti0is0& are Sha'tesbury and Leibnitz3D@ those o' the latter& i#e#& (essi0is0& are S-ho(enhauer and Eduard %on "art0ann#DA Leibnitz says the /orld is the best o' all (ossible /orlds# A better one is i0(ossible# For God is good and /ise# A good God /ould /ant to -reate the best (ossible /orld3 a /ise God /ould .no/ /hi-h is the best (ossible3 "e is able to distinguish it 'ro0 all other (ossible in'erior ones# Only a bad or un/ise God -ould -reate a /orld in'erior to the best (ossible# Starting 'ro0 this %ie/(oint& one /ill easily be able to indi-ate the dire-tion hu0an -ondu-t should ta.e in order to -ontribute its share to the best o' all /orlds# All that 0an has to do is to 'ind out God8s de-isions and to a-t in a--ordan-e /ith the0# 2hen he .no/s /hat God8s intentions are /ith regard to the /orld and 0an.ind& then he /ill also do /hat is right# And he /ill 'eel ha((y to add his share to the rest o' the good in the /orld# There'ore& 'ro0 the o(ti0isti- stand(oint li'e is /orth li%ing# This %ie/ -annot but sti0ulate us to -oo(erati%e (arti-i(ation# S-ho(enhauer (resents 0atters di''erently# "e thin.s o' the /orld8s 'oundation not as an all1/ise and all1.ind Being& but as blind urge or /ill# Eternal stri%ing& -easeless -ra%ing 'or satis'a-tion /hi-h yet -an ne%er be attained& in his %ie/ is the 'unda0ental essen-e o' all /ill# For i' an ai0 one has stri%en 'or is attained& then i00ediately another need arises& and so on# Satis'a-tion -an al/ays be only 'or an in'initely short ti0e# All the rest o' the -ontent o' our li'e is unsatis'ied urge& that is& dissatis'a-tion and su''ering# I' at last the blind urge is dulled& then all -ontent is gone 'ro0 our li%es3 an in'inite boredo0 (er%ades our e!isten-e# There'ore& the relati%e best one -an do is to sti'le all /ishes and needs /ithin one& and e!ter0inate one8s /ill# S-ho(enhauer8s (essi0is0 leads to -o0(lete ina-ti%ity3 his 0oral ai0 is uni%ersal laziness# By a %ery di''erent argu0ent "art0ann atte0(ts to establish (essi0is0 and use it as a 'oundation 'or ethi-s# In .ee(ing /ith a 'a%orite trend o' our ti0e& he tries to base his /orld %ie/ on e!(erien-e# By obser%ation o' li'e he /ishes to 'ind out /hether (leasure

or dis(leasure is the 0ore (lenti'ul in the /orld# "e (asses in re%ie/ be'ore the tribunal o' reason /hate%er a((ears to 0en to be /orth /hile in li'e& in order to sho/ that on -loser ins(e-tion all so1-alled satis'a-tion turns out to be nothing but illusion# It is illusion /hen /e belie%e that in health& youth& 'reedo0& su''i-ient in-o0e& lo%e <se!ual en5oy0ent=& (ity& 'riendshi( and 'a0ily li'e& honor& re(utation& glory& (o/er& religious edi'i-ation& (ursuit o' s-ien-e and o' art& ho(e o' a li'e herea'ter& (arti-i(ation in the 'urtheran-e o' -ulture& 1 /e ha%e sour-es o' ha((iness and satis'a-tion# Soberly -onsidered& e%ery en5oy0ent brings 0u-h 0ore e%il and 0isery than (leasure into the /orld# The dis(leasure o' a hango%er is al/ays greater than the (leasure o' into!i-ation# Dis(leasure 'ar out/eighs (leasure in the /orld# No (erson& e%en the relati%ely ha((iest& i' as.ed& /ould /ant to li%e through the 0isery o' li'e a se-ond ti0e# Sin-e "art0ann does not deny the (resen-e o' an ideal 'a-tor </isdo0= in the /orld& but e%en grants it e7ual signi'i-an-e /ith blind urge </ill=& he -an attribute the -reation o' the /orld to his (ri0ordial Being only i' he lets the (ain in the /orld ser%e a /ise /orld (ur(ose# "e sees the (ain in the /orld as nothing but God8s (ain& 'or the li'e o' the /orld as a /hole is identi-al /ith the li'e o' God# The ai0 o' an all1/ise Being& ho/e%er& -ould only be release 'ro0 su''ering& and sin-e all e!isten-e is su''ering& release 'ro0 e!isten-e# The (ur(ose o' the /orld8s -reation is to trans'or0 e!isten-e into none!isten-e& /hi-h is so 0u-h better# The /orld (ro-ess is nothing but a -ontinual battle against God8s (ain& /hi-h at last /ill end /ith the annihilation o' all e!isten-e# The 0oral li'e o' 0en 0ust there'ore be (arti-i(ation in the annihilation o' e!isten-e# God has -reated the /orld in order to rid "i0sel' o' "is in'inite (ain through it# The /orld 9in a -ertain sense is to be regarded as an it-hing eru(tion on the absolute&; through /hi-h the un-ons-ious healing (o/er o' the absolute rids itsel' o' an in/ard disease& 9or e%en as a (ain'ul dra/ing1 (laster /hi-h the alone Being a((lies to "i0sel' in order 'irst to di%ert an inner (ain out/ard& and then to re0o%e it altogether#; "u0an beings are (arts o' the /orld# In the0 God su''ers# "e has -reated the0 in order to s(lit u( "is in'inite (ain# The (ain ea-h one o' us su''ers is but a dro( in the in'inite o-ean o' God8s (ain#D? an 0ust re-ognize to the 'ull that to (ursue indi%idual satis'a-tion <egois0= is 'olly& that he ought to 'ollo/ solely his tas. and through sel'less de%otion dedi-ate hi0sel' to the /orld1(ro-ess o' redee0ing God# In -ontrast to S-ho(enhauer8s (essi0is0& that o' %on "art0ann leads us to de%oted a-ti%ity 'or a lo'ty tas.# But is the abo%e really based on e!(erien-e6 To stri%e a'ter satis'a-tion 0eans that the li'e a-ti%ities go beyond the li'e -ontent o' the being in 7uestion# A being is hungry& that is& it stri%es 'or satiety /hen 'or their -ontinuation& its organi- 'un-tions de0and to be su((lied /ith ne/ li'e -ontent in the 'or0 o' nourish0ent# The stri%ing 'or honor -onsists in the (erson not regarding /hat he does as /orth /hile unless he re-ei%es a((re-iation 'ro0 others# Stri%ing 'or .no/ledge arises /hen a (erson 'inds that so0ething is 0issing in the /orld that he sees& hears& et-#& as long as he has not understood it# The 'ul'il0ent o' stri%ing (rodu-es (leasure in the stri%ing indi%idual3 non1'ul'il0ent (rodu-es dis(leasure# "ere it is i0(ortant to obser%e that (leasure or dis(leasure de(end only u(on the 'ul'il0ent or non1'ul'il0ent o' stri%ing# The stri%ing itsel' -an by no 0eans be regarded as dis(leasure# There'ore& i' it so ha((ens

that in the 0o0ent a stri%ing is 'ul'illed& i00ediately a ne/ one arises& I should not say that the (leasure has (rodu-ed dis(leasure in 0e& be-ause in all -ir-u0stan-es an en5oy0ent (rodu-es desire 'or its re(etition& or 'or a ne/ (leasure# "ere I -an s(ea. o' dis(leasure only /hen this desire runs u( against the i0(ossibility o' its 'ul'il0ent# E%en /hen an e!(erien-ed en5oy0ent (rodu-es in 0e the de0and 'or the e!(erien-e o' a greater or 0ore re'ined (leasure& I -an s(ea. o' a dis(leasure being (rodu-ed by the (re%ious (leasure only at the 0o0ent /hen the 0eans o' e!(erien-ing the greater or 0ore re'ined (leasure 'ail 0e# Only /hen dis(leasure 'ollo/s en5oy0ent as a natural la/& 'or e!a0(le /hen /o0an8s se!ual en5oy0ent is 'ollo/ed by the su''ering o' -hildbirth and the nursing o' -hildren& is it (ossible to regard the en5oy0ent as the sour-e o' (ain# I' stri%ing as su-h -alled 'orth dis(leasure& then the re0o%al o' stri%ing /ould be a--o0(anied by (leasure# But the o((osite is the -ase# 2hen the -ontent o' our li'e la-.s stri%ing& boredo0 is the result& and this is -onne-ted /ith dis(leasure# And as the stri%ing naturally 0ay last a long ti0e be'ore it attains 'ul'il0ent& and as it is satis'ied /ith the ho(e o' 'ul'il0ent 0ean/hile& it 0ust be a-.no/ledged that dis(leasure has nothing to do /ith stri%ing as su-h& but de(ends solely on its non1'ul'il0ent# S-ho(enhauer& then& is /rong in any -ase in regarding desire or stri%ing <the /ill= as su-h& to be a sour-e o' (ain# In reality& e%en the o((osite is -orre-t# Stri%ing <desire=& as su-h& gi%es (leasure# 2ho does not .no/ the en5oy0ent -aused by the ho(e o' a re0ote but intensely desired ai06 This 5oy is the -o0(anion o' all labor& the 'ruits o' /hi-h /ill be ours only in the 'uture# This (leasure is 7uite inde(endent o' the attain0ent o' the ai0# Then /hen the ai0 is attained& to the (leasure o' stri%ing is added that o' the 'ul'il0ent as so0ething ne/# Should so0eone no/ say4 To the dis(leasure o' a non1'ul'illed ai0 is added that o' disa((ointed ho(e& and in the end this 0a.es the dis(leasure o' non1'ul'il0ent greater than the a/aited (leasure o' 'ul'il0ent& then the ans/er /ould be4 E%en the o((osite -ould be the -ase3 the re-olle-tion o' (ast en5oy0ent& at the ti0e /hen the desire /as still not satis'ied& /ill 5ust as o'ten a-t as -onsolation 'or the dis(leasure o' non1'ul'il0ent# In the 0o0ent o' shattered ho(es& one /ho e!-lai0s& I ha%e done /hat I -ouldE (ro%es this assertion# The blessed 'eeling o' ha%ing tried one8s best is o%erloo.ed by those /ho say o' e%ery unsatis'ied desire that not only has the (leasure o' 'ul'il0ent not arisen& but also the en5oy0ent o' desiring has been destroyed# The 'ul'il0ent o' a desire -alls 'orth (leasure and its non1'ul'il0ent& dis(leasure# Fro0 this 0ust not be -on-luded that (leasure 0eans satis'a-tion o' a desire& dis(leasure 0eans its non1satis'a-tion# Both (leasure and dis(leasure 0ay also a((ear in a being /here they are not the result o' desire# Illness is dis(leasure 'or /hi-h there has been no desire# One /ho 0aintains that illness is an unsatis'ied desire 'or health& 0a.es the 0ista.e o' regarding the ob%ious but un-ons-ious /ish& not to be ill& as a (ositi%e desire# 2hen so0eone re-ei%es a lega-y 'ro0 a ri-h relati%e o' /hose e!isten-e he had no notion& this e%ent gi%es hi0 (leasure /ithout any (re-eding desire# There'ore& one /ho sets out to in%estigate /hether the balan-e is on the side o' (leasure or o' dis(leasure& 0ust bring into the a--ount the (leasure o' desiring& the (leasure o' the 'ul'il0ent o' desire& and those (leasures /hi-h -o0e to us /ithout any stri%ing on our (art# On the debit side o' our a--ount1sheet /ould ha%e to be entered the dis(leasure o'

boredo0& the dis(leasure o' un'ul'illed stri%ing& and& lastly& dis(leasures that -o0e /ithout being (re-eded by any desire# To the last .ind belongs also the dis(leasure -aused by /or. /hi-h is not sel'1-hosen but is 'or-ed u(on us# No/ the 7uestion arises4 2hat is the right 0eans o' esti0ating the balan-e bet/een debit and -redit6 Eduard %on "art0ann is o' the o(inion that reason is able to establish this# "o/e%er he also says4 9:ain and (leasure e!ist only inso'ar as they are 'elt#;D* Fro0 this state0ent it /ould 'ollo/ that there is no other yardsti-. 'or (leasure than the sub5e-ti%e one o' 'eeling# I 0ust 'eel /hether the su0 o' 0y 'eelings o' dis(leasure& -o0(ared /ith 0y 'eelings o' (leasure& lea%es 0e /ith a balan-e o' 5oy or o' (ain# But disregarding this& "art0ann 0aintains that4 9E%en i' the li'e1%alue o' e%ery being -an be esti0ated only a--ording to its o/n sub5e-ti%e 0easure& this is not to say that e%ery being is able to -al-ulate& 'ro0 all that in'luen-es its li'e& the -orre-t algebrai- su0 or& in other /ords& that its 'inal 5udg0ent o' its o/n li'e& in regard to its sub5e-ti%e e!(erien-es& is -orre-t#; This& ho/e%er& only 0eans that rational 5udg0ent is still 0ade to esti0ate the %alue o' 'eeling# L'ootnote4 One /ho /ants to -al-ulate /hether the su0 total o' (leasure or o' dis(leasure is the greater& o%erloo.s that he is -al-ulating so0ething /hi-h is ne%er e!(erien-ed# Feeling does not -al-ulate& and /hat 0atters 'or a real esti0ation o' li'e is true e!(erien-e& not the result o' an i0agined -al-ulation#M One /hose %ie/ 0ore or less in-lines in the dire-tion o' thin.ers li.e Eduard %on "art0ann 0ay belie%e that in order to arri%e at a -orre-t %aluation o' li'e he 0ust -lear out o' the /ay those 'a-tors /hi-h 'alsi'y our 5udg0ent about the balan-e o' (leasure or dis(leasure# There are t/o /ays in /hi-h he -an do this# One /ay is by sho/ing that our desires <urges& /ill= a-t disturbingly in our sober 5udg0ent o' our 'eeling1%alues# 2hile& 'or e!a0(le& /e should tell oursel%es that se!ual en5oy0ent is a sour-e o' e%il& the 'a-t that the se!ual instin-t is %ery strong in us 0isleads us into anti-i(ating a (leasure 'ar greater than in 'a-t o--urs# 2e /ant to en5oy& and there'ore /ill not ad0it to oursel%es that /e su''er through the en5oy0ent# Another /ay is to sub5e-t 'eelings to -riti-is0& and atte0(t to (ro%e that the ob5e-ts to /hi-h 'eelings atta-h the0sel%es are re%ealed as illusions by the insight o' reason& then are destroyed the 0o0ent our -ontinually gro/ing intelligen-e re-ognizes the illusion# "e -an reason out the situation in the 'ollo/ing /ay# I' an a0bitious (erson /ants to 0a.e -lear to hi0sel' /hether& u( to the 0o0ent o' 0a.ing this -al-ulation& (leasure or dis(leasure has o--u(ied the greater (art o' his li'e& he 0ust 'ree hi0sel' 'ro0 t/o sour-es o' error be'ore (assing 5udg0ent# As he is a0bitious& this 'unda0ental 'eature o' his -hara-ter /ill 0a.e hi0 see the (leasures o' re-ognition o' his a-hie%e0ents as larger& and the hurts su''ered through being slighted as s0aller than they are# At the ti0e he su''ered 'ro0 being slighted he 'elt it 5ust be-ause he /as a0bitious& but in re-olle-tion this a((ears in a 0ilder light& /hereas the (leasures o' re-ognition to /hi-h he is so %ery sus-e(tible lea%e a dee(er i0(ression# No/ it is o' real bene'it 'or an a0bitious (erson that this is so# The de-e(tion di0inishes his 'eeling o' dis(leasure in the

0o0ent o' sel'1obser%ation# Ne%ertheless& his 5udg0ent /ill be 0isled# The su''erings& o%er /hi-h a %eil is dra/n& he really did e!(erien-e in all their intensity& and there'ore he really gi%es the0 a /rong %aluation on his balan-e1sheet o' li'e# In order to -o0e to a -orre-t 5udg0ent& an a0bitious (erson /ould ha%e to get rid o' his a0bition during the ti0e he is 0a.ing his -al-ulation# "e /ould ha%e to -onsider his li'e u( to that (oint /ithout (la-ing distorting glasses be'ore his 0ind8s eye# Other/ise he is li.e a 0er-hant /ho& in 0a.ing u( his boo.s& also enters his o/n business zeal on the in-o0e side# "e -ould go e%en 'urther# "e -ould say4 The a0bitious 0an 0ust also 0a.e -lear to hi0sel' that the re-ognition he (ursues is so0ething %alueless# Through his o/n e''ort& or /ith the hel( o' others& he 0ust -o0e to see that 'or a sensible (erson re-ognition by others -ounts little& sin-e one -an al/ays be sure that 9In all 0atters /hi-h are not %ital 7uestions o' e%olution or are already 'inally settled by s-ien-e& the 0a5ority is /rong and the 0inority right#; 92hoe%er 0a.es a0bition his lodestar& (uts the ha((iness o' his li'e at the 0er-y o' an unreliable 5udg0ent#;@H I' the a0bitious (erson ad0its all this to hi0sel'& he /ill ha%e to re-ognize as illusion& not only e%erything his a0bition -aused hi0 to regard as reality& but also the 'eelings atta-hed to the illusions# For this reason it -ould then be said4 Fro0 the balan-e sheet o' li'e1%alues 0ust also be erased those 'eelings o' (leasure that ha%e been (rodu-ed by illusions3 /hat then re0ains re(resents& 'ree o' all illusions& the totality o' (leasure in li'e& and this& in -ontrast to the totality o' dis(leasure& is so s0all that li'e is no 5oy and non1 e!isten-e is (re'erable to e!isten-e# 2hile it is 7uite ob%ious that the de-e(tion -aused by the inter'eren-e o' a0bition leads to a 'alse result /hen 0a.ing u( the a--ount o' (leasure& /hat is said about the re-ognition o' the illusory -hara-ter o' the ob5e-ts o' not only e%erything (leasure 0ust nonetheless be -hallenged# To eli0inate 'ro0 the balan-e1sheet all (leasurable 'eelings -onne-ted /ith a-tual or su((osed illusions /ould (ositi%ely 'alsi'y it# For the a0bitious (erson did genuinely en5oy being a((re-iated by the 0ultitude& 7uite irres(e-ti%e o' /hether later he or so0eone else re-ognizes this a((re-iation as illusion# The (leasure already en5oyed is not di0inished in the least by su-h re-ognition# The eli0ination o' all su-h 9illusory; 'eelings 'ro0 li'e8s balan-e1sheet& 'ar 'ro0 0a.ing our 5udg0ent about 'eelings 0ore -orre-t& a-tually eli0inates 'ro0 li'e 'eelings /hi-h /ere genuinely (resent# And /hy should these 'eelings be eli0inated6 One (ossessing the0 deri%es (leasure 'ro0 the03 one /ho has o%er-o0e the0& gains through the e!(erien-es o' sel'1-on7uest <not through the %ain e0otion& 2hat a noble 'ello/ I a0E but through the ob5e-ti%e sour-es o' (leasure /hi-h lie in the sel'1-on7uest= a (leasure /hi-h is indeed s(iritualized& but no less signi'i-ant 'or that# I' 'eelings are erased 'ro0 the balan-e1sheet be-ause they atta-hed the0sel%es to ob5e-ts /hi-h later are re%ealed as illusions& then li'e8s %alue is 0ade de(endent not on the 7uantity& but on the 7uality o' (leasure& and this& in turn& on the %alue o' the ob5e-ts /hi-h -ause the (leasure# I' I set out to deter0ine the %alue o' li'e by the 7uantity o' (leasure or dis(leasure it brings& then I ha%e no right to

(resu((ose so0ething else by /hi-h to deter0ine 'irst the 7ualitati%e %alue o' (leasure# I' I say I /ill -o0(are the a0ount o' (leasure /ith the a0ount o' dis(leasure and see /hi-h is greater& then I 0ust also bring into the a--ount all (leasure and dis(leasure in their a-tual 7uantities& regardless /hether they are based on illusions or not# To as-ribe to a (leasure /hi-h rests on illusion a lesser %alue 'or li'e than to one /hi-h -an be 5usti'ied by reason& is to 0a.e the %alue o' li'e de(endent on 'a-tors other than (leasure# So0eone esti0ating (leasure as less %aluable /hen it is atta-hed to a /orthless ob5e-t& is li.e a 0er-hant /ho enters in his a--ounts the -onsiderable (ro'it o' a toy1'a-tory at a 7uarter o' the a-tual a0ount be-ause the 'a-tory (rodu-es (laythings 'or -hildren# 2hen it is only a 0atter o' /eighing (leasure against dis(leasure& the illusory -hara-ter o' the ob5e-ts o' so0e (leasures 0ust be le't out o' the (i-ture altogether# The rational -onsideration o' the 7uantities o' (leasure and dis(leasure (rodu-ed by li'e& /hi-h "art0ann re-o00ends& has led us as 'ar as .no/ing ho/ to set u( the a--ount& that is& to .no/ing /hat /e ha%e to (ut do/n on ea-h side o' our balan-e sheet# But ho/ are /e to 0a.e the a-tual -al-ulations6 Is reason also -a(able o' deter0ining the balan-e6 The 0er-hant has 0ade a 0ista.e in his a--ount i' the -al-ulated balan-e does not agree /ith the (ro'it /hi-h has de0onstrably been en5oyed 'ro0 the business or /hi-h -an still be e!(e-ted# The (hiloso(her& too& /ill undoubtedly ha%e 0ade a 0ista.e in his 5udg0ent i' the -al-ulated sur(lus o' (leasure or& as the -ase 0ay be& o' dis(leasure& -annot be (ro%ed by a-tual senti0ents# For the 0o0ent I shall not go into the a--ount o' those (essi0ists /ho base their /orld %ie/ on rational esti0ation3 but a (erson /ho is to de-ide /hether or not to -arry on the business o' li'e /ill 'irst de0and (roo' that the -al-ulated sur(lus o' dis(leasure e!ists# "ere /e tou-h the (oint /here reason is not in a (osition to deter0ine on its o/n the sur(lus o' (leasure or o' dis(leasure& but /here it 0ust (oint to this sur(lus in li'e in the 'or0 o' (er-e(tion# For reality is attainable 'or 0an not through -on-e(t alone& but through the inter1(enetration& 0ediated by thin.ing& o' -on-e(t and (er-e(tion <and a 'eeling is a (er-e(tion= <-(# ((# )D, ''#=# A 0er-hant& too& /ill gi%e u( his business only /hen the loss o' in-o0e& -al-ulated by his a--ountant& is -on'ir0ed by the 'a-ts# I' this is not the -ase& he /ill let the a--ountant go through the boo.s on-e 0ore# And in regard to li'e& 0an /ill do e!a-tly the sa0e# I' the (hiloso(her /ants to sho/ hi0 that dis(leasure is 'ar greater than (leasure& and i' he has not 'elt it to be so& he /ill re(ly4 >ou ha%e gone astray in your brooding3 thin. things through on-e 0ore# But i' there -o0es a ti0e in a business /hen su-h losses are really (resent that no -redit any longer su''i-es to 0eet the -lai0s& then the result /ill be ban.ru(t-y& e%en though the 0er-hant 0ay ha%e a%oided .ee(ing hi0sel' in'or0ed about his a''airs by 0eans o' a--ounts# Si0ilarly& i' there -o0es a ti0e /hen the 7uantity o' dis(leasure a 0an su''ers is so great that no ho(e <-redit= o' 'uture (leasure -ould -arry hi0 through the (ain& then this /ould lead to ban.ru(t-y o' li'e8s business#

"o/e%er& the nu0ber o' sui-ides is relati%ely s0all in (ro(ortion to the nu0ber o' those /ho bra%ely li%e on# Jery 'e/ (eo(le gi%e u( the business o' li'e be-ause o' the dis(leasure in%ol%ed# 2hat 'ollo/s 'ro0 this6 Either that it is not -orre-t to say that the a0ount o' dis(leasure is greater than the a0ount o' (leasure& or that /e do not 0a.e our -ontinuation o' li'e at all de(endent u(on the a0ount o' (leasure or dis(leasure /e 'eel# The (essi0ist& Eduard %on "art0ann& in a 7uite e!traordinary 0anner rea-hes the -on-lusion that li'e is %alueless be-ause it -ontains 0ore (ain than (leasure& and yet he 0aintains the ne-essity o' -arrying it through# This ne-essity lies in the 'a-t that the /orld (ur(ose 0entioned abo%e <(# +++= -an be a-hie%ed only through the -easeless& de%oted labor o' hu0an beings# So long as 0en still (ursue their egoisti- desires they are useless 'or su-h sel'less labor# Not until they ha%e -on%in-ed the0sel%es through e!(erien-e and reason that the en5oy0ents o' li'e (ursued out o' egois0 are unattainable& do they de%ote the0sel%es to their real tas.# In this /ay the (essi0isti- -on%i-tion is su((osed to be a sour-e o' sel'lessness# An edu-ation based on (essi0is0 is 0eant to e!ter0inate egois0 by -on%in-ing 0en o' its ho(elessness# This 0eans that this %ie/ -onsiders stri%ing 'or (leasure to be 'unda0entally inherent in hu0an nature# Only through insight into the i0(ossibility o' its 'ul'il0ent does this stri%ing abdi-ate in 'a%or o' higher tas.s o' hu0anity# O' su-h a 0oral /orld %ie/& /hi-h& 'ro0 re-ognition o' (essi0is0& ho(es to a-hie%e de%otion to non1egoisti-al ai0s in li'e& it -annot be said that it really o%er-o0es egois0 in the true sense o' the /ord# oral ideas are su((osed to be strong enough to ta.e hold o' the /ill only /hen 0an has re-ognized that sel'ish stri%ing a'ter (leasure -annot lead to any satis'a-tion# an& /hose sel'ishness desires the gra(es o' (leasure& 'inds the0 sour be-ause he -annot rea-h the03 he turns his ba-. on the0 and de%otes hi0sel' to an unsel'ish li'e# A--ording to the o(inion o' (essi0ists& 0oral ideals are not strong enough to o%er-o0e egois0& but they establish their rulershi( on the ground /hi-h re-ognition o' the ho(elessness o' egois0 has 'irst -leared 'or the0# I' in a--ordan-e /ith their natural dis(osition hu0an beings stro%e a'ter (leasure /hi-h they -ould not (ossibly attain& then annihilation o' e!isten-e and rede0(tion through non1e!isten-e /ould be the only rational goal# And i' one a--e(ts the %ie/ that the real bearer o' the (ain o' the /orld is God& it 'ollo/s that the tas. o' 0en -onsists in hel(ing to bring about the sal%ation o' God# To -o00it sui-ide does not ad%an-e& but hinders& the a--o0(lish0ent o' this ai0# God 0ust ha%e -reated 0en /isely 'or the sole (ur(ose o' bringing about "is sal%ation through their a-tion# Other/ise -reation /ould be (ur(oseless# And su-h a %ie/ o' the /orld en%isages e!tra1hu0an (ur(oses# E%ery one o' us has to (er'or0 his o/n de'inite tas. in the general /or. o' sal%ation# I' he /ithdra/s 'ro0 the tas. by sui-ide& another has to do the /or. /hi-h /as intended 'or hi0# So0eone else 0ust bear the agony o' e!isten-e in his (la-e# And sin-e in e%ery being it is& 'unda0entally& God /ho is the ulti0ate bearer o' all (ain& it 'ollo/s that the sui-ide does not in the least di0inish the 7uantity o' God8s (ain& but rather i0(oses u(on God the additional di''i-ulty o' -reating a substitute to ta.e o%er the tas.#

All this (resu((oses that (leasure is the standard o' li'e8s %alue# No/ li'e 0ani'ests itsel' through a nu0ber o' -ra%ing <needs=# I' the %alue o' li'e de(ended on /hether it brought 0ore (leasure than dis(leasure& a -ra%ing /hi-h brought a sur(lus o' dis(leasure to its o/ner& /ould ha%e to be -alled %alueless# Let us e!a0ine -ra%ing and (leasure& in order to see /hether or not -ra%ing -an be 0easured by (leasure# And lest /e gi%e rise to the sus(i-ion that li'e does not begin 'or us belo/ the le%el o' the 9aristo-rati- intelle-t&; /e shall begin our e!a0ination /ith a 9(urely ani0al; need4 hunger# "unger arises /hen our organs are unable to -ontinue their (ro(er 'un-tion /ithout a 'resh su((ly o' substan-e# 2hat a hungry 0an ai0s at& in the 'irst (la-e& is to ha%e his hunger stilled# As soon as the su((ly o' nourish0ent has rea-hed the (oint /here hunger -eases& e%erything that the 'ood1instin-t -ra%es has been attained# The en5oy0ent -onne-ted /ith satiety -onsists& to begin /ith& in the re0o%al o' the (ain /hi-h is -aused by hunger# Also to the 0ere 'ood1instin-t a 'urther need is added# an does not 0erely desire to o%er-o0e the disturban-e in the 'un-tioning o' his organs by the -onsu0(tion o' 'ood& or to get rid o' the (ain o' hunger4 he see.s to a--o0(any this /ith (leasurable sensations o' taste# 2hen he 'eels hungry and is /ithin hal' an hour o' an en5oyable 0eal& he 0ay e%en a%oid s(oiling his en5oy0ent o' the better 'ood by re'using in'erior 'ood /hi-h 0ight satis'y his hunger sooner# "e needs hunger in order to obtain the 'ull en5oy0ent 'ro0 his 0eal# In this /ay hunger be-o0es a -ause o' (leasure 'or hi0 at the sa0e ti0e# I' all the hunger in the /orld -ould be satis'ied& then the total a0ount o' en5oy0ent due to the need 'or nourish0ent /ould -o0e about# To this /ould ha%e to be added the s(e-ial (leasure /hi-h gour0ets attain by -ulti%ating the sensiti%eness o' their taste1ner%es beyond the usual 0easure# This a0ount o' en5oy0ent /ould ha%e the greatest %alue (ossible i' no as(e-t o' this .ind o' en5oy0ent re0ained unsatis'ied& and i' /ith the en5oy0ent a -ertain a0ount o' dis(leasure did not ha%e to be a--e(ted into the bargain# The %ie/ o' 0odern natural s-ien-e is that nature (rodu-es 0ore li'e than it -an sustain& that is& nature (rodu-es 0ore hunger than it is able to satis'y# The sur(lus o' li'e (rodu-ed 0ust (erish in (ain in the struggle 'or e!isten-e# It is granted that at e%ery 0o0ent o' the /orld (ro-ess& the needs o' li'e are greater than the -orres(onding a%ailable 0eans o' satis'a-tion& and the en5oy0ent o' li'e is thereby i0(aired# But the indi%idual en5oy0ents a-tually (resent are not in the least redu-ed thereby# 2here%er a desire is satis'ied& there the -orres(onding a0ount o' (leasure is also (resent& e%en though in the -reature itsel' /hi-h desires& or in its 'ello/1-reatures& a large nu0ber o' unsatis'ied -ra%ings e!ist# 2hat is thereby di0inished is not the 7uantity& but the %alue o' the en5oy0ent o' li'e# I' only a (art o' the needs o' a li%ing -reature 'ind satis'a-tion& the -reature e!(erien-es en5oy0ent a--ordingly# This has a lesser %alue the s0aller it is in (ro(ortion to the total de0ands o' li'e in the s(here o' the desire in 7uestion# 2e 0ight re(resent this %alue as a 'ra-tion& o' /hi-h the nu0erator is the en5oy0ent a-tually e!(erien-ed and the deno0inator is the su0 total o' needs# This 'ra-tion has the %alue ) /hen the nu0erator and the deno0inator are e7ual& i#e#& /hen all needs are 'ully satis'ied# The 'ra-tion be-o0es greater than ) /hen a -reature e!(erien-es 0ore (leasure than its desires de0and# It be-o0es s0aller than ) /hen the a0ount o' en5oy0ent 'alls short o' the su0

total o' desires# But the 'ra-tion -an ne%er be nought so long as the nu0erator has any %alue at all& ho/e%er s0all# I' a 0an /ere to 0a.e u( a 'inal a--ount be'ore his death& and thought o' the a0ount o' en5oy0ent -onne-ted /ith a (arti-ular -ra%ing <e#g# hunger= as being distributed o%er the /hole o' his li'e /ith all the de0ands 0ade by this -ra%ing& then the %alue o' the (leasure e!(erien-ed 0ight (erha(s be %ery s0all& but it -ould ne%er be nil# I' the 7uantity o' en5oy0ent re0ains -onstant& then /ith e%ery in-rease in the needs o' the li%ing being the %alue o' the (leasure di0inishes# The sa0e is true 'or the totality o' li'e in nature# The greater the nu0ber o' li%ing beings in (ro(ortion to those able to 'ully satis'y their -ra%ings& the s0aller is the a%erage (leasure1%alue o' li'e# The shares in li'e en5oy0ent& 0ade out to us in the 'or0 o' instin-ts& be-o0e less %aluable in (ro(ortion as /e -annot e!(e-t to -ash the0 at their 'ull 'a-e %alue# I' I get enough to eat 'or three days and then ha%e to go hungry 'or three days& the en5oy0ent during the three days /hen I do eat is not thereby di0inished# But I ha%e to thin. o' it as distributed o%er si! days& and this redu-es its %alue 'or 0y 'ood instin-t by hal'# The sa0e a((lies to the 7uantity o' (leasure in relation to the degree o' 0y need# I' I a0 hungry enough 'or t/o sand/i-hes and -an ha%e only one& the en5oy0ent gained 'ro0 it has only hal' the %alue it /ould ha%e had i' a'ter I had eaten it 0y hunger had been stilled# This is ho/ the %alue o' a (leasure is deter0ined in li'e# It is 0easured by the needs o' li'e# Our desire is the yardsti-.3 (leasure is /hat is 0easured# The en5oy0ent o' eating has a %alue only be-ause hunger is (resent& and it attains a %alue o' a s(e-i'i- degree through the (ro(ortion it bears to the degree o' the hunger (resent# Un'ul'illed de0ands o' our li'e thro/ their shado/ e%en u(on desires /hi-h ha%e been satis'ied& and i0(air the %alue o' en5oyable hours# But one -an also s(ea. o' the (resent %alue o' a 'eeling o' (leasure# This %alue is the 0ore insigni'i-ant& the less the (leasure is in (ro(ortion to the duration and intensity o' our desire# An a0ount o' (leasure rea-hes its 'ull %alue 'or us /hen its duration and degree e!a-tly -oin-ide /ith our desire# An a0ount o' (leasure /hi-h is s0aller than our desire di0inishes the %alue o' (leasure3 a greater a0ount (rodu-es a sur(lus /hi-h has not been de0anded and /hi-h is 'elt as (leasure only so long as /e are able to in-rease our desire during the en5oy0ent# I' /e are not able to in-rease our de0and in order to .ee( (a-e /ith the in-reasing (leasure& then the (leasure turns into dis(leasure# The thing that other/ise /ould satis'y us no/ assails us /ithout our /anting it& and /e su''er under it# This is (roo' that (leasure has %alue 'or us only so long as /e -an 0easure it by our desires# An e!-ess o' (leasurable 'eeling turns into (ain# This 0ay be obser%ed es(e-ially in (eo(le /hose desire 'or a (arti-ular .ind o' (leasure is %ery s0all# In (eo(le /hose desire 'or 'ood is dulled& eating readily (rodu-es nausea# This too sho/s that the desire is the yardsti-. 'or 0easuring the %alue o' (leasure# "ere (essi0is0 -ould say4 The unsatis'ied -ra%ing 'or 'ood brings not only the dis(leasure o' lost en5oy0ent& but also (ositi%e (ain& tor0ent and 0isery into the /orld# In this he -an (oint to the untold 0isery o' (eo(le /ho star%e& and to the a0ount o' dis(leasure su-h (eo(le su''er indire-tly through la-. o' 'ood# And i' he /ants to e!tend the assertion to the rest o' nature& he -an (oint to the tor0ent o' ani0als that star%e to

death at -ertain ti0es o' the year# The (essi0ist 0aintains that these e%ils 'ar out/eigh the a0ount o' en5oy0ent /hi-h the 'ood1instin-t brings into the /orld# There is no doubt that one -an -o0(are (leasure and dis(leasure& and -an deter0ine the sur(lus o' the one or the other& as is done in the -ase o' (ro'it and loss# But /hen the (essi0ist belie%es that there is a sur(lus on the side o' dis(leasure and that 'ro0 this one -an -on-lude that li'e is %alueless& he already 0a.es a 0ista.e& inso'ar as he 0a.es a -al-ulation that is not 0ade in a-tual li'e# Our desire& in ea-h instan-e& is dire-ted to a de'inite ob5e-t# The %alue o' the (leasure o' satis'a-tion /ill& as /e ha%e seen& be the greater& the greater the a0ount o' (leasure& in relation to the degree o' our desire#L'ootnote4 2e disregard here the instan-e /here e!-essi%e in-rease in (leasure turns it into dis(leasure#M But u(on the degree o' our desire also de(ends ho/ great is the a0ount o' dis(leasure /e are /illing to a--e(t in order to a-hie%e the (leasure# 2e -o0(are the 7uantity o' dis(leasure not /ith the 7uantity o' (leasure& but /ith the intensity o' our desire# I' so0eone 'inds great (leasure in eating& by reason o' his en5oy0ent in better ti0es he /ill 'ind it easier to bear a (eriod o' hunger than /ill so0eone 'or /ho0 eating is no en5oy0ent# A /o0an /ho desires a -hild -o0(ares the 5oy o' (ossessing the -hild& not /ith the a0ount o' dis(leasure due to (regnan-y& -hildbirth& -ares o' nursing& et-#& but /ith her desire to ha%e the -hild# 2e ne%er /ant a -ertain 7uantity o' (leasure in the abstra-t& but a -on-rete satis'a-tion in a 7uite de'inite /ay# 2hen /e /ant a (leasure /hi-h 0ust be satis'ied by a (arti-ular ob5e-t or a (arti-ular sensation& it /ill not satis'y us i' /e are o''ered so0e other ob5e-t or so0e other sensation& e%en though they gi%e the sa0e a0ount o' (leasure# One desirous o' 'ood -annot substitute the (leasure this /ould gi%e hi0 by a (leasure e7ually great but (rodu-ed by a /al.# Only i' our desire /ere& 7uite generally& 'or a -ertain 7uantity o' (leasure& /ould it ha%e to die a/ay at on-e i' this (leasure /ere unattainable e!-e(t at the (ri-e o' an e%en greater 7uantity o' dis(leasure# But be-ause /e ai0 to/ard a (arti-ular .ind o' satis'a-tion& /e e!(erien-e the (leasure o' realization e%en /hen /e ha%e to bear a 0u-h greater dis(leasure along /ith it# The instin-ts o' li%ing -reatures tend in de'inite dire-tions and ai0 at de'inite goals& and 'or this reason /e -annot set do/n as an e7ui%alent 'a-tor in our -al-ulations the a0ount o' dis(leasure that 0ust be endured on the /ay to the goal# :ro%ided the desire is su''i-iently intense to still be (resent in so0e degree a'ter ha%ing o%er-o0e the dis(leasure 1 ho/e%er great that 0ay be 1 then the (leasure o' satis'a-tion -an still be tasted to the 'ull# The desire& there'ore& does not 0easure the (ain dire-tly against the (leasure a-hie%ed& but indire-tly by relating its o/n intensity to that o' the dis(leasure# The 7uestion is not /hether the (leasure to be gained is greater than the dis(leasure& but /hether the desire 'or the goal is greater than the o((osition o' the dis(leasure in%ol%ed# I' the o((osition is greater than the desire& then the desire yields to the ine%itable& /ea.ens& and stri%es no 'urther# Sin-e our de0and is al/ays 'or so0e 7uite s(e-i'i- .ind o' satis'a-tion& the (leasure -onne-ted /ith it a-7uires signi'i-an-e 'or us in su-h a /ay that on-e /e ha%e a-hie%ed satis'a-tion& /e need ta.e the 7uantity o' dis(leasure into a--ount only inso'ar as it has redu-ed the intensity o' our desire# I' I a0 (assionately 'ond o' beauti'ul %ie/s& I ne%er -al-ulate the a0ount o' (leasure the %ie/ 'ro0 the 0ountain1to( gi%es 0e as -o0(ared dire-tly /ith

the dis(leasure o' the toilso0e as-ent and des-ent& but I re'le-t /hether& a'ter ha%ing o%er-o0e all di''i-ulties& 0y desire 'or the %ie/ /ill still be su''i-iently intense# $onsideration o' (leasure and (ain -an lead to a result only indire-tly in relation to the intensity o' the desire# There'ore the 7uestion is not at all /hether there is a sur(lus o' (leasure or o' dis(leasure& but /hether the desire 'or the (leasure is strong enough to o%er-o0e the dis(leasure# A (roo' o' the -orre-tness o' this %ie/ is the 'a-t that /e (ut a higher %alue on (leasure /hen it 0ust be (ur-hased at the (ri-e o' great dis(leasure& than /hen it si0(ly 'alls into our la( li.e a gi't 'ro0 hea%en# 2hen su''erings and 0isery ha%e toned do/n our desire and yet our ai0 is attained& then the (leasure& in (ro(ortion to the re0aining 7uantity o' desire& is all the greater# And as I ha%e sho/n <(# +,D=& this (ro(ortion re(resents the %alue o' the (leasure# A 'urther (roo' is gi%en in the 'a-t that all li%ing beings <in-luding 0an= see. satis'a-tion 'or their -ra%ings as long as they are able to bear the o((osing (ain and agony# The struggle 'or e!isten-e is but a -onse7uen-e o' this 'a-t# All e!isting li'e stri%es 'or 'ul'il0ent& and only that (art gi%es u( the 'ight in /hi-h the desire has been su''o-ated by the (o/er o' the assailing di''i-ulties# Ea-h li%ing being see.s 'ood until la-. o' 'ood destroys its li'e# an& too& lays hands on hi0sel' only /hen he belie%es <rightly or /rongly= that he is not able to attain the ai0s in li'e /hi-h to hi0 are /orth /hile# As long as he still belie%es in the (ossibility o' attaining /hat in his %ie/ is /orth stri%ing 'or& he /ill 'ight against all su''ering and (ain# :hiloso(hy /ould 'irst ha%e to -on%in-e 0an that the ele0ent o' /ill has sense only /hen the (leasure is greater than the dis(leasure& 'or it is 0an8s nature to stri%e to attain the ob5e-ts o' his desire i' he is able to bear the ne-essary dis(leasure in%ol%ed& be it e%er so great# The abo%e 0entioned (hiloso(hy /ould be 0ista.en& be-ause it /ould 0a.e the hu0an /ill de(endent on a 'a-tor <sur(lus o' (leasure o%er dis(leasure= /hi-h is 'unda0entally 'oreign to 0an8s nature# The a-tual yardsti-. 'or 0easuring /ill is desire& and the latter (ersists as long as it -an# One -an -o0(are the -al-ulation that is 0ade in a-tual li'e& 1 not the one an abstra-t (hiloso(hy 0a.es -on-erning the 7uestion o' (leasure and (ain -onne-ted /ith the satis'a-tion o' a desire 1 /ith the 'ollo/ing# I' /hen buying a -ertain 7uantity o' a((les& I a0 'or-ed to ta.e t/i-e as 0any bad ones as good ones be-ause the seller /ants to -lear his sto-.& then I shall not hesitate 'or one 0o0ent to a--e(t the bad a((les as /ell i' the 'e/ good ones are /orth so 0u-h to 0e that& in addition to their (ur-hase (ri-e& I a0 also (re(ared to bear the e!(ense o' dis(osing o' the bad ones# This e!a0(le illustrates the relation bet/een the a0ounts o' (leasure and dis(leasure that arise through an instin-t# I deter0ine the %alue o' the good a((les not by subtra-ting the su0 o' the good ones 'ro0 that o' the bad ones& but by /hether the good ones retain any %alue 'or 0e des(ite the (resen-e o' the bad ones# Iust as I lea%e the bad a((les out o' a--ount in 0y en5oy0ent o' the good ones& so I gi%e 0ysel' u( to the satis'a-tion o' a desire a'ter ha%ing sha.en o'' the una%oidable (ain# E%en i' (essi0is0 /ere -orre-t in its assertion that there is 0ore dis(leasure than (leasure in the /orld& this /ould ha%e no in'luen-e on the /ill& sin-e li%ing beings /ould still stri%e a'ter /hat (leasure re0ains# The e0(iri-al (roo' that (ain out/eighs 5oy& i' su-h (roo' -ould be gi%en& /ould -ertainly be e''e-ti%e 'or sho/ing the 'utility o' the

s-hool o' (hiloso(hy that sees the %alue o' li'e in a sur(lus o' (leasure <Eudae0onis0=#@) It /ould not& ho/e%er& be suitable 'or sho/ing that /ill in general is irrational& 'or /ill does not see. a sur(lus o' (leasure& but see.s the a0ount o' (leasure that re0ains a'ter re0o%ing the dis(leasure# And this al/ays a((ears as a goal /orth stri%ing 'or# Atte0(ts ha%e been 0ade to re'ute (essi0is0 by asserting that it is i0(ossible by -al-ulation to deter0ine the sur(lus o' (leasure or o' dis(leasure in the /orld# The (ossibility o' any -al-ulation de(ends on the -o0(arability o' the things to be -al-ulated in res(e-t to their 7uantity# E%ery dis(leasure and e%ery (leasure has a de'inite 7uantity <intensity and duration=# Further& /e -an -o0(are (leasurable 'eelings o' di''erent .inds /ith one another& at least a((ro!i0ately& /ith regard to their 7uantity# 2e .no/ /hether /e deri%e 0ore (leasure 'ro0 a good -igar or 'ro0 a good 5o.e# No ob5e-tion -an be raised against the -o0(arability o' di''erent .inds o' (leasures and dis(leasures in res(e-t to their 7uantity# The in%estigator /ho sets hi0sel' the tas. o' deter0ining the sur(lus o' (leasure or dis(leasure in the /orld& starts 'ro0 (resu((ositions /hi-h are undeniably legiti0ate# One 0ay de-lare the -on-lusions o' (essi0is0 to be 0ista.en& but one -annot doubt that 7uantities o' (leasure and dis(leasure -an be s-ienti'i-ally esti0ated& and the balan-e o' (leasure deter0ined thereby# But it is in-orre-t to 0aintain that the result o' this -al-ulation has any -onse7uen-e 'or the hu0an /ill# The -ases in /hi-h /e really 0a.e the %alue o' our a-ti%ity de(endent on /hether (leasure or dis(leasure sho/s a sur(lus& are those in /hi-h the ob5e-ts to/ard /hi-h our a-ti%ity is dire-ted are indi''erent to us# 2hen it is only a 7uestion o' /hether a'ter 0y /or. I a0 to a0use 0ysel' by a ga0e or by light -on%ersation& and i' I a0 -o0(letely indi''erent /hat I do 'or this (ur(ose& I then as. 0ysel'4 2hat gi%es 0e the greatest sur(lus o' (leasure6 And I de'initely re'rain 'ro0 an a-ti%ity i' the s-ales in-line to/ard the side o' dis(leasure# 2hen buying a toy 'or a -hild /e /ould -onsider /hat /ill gi%e hi0 the greatest (leasure# In all other -ases /e are not deter0ined e!-lusi%ely by -onsiderations o' the balan-e o' (leasure# There'ore& /hen (essi0isti- (hiloso(hers o' ethi-s belie%e that by sho/ing dis(leasure to be (resent in greater 7uantity than (leasure& they are (re(aring the /ay 'or sel'less de%otion to/ard -ultural /or.& they do not realize that by its %ery nature the hu0an /ill is not in'luen-ed by this .no/ledge# "u0an stri%ing dire-ts itsel' to the 0easure o' (ossible satis'a-tion a'ter all di''i-ulties ha%e been o%er-o0e# "o(e o' this satis'a-tion is the %ery 'oundation o' hu0an a-ti%ity# The /or. o' ea-h indi%idual and o' the totality o' -ultural /or. s(rings 'ro0 this ho(e# :essi0isti- ethi-s belie%es that it 0ust (resent the (ursuit o' ha((iness as an i0(ossibility 'or 0an& in order that he 0ay de%ote hi0sel' to his (ro(er 0oral tas.s# But these 0oral tas.s are nothing but the -on-rete natural and s(iritual -ra%ings& and their satis'a-tion is stri%en 'or& des(ite the dis(leasure in%ol%ed# The (ursuit o' ha((iness& /hi-h the (essi0ist /ants to e!ter0inate& does not e!ist at all# Rather& the tas.s /hi-h 0an has to 'ul'il he 'ul'ils be-ause 'ro0 the de(th o' his being he /ills to 'ul'il the0 /hen he has truly re-ognized their nature# :essi0isti- ethi-s 0aintains that 0an -an de%ote hi0sel' to /hat he re-ognizes as his li'e8s tas.& only /hen he has gi%en u( the (ursuit o' (leasure# But there are no ethi-s that -an in%ent li'e1tas.s other than the realization o' the satis'a-tions de0anded by 0an8s desires& and the 'ul'il0ent o'

his 0oral ideals# No ethi-s -an ta.e 'ro0 hi0 the (leasure he has in the 'ul'il0ent o' /hat he desires# 2hen the (essi0ist says4 Do not stri%e a'ter (leasure& 'or you -an ne%er attain it& stri%e 'or /hat you re-ognize to be your tas.& then the ans/er is4 It is inherent in hu0an nature to do 5ust this& and it is the in%ention o' a (hiloso(hy gone astray /hen it is 0aintained that 0an stri%es only 'or ha((iness# "e stri%es 'or the satis'a-tion o' /hat his being de0ands& and its 'ul'il0ent is his (leasure3 he has in 0ind the -on-rete ob5e-ts o' this stri%ing& not so0e abstra-t 9ha((iness#; 2hen (essi0isti- ethi-s de0ands4 Stri%e not a'ter (leasure& but a'ter the attain0ent o' /hat you re-ognize to be your li'e8s tas.& it lays its 'inger on the %ery thing that& through his o/n nature& 0an /ants# "e does not need to be turned inside out by (hiloso(hy& he does not need to dis-ard his hu0an nature be'ore he -an be 0oral# orality lies in stri%ing 'or an ai0 that has been re-ognized as 5usti'ied3 it lies in hu0an nature to (ursue it so long as the dis(leasure -onne-ted /ith it does not e!tinguish the desire 'or it altogether# And this is the nature o' all real /ill# Ethi-s does not de(end on the e!ter0ination o' all stri%ing a'ter (leasure in order that bloodless abstra-t ideas -an set u( their -ontrol /here they are not o((osed by a strong longing 'or en5oy0ent o' li'e3 ethi-s de(ends rather on that strength /ill has /hen it is -arried by ideal intuitions3 it a-hie%es its ai0 e%en though the (ath be 'ull o' thorns# oral ideals s(ring 'ro0 the 0oral i0agination o' 0an# Their attain0ent de(ends u(on /hether his desire 'or the0 is strong enough to o%er-o0e (ain and su''ering# They are his intuitions& the dri%ing 'or-es s(anned by his s(irit3 he /ills the0& be-ause their attain0ent is his highest (leasure# "e needs no ethi-s 'irst to 'orbid hi0 to stri%e 'or (leasure and then to (res-ribe to hi0 /hat he ought to stri%e 'or# O' hi0sel'& he /ill stri%e 'or 0oral ideals /hen his 0oral i0agination is a-ti%e enough to i0(art to hi0 intuitions that gi%e strength to his /ill and enable hi0 to -arry the0 through& des(ite the obsta-les (resent in his o/n organization& to /hi-h ne-essary dis(leasure also belongs# I' a 0an stri%es 'or subli0ely great ideals& it is be-ause they are the -ontent o' his o/n nature and their realization /ill bring hi0 a 5oy -o0(ared /ith /hi-h the (leasure& deri%ed 'ro0 the satis'a-tion o' their ordinary -ra%ings by those /ho la-. ideals& is o' little signi'i-an-e# Idealists re%el s(iritually in translating their ideals into reality# Anyone /ho /ants to e!ter0inate the (leasure in the 'ul'il0ent o' hu0an desires /ill 'irst ha%e to 0a.e 0an a sla%e /ho a-ts& not be-ause he /ants to& but only be-ause he ought to# For the attain0ent o' /hat has been /illed gi%es (leasure# 2hat /e -all goodness is not /hat a 0an ought but /hat he /ills to do /hen he un'olds the 'ulness o' his true hu0an nature# Anyone /ho does not a-.no/ledge this 0ust 'irst dri%e out o' 0an all that 0an hi0sel' /ills& and then (res-ribe to hi0 'ro0 outside /hat -ontent he is to gi%e his /ill# an %alues the 'ul'il0ent o' a desire be-ause the desire s(rings 'ro0 his o/n nature# A-hie%e0ent has its %alue be-ause it has been /illed# I' one denies %alue to the ai0s o' 0an8s o/n /ill& then /orth /hile ai0s 0ust be ta.en 'ro0 so0ething that 0an does not /ill#

Ethi-s based on (essi0is0 arises 'ro0 a disregard 'or 0oral i0agination# Only so0eone /ho -onsiders the indi%idual hu0an ego in-a(able o' gi%ing a -ontent to its stri%ing /ould see the totality o' /ill as a longing 'or (leasure# A 0an /ithout i0agination -reates no 0oral ideas# They 0ust be gi%en to hi0# :hysi-al nature sees to it that he stri%es to satis'y his lo/er desires# But to the de%elo(0ent o' the /hole 0an belong also desires that arise 'ro0 the s(irit# Only i' one ta.es the %ie/ that 0an has no su-h s(iritual desires -an one 0aintain that he should re-ei%e the0 'ro0 outside# And then it /ould also be 5usti'iable to say that it is 0an8s duty to do /hat he does not /ill# All ethi-s /hi-h de0and o' 0an that he should su((ress his /ill in order to 'ul'il tas.s that he does not /ill& re-.on not /ith the /hole 0an& but /ith one in /ho0 the 'a-ulty o' s(iritual desire is la-.ing# For a 0an /ho is har0oniously de%elo(ed& the so1-alled ideas o' /hat is 9right; are not outside but /ithin the s(here o' his o/n nature# oral a-tion does not -onsist in e!ter0ination o' one1sided sel'1/ill& but in the 'ull de%elo(0ent o' hu0an nature# One -onsidering 0oral ideals to be attainable only i' 0an e!ter0inates his o/n /ill& does not .no/ that these ideals are /illed by 0an 5ust as 0u-h as the satis'a-tion o' so1-alled ani0al instin-ts# It -annot be denied that the %ie/s outlined here -an easily be 0isunderstood# I00ature (ersons /ithout 0oral i0agination li.e to loo. u(on the instin-ts o' their unde%elo(ed natures as the 'ull -ontent o' hu0anity& and to re5e-t all 0oral ideas /hi-h they ha%e not (rodu-ed& in order that they 0ay 9li%e the0sel%es out; /ithout restri-tion# But it is ob%ious that /hat holds good 'or a 'ully de%elo(ed hu0an being does not a((ly to one /ho is only hal'1de%elo(ed# One /ho still has to be brought by edu-ation to the (oint /here his 0oral nature brea.s through the shell o' his lo/er (assions& -annot lay -lai0 to /hat a((lies to a 0an /ho is 0ature# "ere there is no intention to outline /hat an unde%elo(ed 0an re7uires to be taught& but rather to sho/ /hat hu0an nature in-ludes /hen it has -o0e to 'ull 0aturity# For this is also to (ro%e the (ossibility o' 'reedo0& /hi-h 0ani'ests itsel'& not in a-tions done under -onstraint o' body or soul& but in a-tions sustained by s(iritual intuitions# The 'ully 0ature 0an gi%es hi0sel' his %alue# "e neither stri%es 'or (leasure& /hi-h is gi%en to hi0 as a gi't o' gra-e either 'ro0 nature or 'ro0 the $reator& nor does he 0erely 'ul'il /hat he re-ognizes as abstra-t duty a'ter he has di%ested hi0sel' o' the desire 'or (leasure# "e does /hat he /ants to do& that is& he a-ts in a--ordan-e /ith his ethi-al intuitions& and in the attain0ent o' /hat he /ants he 'eels the true en5oy0ent o' li'e# "e deter0ines li'e8s %alue by the ratio bet/een /hat he attains and /hat he atte0(ts# Ethi-s /hi-h (uts 9you ought; in the (la-e o' 9I /ill&; 0ere duty in the (la-e o' in-lination& deter0ines 0an8s %alue by the ratio bet/een /hat duty de0ands o' hi0 and /hat he 'ul'ils# It a((lies a standard to 0an that is not a((li-able to his nature# 1 The %ie/ de%elo(ed here re'ers 0an ba-. to hi0sel'# It re-ognizes as the true %alue o' li'e only /hat ea-h indi%idual hi0sel' regards as su-h a--ording to /hat he desires# This %ie/ a--e(ts neither a %alue o' li'e not re-ognized by the indi%idual& nor a (ur(ose o' li'e /hi-h has not s(rung 'ro0 the indi%idual# In the indi%idual /ho is -a(able o' true sel' .no/ledge it re-ognizes so0eone /ho is his o/n 0aster and the assessor o' his o/n %alue#

Addition to the Re%ised Edition& )*)?# 2hat is (resented in this -ha(ter -an be 0isunderstood i' one -lings to the a((arent ob5e-tion that the /ill is si0(ly the irrational 'a-tor in 0an and that this 0ust be (ro%ed to hi0 be-ause then he /ill realize that his ethi-al stri%ing 0ust -onsist in /or.ing to/ard ulti0ate e0an-i(ation 'ro0 the /ill# An a((arent ob5e-tion o' this .ind /as brought against 0e by a -o0(etent -riti- /ho stated that it is the business o' the (hiloso(her to 0a.e good /hat the thoughtlessness o' ani0als and 0ost 0en 'ail to do& na0ely& to stri.e a (ro(er balan-e in li'e8s a--ount# But in 0a.ing this ob5e-tion he does not re-ognize the real issue4 I' 'reedo0 is to be attained& then the /ill in hu0an nature 0ust be -arried by intuiti%e thin.ing3 at the sa0e ti0e it is true that an i0(ulse o' /ill 0ay also be deter0ined by 'a-tors other than intuition& but 0orality and its /orth -an be 'ound only in the 'ree realization o' intuitions 'lo/ing 'ro0 the nature o' true 0anhood# Ethi-al indi%idualis0 is /ell able to (resent 0orality in its 'ull dignity& 'or it is not o' the o(inion that the truly 0oral is brought about by -on'or0ing to an e!ternal rule& but is only /hat -o0es about through 0an /hen he de%elo(s his 0oral /ill as a 0e0ber o' his total being& so that to do /hat is i00oral a((ears to hi0 as a stunting and -ri((ling o' his nature#

INDIVIDUALITY AND SPECIES The %ie/ that it is inherent in 0an to de%elo( into an inde(endent& 'ree indi%iduality see0s to be -ontradi-ted by t/o 'a-ts4 that he e!ists as a 0e0ber /ithin a natural totality <ra-e& tribe& nation& 'a0ily& 0ale or 'e0ale se!= and that he is a-ti%e /ithin a totality <state& -hur-h& et-#=# "e sho/s the general -hara-teristi-s o' the -o00unity to /hi-h he belongs& and he gi%es his deeds a -ontent that is deter0ined by the (la-e he o--u(ies /ithin a (lurality# Is indi%iduality (ossible ne%ertheless6 $an /e regard 0an as a totality in hi0sel' /hen he gro/s out o' a totality and integrates hi0sel' into a totality6 The -hara-teristi- 'eatures and 'un-tions o' the indi%idual (arts belonging to a /hole are deter0ined by the /hole# A tribe is su-h a /hole& and all the hu0an beings -o0(rising it ha%e -hara-teristi- 'eatures /hi-h are -onditioned by the nature o' the tribe itsel'# "o/ the indi%idual 0e0ber is -onstituted and his a-tions /ill be deter0ined by the -hara-ter o' the tribe# This is /hy the (hysiogno0y and a-ti%ity o' the indi%idual /ill e!(ress so0ething generi-# I' /e as. /hy so0e (arti-ular thing about hi0 is li.e this or that& /e are re'erred beyond the nature o' the indi%idual to the s(e-ies# The s(e-ies e!(lains /hy so0ething about the indi%idual a((ears as it does# But 0an 0a.es hi0sel' 'ree 'ro0 /hat is generi-# For the generi- 7ualities o' the hu0an ra-e& /hen rightly e!(erien-ed by the indi%idual do not restri-t his 'reedo0& and ought not to be 0ade to restri-t it by arti'i-ial 0eans# an de%elo(s 7ualities and a-ti%ities& the sour-es o' /hi-h /e -an see. only in hi0sel'# In this& the generi- ele0ent ser%es hi0 only as a 0ediu0 through /hi-h to e!(ress his o/n (arti-ular being# The -hara-teristi'eatures that nature has gi%en hi0 he uses as a 'oundation& gi%ing the0 the 'or0 that

-orres(onds to his o/n being# 2e shall loo. in %ain a0ong the la/s o' the s(e-ies 'or the reason 'or an e!(ression o' this being# "ere /e ha%e to do /ith so0ething indi%idual /hi-h -an be e!(lained only through itsel'# I' a (erson has ad%an-ed so 'ar as to loosen hi0sel' 'ro0 the generi-& and /e still atte0(t to e!(lain e%erything about hi0 'ro0 the -hara-ter o' the s(e-ies& then /e ha%e no sense 'or /hat is indi%idual# It is i0(ossible to understand a hu0an being -o0(letely i' one8s 5udg0ent is based on a -on-e(t o' the s(e-ies# The tenden-y to 5udge a--ording to s(e-ies is 0ost (ersistent /here the di''eren-es o' se! are -on-erned# an sees in /o0an& and /o0an in 0an& nearly al/ays too 0u-h o' the general -hara-ter o' the other se!& and too little o' the indi%idual# In (ra-ti-al li'e this har0s 0en less than /o0en# The so-ial (osition o' /o0en is o'ten so un/orthy be-ause in 0any res(e-ts it is not deter0ined& as it should be& by the indi%idual 7ualities o' the (arti-ular /o0an hersel'& but by general re(resentations o' /hat is -onsidered the natural tas. and needs o' /o0an# an8s a-ti%ity in li'e -o0es about through the indi%idual8s -a(a-ities and in-linations& /hereas /o0an8s tends to be deter0ined e!-lusi%ely by the 'a-t that she is a /o0an# 2o0an is su((osed to be the sla%e o' her s(e-ies& o' /o0anhood in general# As long as 0en -ontinue to debate /hether a--ording to her 9natural dis(osition; /o0an is suited to this or that (ro'ession& the so1-alled /o0an8s 7uestion -annot ad%an-e beyond the 0ost ele0entary stage# 2hat /o0an is -a(able o' in ter0s o' her o/n nature& /o0an 0ust be le't to 5udge 'or hersel'# I' it is true that /o0en are use'ul only in those o--u(ations they o--u(y at (resent& then they /ill hardly ha%e it in the0sel%es to attain anything else# But they 0ust be allo/ed to de-ide 'or the0sel%es /hat is in a--ordan-e /ith their nature# The re(ly to hi0 /ho 'ears an u(hea%al o' our so-ial -onditions as a result o' a--e(ting /o0an& not as an e!a0(le o' her s(e-ies but as an indi%idual& /ould be that so-ial -onditions& in /hi-h the status o' one1hal' o' hu0anity is belo/ the dignity o' 0an& are indeed in great need o' i0(ro%e0ent# L'ootnote4 I00ediately u(on the (ubli-ation o' this boo. <)?*B= I 0et /ith the ob5e-tions to the abo%e argu0ents that& already no/& /ithin the -hara-ter o' her se!& a /o0an is able to sha(e her li'e as indi%idually as she li.es& and 'ar 0ore 'reely than a 0an /ho is already de1indi%idualized& 'irst by s-hool& and later by /ar and (ro'ession# I a0 a/are that this ob5e-tion /ill be urged today& (erha(s e%en 0ore strongly# Nonetheless& I 'eel bound to let 0y senten-es stand& and 0ust ho(e that there are readers /ho also re-ognize ho/ utterly su-h an ob5e-tion goes against the -on-e(t o' 'reedo0 de%elo(ed in this boo. and /ill 5udge 0y senten-es abo%e by another standard than that o' 0an8s loss o' indi%iduality through s-hool and (ro'ession#M One 5udging hu0an beings a--ording to their generi- 7ualities sto(s short 5ust at the %ery 'rontier beyond /hi-h they begin to be beings /hose a-ti%ity de(ends on 'ree sel'1 assess0ent# 2hat lies belo/ this 'rontier -an naturally be the ob5e-t o' s-ienti'i- study# Thus the -hara-teristi-s o' ra-e& tribe& nation and se! are sub5e-ts o' s(e-ial s-ien-es# Only 0en /ho /anted to li%e si0(ly as e!a0(les o' the s(e-ies -ould (ossibly 'it the general (i-ture o' 0an these s-ienti'i- studies (rodu-e# All these s-ien-es are unable to rea-h the (arti-ular -ontent o' the indi%idual# 2here the s(here o' 'reedo0 <in thin.ing and doing= begins& there the (ossibility o' deter0ining the indi%idual a--ording to the

la/s o' the s(e-ies -eases# The -on-e(tual -ontent /hi-h 0an& through thin.ing& 0ust bring into -onne-tion /ith (er-e(tion in order to ta.e hold o' 'ull reality <-(# (# )HD ''#=& no one -an 'i! on-e 'or all and hand o%er to 0an.ind ready10ade# The indi%idual 0ust gain his -on-e(ts through his o/n intuition# "o/ the indi%idual has to thin.& -annot be dedu-ed 'ro0 any -on-e(t o' a s(e-ies3 this de(ends singly and solely on the indi%idual hi0sel'# Iust as little is it (ossible 'ro0 general hu0an 7ualities to de-ide /hat -on-rete ai0s an indi%idual /ill set hi0sel'# One /ishing to understand a (arti-ular indi%idual 0ust broaden his understanding to en-o0(ass the essential nature o' the other& and not sto( short at those 7ualities /hi-h are ty(i-al# In this sense e%ery single hu0an being is a (roble0# And e%ery s-ien-e /hi-h deals /ith abstra-t thoughts and -on-e(ts o' s(e-ies is only a (re(aration 'or that insight /hi-h be-o0es ours /hen a hu0an indi%iduality shares /ith us his /ay o' loo.ing at the /orld& and that other insight /hi-h /e obtain 'ro0 the -ontent o' his /ill# 2hene%er /e 'eel4 here /e ha%e to do /ith that in a 0an /hi-h is 'ree 'ro0 the ty(i-al /ay o' thin.ing and 'ree 'ro0 a /ill based on the s(e-ies& there /e 0ust -ease to 0a.e use o' any -on-e(ts that a((ly to our o/n I i' /e /ant to understand hi0# $ognition -onsists in -o0bining the -on-e(t /ith the (er-e(tion by 0eans o' thin.ing# In the -ase o' all other ob5e-ts the obser%er 0ust gain his -on-e(ts through his o/n intuition3 /hen it is a -ase o' understanding a 'ree indi%iduality& the essential thing is to re-ei%e into our o/n I those -on-e(ts by /hi-h the 'ree indi%iduality deter0ines hi0sel'& in their (ure 'or0 </ithout 0i!ing the0 /ith our o/n -on-e(tual -ontent=# :eo(le /ho i00ediately 0ingle their o/n -on-e(ts /ith e%ery 5udg0ent o' another& -an ne%er rea-h an understanding o' an indi%iduality# Iust as a 'ree indi%iduality 'rees hi0sel' 'ro0 the -hara-teristi-s o' the s(e-ies& so our -ognition 0ust be-o0e 'ree 'ro0 the 0eans by /hi-h all that belongs to s(e-ies is understood# Only to the degree that a 0an has 0ade hi0sel' 'ree 'ro0 the -hara-teristi-s o' the s(e-ies in the /ay indi-ated& -an he be -onsidered to be a 'ree s(irit /ithin a hu0an -o00unity# No 0an is all s(e-ies& none is all indi%iduality# But e%ery hu0an being gradually 'rees a greater or lesser (art o' his being 'ro0 the ani0al1li.e li'e o' the s(e-ies& as /ell as 'ro0 the -o00ands o' hu0an authorities ruling hi0# 2ith that (art o' his being 'or /hi-h a 0an is unable to a-hie%e su-h 'reedo0& he is a 0e0ber o' the natural and s(iritual organis0 o' the /orld in general# In this res(e-t he does /hat he sees others do& or as they -o00and# Only that (art o' his a-ti%ity /hi-h s(rings 'ro0 his intuitions has ethi-al %alue in the true sense# And those 0oral instin-ts that he has in hi0 through the inheritan-e o' so-ial instin-ts be-o0e so0ething ethi-al through his ta.ing the0 o%er into his intuitions# All 0oral a-ti%ity o' 0an.ind has its sour-e in indi%idual ethi-al intuitions and their a--e(tan-e by hu0an -o00unities# One -ould also say4 The 0oral li'e o' 0an.ind is the su01total o' the (rodu-ts o' the 0oral i0agination o' 'ree hu0an indi%iduals# This is the -on-lusion o' 0onis0#

THE CONSEQUENCES OF MONISM

2hat is here -alled 0onis0& this unitary e!(lanation o' the /orld& deri%es 'ro0 hu0an e!(erien-e@+ the (rin-i(les it uses 'or e!(laining the /orld# The sour-e o' a-ti%ity also is sought /ithin the /orld to be obser%ed& that is& in hu0an nature a--essible to sel'1 .no/ledge& 0ore (arti-ularly in 0oral i0agination# onis0 re'uses to see. the origin o' the /orld a--essible to (er-ei%ing and thin.ing& outside o' that /orld& by 0eans o' abstra-t -on-lusions# For 0onis0& the unity that thin.ing obser%ation 1 /hi-h -an be e!(erien-ed 1 brings to the 0ani'old (lurality o' (er-e(tions is& at the sa0e ti0e& 5ust /hat the hu0an need 'or .no/ledge de0ands& and by 0eans o' /hi-h entry into (hysi-al and s(iritual real0s is sought# One loo.ing 'or another unity behind the one sought by thin.ing obser%ation& thereby sho/s only that he does not re-ognize the agree0ent bet/een /hat is 'ound by thin.ing and /hat the urge 'or .no/ledge de0ands# The single hu0an indi%idual a-tually is not se(arated 'ro0 the uni%erse# "e is (art o' it& and the -onne-tion o' this (art /ith the rest o' the -os0os is (resent in reality3 it is bro.en only 'or our (er-e(tion# At 'irst /e see this (art as a being e!isting by itsel' be-ause /e do not see the -ords and ro(es by /hi-h the 'unda0ental 'or-es o' the -os0os sustain our li'e# One re0aining at this stand(oint sees the (art o' the /hole as a truly inde(endently e!isting being& as a 0onad& /ho so0eho/ re-ei%es in'or0ation about the rest o' the /orld 'ro0 outside# But 0onis0& as 0eant here& sho/s that one -an belie%e in this inde(enden-e only so long as /hat is (er-ei%ed is not /o%en by thin.ing into the net/or. o' the /orld o' -on-e(ts# 2hen this ha((ens& se(arate e!isten-e o' (arts is re%ealed as a 0ere a((earan-e due to (er-ei%ing# an -an 'ind his sel'1en-losed total e!isten-e /ithin the uni%erse only through the intuiti%e e!(erien-e o' thin.ing# Thin.ing destroys the a((earan-e due to (er-ei%ing& inserting our indi%idual e!isten-e into the li'e o' the -os0os# The unity o' the /orld o' -on-e(ts& /hi-h -ontains the ob5e-ti%e (er-e(tions& also e0bra-es the -ontent o' our sub5e-ti%e (ersonality# Thin.ing sho/s us reality in its true -hara-ter as a sel'1en-losed unity& /hereas the 0ani'oldness o' (er-e(tions is only its a((earan-e deter0ined by our organization# <-(# (# )HD ''#=# Re-ognition o' the reality in -ontrast to the a((earan-e resulting 'ro0 (er-ei%ing has al/ays been the goal o' hu0an thin.ing# S-ien-e has stri%en to re-ognize (er-e(tions as realities by dis-o%ering the la/s that -onne-t the0# But /here the %ie/ /as held that -onne-tions as-ertained by hu0an thin.ing had only a sub5e-ti%e signi'i-an-e& the real reason 'or the unity o' things /as sought in so0e entity e!isting beyond the /orld to be e!(erien-ed <an in'erred God& /ill& absolute S(irit& et-#=# And on this basis& in addition to .no/ledge o' the -onne-tions that are re-ognizable through e!(erien-e& one stro%e to attain a se-ond .ind o' .no/ledge /hi-h /ould go beyond e!(erien-e and /ould re%eal the -onne-tion bet/een e!(erien-e and the ulti0ate entities e!isting beyond e!(erien-e <0eta(hysi-s arri%ed at by dra/ing -on-lusions and not by e!(erien-e=# Fro0 this stand(oint& it /as thought that the reason /e -an gras( the -onne-tion o' things through stri-tly a((lied thin.ing is that an original -reator built u( the /orld a--ording to logi-al la/s& and the sour-e o' our deeds /as thought to be -ontained in the /ill o' the -reator# It /as not realized that thin.ing en-o0(asses both sub5e-ti%e and ob5e-ti%e in one gras(& and that in the union o' (er-e(tion /ith -on-e(t 'ull reality is 0ediated# Only as long as /e -onsider in the abstra-t 'or0 o' -on-e(ts the la/s (er%ading and deter0ining (er-e(tions& do /e deal in a-tual 'a-t /ith so0ething (urely sub5e-ti%e# But the -ontent o' the -on-e(t& /hi-h is attained 1 /ith the hel( o' thin.ing 1 in order to add it to (er-e(tion& is not sub5e-ti%e# This -ontent is not deri%ed 'ro0 the sub5e-t but 'ro0 reality#

It is that (art o' reality that our (er-ei%ing -annot rea-h# It is e!(erien-e& but not e!(erien-e 0ediated through (er-ei%ing# One unable to re-ognize that the -on-e(t is so0ething real& thin.s o' it only in that abstra-t 'or0 in /hi-h he gras(s it in his -ons-iousness# But this se(aration is due to our organization& 5ust as the se(arateness o' (er-e(tions is due to our organization# The tree that one (er-ei%es& has no e!isten-e by itsel'# It is only a (art o' the great organis0 o' nature& and its e!isten-e is (ossible only in a real -onne-tion /ith nature# An abstra-t -on-e(t has no reality in itsel'& any 0ore than a (er-e(tion& ta.en by itsel'& has any reality# The (er-e(tion is the (art o' reality that is gi%en ob5e-ti%ely& the -on-e(t is the (art that is gi%en sub5e-ti%ely <through intuition& -(# (# )), ''#=# Our s(iritual organization tears reality into these t/o 'a-tors# One 'a-tor a((ears to (er-e(tion& the other to intuition# Only the union o' the t/o& that is& the (er-e(tion 'itted syste0ati-ally into the uni%erse& is 'ull reality# I' /e -onsider the 0ere (er-e(tion by itsel'& /e do not ha%e reality& but a dis-onne-ted -haos3 i' /e -onsider by itsel' the la/ that -onne-ts (er-e(tions& /e are dealing /ith 0ere abstra-t -on-e(ts# The abstra-t -on-e(t does not -ontain reality& but thin.ing obser%ation /hi-h -onsiders neither -on-e(t nor (er-e(tion one1sidedly& but the union o' both& does# Not e%en the 0ost sub5e-ti%e orthodo! idealist /ill deny that /e li%e /ithin a reality <that /e are rooted in it /ith our real e!isten-e=# "e only 7uestions /hether /e also rea-h ideally& i#e#& in our -ognition& /hat /e a-tually e!(erien-e# By -ontrast& 0onis0 sho/s that thin.ing is neither sub5e-ti%e nor ob5e-ti%e& but is a (rin-i(le e0bra-ing both sides o' reality# 2hen /e obser%e /ith thin.ing& /e -arry out a (ro-ess that in itsel' belongs in the se7uen-e o' real o--urren-es# By 0eans o' thin.ing /e o%er-o0e 1 /ithin e!(erien-e itsel' 1 the one1sidedness o' 0ere (er-ei%ing# 2e are not able through abstra-t -on-e(tual hy(otheses <through (ure -on-e(tual re'le-tion= to de%ise the nature o' reality& but /hen /e 'ind the ideas that belong to the (er-e(tions /e li%e /ithin reality# The 0onist does not try to add so0ething to our e!(erien-e that -annot be e!(erien-ed <a Beyond=& but in -on-e(t and (er-e(tion sees the real# "e does not s(in 0eta(hysi-s out o' 0ere abstra-t -on-e(ts3 he sees in the -on-e(t& as su-h& only one side o' reality& na0ely& that side /hi-h re0ains hidden 'ro0 (er-ei%ing but ha%ing 0eaning only in union /ith (er-e(tions# onis0 -alls 'orth in 0an the -on%i-tion that he li%es in a /orld o' reality and does not ha%e to go beyond this /orld 'or a higher reality that -annot be e!(erien-ed# The 0onist does not loo. 'or Absolute Reality any/here but in e!(erien-e& be-ause he re-ognizes that the -ontent o' e!(erien-e is the reality# And he is satis'ied by this reality& be-ause he .no/s that thin.ing has the (o/er to guarantee it# 2hat dualis0 loo.s 'or only behind the /orld o' obser%ation& 0onis0 'inds /ithin it# onis0 sho/s that in our -ognition /e gras( reality& not in a sub5e-ti%e i0age /hi-h sli(s in bet/een 0an and reality& but in its true nature# For 0onis0 the -on-e(tual -ontent o' the /orld is the sa0e 'or e%ery hu0an indi%idual <-(# (# )+? ''#=# A--ording to 0onisti- (rin-i(les& the reason one hu0an indi%idual regards another as a.in to hi0sel' is be-ause it is the sa0e /orld -ontent that e!(resses itsel' in the other also# In the unitary /orld o' -on-e(ts there are not as 0any -on-e(ts o' lions as there are indi%iduals /ho thin. o' a lion& but only one -on-e(t& lion# And the -on-e(t /hi-h 9A; adds to his (er-e(tion o' a lion is the sa0e -on-e(t as 9B; adds to his& only a((rehended by a di''erent (er-ei%ing sub5e-t <-(# (# )HA=Q Thin.ing leads all (er-ei%ing sub5e-ts to the -o00on ideal unity o' all 0ulti(li-ity# The one /orld o' ideas e!(resses itsel' in the0 as in a 0ulti(li-ity o' indi%iduals# As long as 0an

a((rehends hi0sel' 0erely by 0eans o' sel'1(er-e(tion& he regards hi0sel' as this (arti-ular hu0an being3 as soon as he loo.s to/ard the idea1/orld that lights u( /ithin hi0 and e0bra-es all (arti-ulars& he sees absolute reality li%ing and shining 'orth /ithin hi0# Dualis0 de'ines the di%ine (ri0ordial Being as (er%ading and li%ing in all 0en# onis0 sees this -o00on di%ine li'e in reality itsel'# The ideal -ontent o' another hu0an being is also 0y -ontent& and I regard it as a di''erent -ontent only so long as I (er-ei%e& but no longer /hen I thin.# In his thin.ing ea-h 0an e0bra-es only a (art o' the total idea1/orld& and to that e!tent indi%iduals di''er one 'ro0 another by the a-tual -ontent o' their thin.ing# But these -ontents are /ithin one sel'1en-losed /hole& /hi-h en-o0(asses the -ontent o' all 0en8s thin.ing# In his thin.ing there'ore& 0an ta.es hold o' the uni%ersal (ri0ordial Being (er%ading all hu0anity# A li'e /ithin reality 'illed /ith the -ontent o' thought is at the sa0e ti0e a li'e /ithin God# The 0erely in'erred& not to be e!(erien-ed Beyond is based on a 0isunderstanding on the (art o' those /ho belie%e that the /orld in /hi-h /e li%e does not -ontain /ithin itsel' the -ause and reason 'or its e!isten-e# They do not re-ognize that through thin.ing they 'ind /hat they need to e!(lain the (er-e(tions# This is also /hy no s(e-ulation has e%er brought to light any -ontent that has not been borro/ed 'ro0 the reality that is gi%en us# The God that is assu0ed through abstra-t -on-lusions is nothing but a hu0an being trans(lanted into the Beyond3 S-ho(enhauer8s /ill is the (o/er o' hu0an /ill 0ade absolute# "art0ann8s un-ons-ious (ri0ordial Being& -o0(osed o' idea and /ill& is a -o0bination o' t/o abstra-tions dra/n 'ro0 e!(erien-e# E!a-tly the sa0e is true o' all other trans-endent (rin-i(les that are not based on thin.ing /hi-h is e!(erien-ed# In truth& the hu0an s(irit ne%er goes beyond the reality in /hi-h /e li%e& nor is there any need to do so& sin-e e%erything /e re7uire in order to e!(lain the /orld is /ithin the /orld# I' (hiloso(hers e%entually de-lare that they are satis'ied /hen they ha%e dedu-ed the /orld 'ro0 (rin-i(les they borro/ 'ro0 e!(erien-e and trans(lant into an hy(otheti-al Beyond& then the sa0e satis'a-tion 0ust also be (ossible& i' the borro/ed -ontent is allo/ed to re0ain in this /orld /here& 'or thin.ing to be e!(erien-ed& it belongs# All atte0(ts to trans-end the /orld are (urely illusory& and the (rin-i(les trans(lanted 'ro0 this /orld into the Beyond do not e!(lain the /orld any better than those /ithin it# And thin.ing& (ro(erly understood& does not de0and any su-h trans-enden-e at all& be-ause a thought1-ontent -an see. a (er-e(tual -ontent& together /ith /hi-h it 'or0s a reality only /ithin the /orld& not outside it# The ob5e-ts o' i0agination& too& are -ontents /hi-h are %alid only i' they be-o0e re(resentations that re'er to a (er-e(tual -ontent# Through this (er-e(tual -ontent they be-o0e (art o' reality# A -on-e(t that is su((osed to be 'illed /ith a -ontent 'ro0 beyond the /orld gi%en us& is an abstra-tion to /hi-h no reality -orres(onds# 2e -an thin. out only -on-e(ts o' reality3 in order a-tually to 'ind reality itsel'& /e 0ust also (er-ei%e# An absolute Being 'or /hi-h a -ontent is de%ised is an i0(ossible assu0(tion /hen thin.ing is (ro(erly understood# The 0onist does not deny the ideal3 in 'a-t he -onsiders a (er-e(tual -ontent& la-.ing its ideal -ounter(art& not to be a -o0(lete reality3 but in the /hole s(here o' thin.ing he 'inds nothing that -ould 0a.e it ne-essary to deny the ob5e-ti%e s(iritual reality o' thin.ing and there'ore lea%e the real0 /hi-h thin.ing -an e!(erien-e# onis0 regards s-ien-e that li0its itsel' to a des-ri(tion o' (er-e(tions /ithout (enetrating to their ideal -o0(le0ents& as being in-o0(lete# But it regards as e7ually in-o0(lete all abstra-t

-on-e(ts that do not 'ind their -o0(le0ents in (er-e(tions and no/here 'it into the net/or. o' -on-e(ts e0bra-ing the /orld to be obser%ed# There'ore it -an a-.no/ledge no ideas that re'er to ob5e-ti%e 'a-tors lying beyond our e!(erien-e& /hi-h are su((osed to 'or0 the -ontent o' (urely hy(otheti-al 0eta(hysi-s# All ideas o' this .ind /hi-h hu0anity has (rodu-ed& 0onis0 re-ognizes as abstra-tions borro/ed 'ro0 e!(erien-e3 it is si0(ly that the 'a-t o' the borro/ing has been o%erloo.ed# Iust as little& a--ording to 0onisti- (rin-i(les& -ould the ai0s o' our a-tion be deri%ed 'ro0 a Beyond outside 0an.ind# Inso'ar as they are thought& they 0ust originate 'ro0 hu0an intuition# an does not 0a.e the (ur(oses o' an ob5e-ti%e <e!isting beyond= (ri0ordial Being into his o/n indi%idual (ur(oses3 he (ursues his o/n& gi%en hi0 by his 0oral i0agination# The idea that realizes itsel' in a deed& 0an deta-hes 'ro0 the unitary idea1/orld& 0a.ing it the 'oundation o' his /ill# $onse7uently& /hat -o0e to e!(ression in his a-tion are not -o00ands (ro5e-ted 'ro0 a Beyond into the /orld& but hu0an intuitions that are /ithin the /orld# For 0onis0 a-.no/ledges no /orld ruler /ho sets our ai0s and dire-ts our a-ti%ity 'ro0 outside# an /ill 'ind no su-h 'oundation o' e!isten-e& /hose de-isions he 0ust 'atho0 in order to dis-o%er the ai0s to/ard /hi-h he is to guide his a-ti%ity# "e is re'erred ba-. to hi0sel'# "e hi0sel' 0ust gi%e -ontent to his a-ti%ity# I' he see.s 'or the deter0ining -auses o' his /ill outside the /orld in /hi-h he li%es& then his sear-h /ill be in %ain# 2hen he goes beyond the satis'a-tion o' his natural instin-ts& 'or /hi-h other Nature has (ro%ided& then he 0ust see. these -auses in his o/n 0oral i0agination& unless he 'inds it 0ore -on%enient to let hi0sel' be deter0ined by the 0oral i0agination o' others# This 0eans4 either he 0ust gi%e u( being a-ti%e altogether& or 0ust a-t a--ording to deter0inations he gi%es hi0sel' out o' his /orld o' ideas& or /hi-h others gi%e hi0 'ro0 that /orld# 2hen he gets beyond his bodily li'e o' instin-ts& and beyond -arrying out the -o00ands o' others& then he is deter0ined by nothing but hi0sel'# "e 0ust a-t a--ording to an i0(ulse (rodu-ed by hi0sel' and deter0ined by nothing else# This i0(ulse is indeed deter0ined ideally in the unitary idea /orld& but in a-tual 'a-t it is only through 0an that it -an be ta.en 'ro0 that /orld and translated into reality# The reason 'or the a-tual translation o' an idea into reality through 0an& 0onis0 'inds only in 0an hi0sel'# For idea to be-o0e deed& 0an 0ust 'irst /ill be'ore it -an ha((en# Su-h /ill then has its 'oundation only in 0an hi0sel'# There'ore ulti0ately it is 0an /ho deter0ines his o/n deed# "e is 'ree# )st Addition to the Re%ised Edition& )*)?# In the se-ond (art o' this boo. the atte0(t has been 0ade to gi%e (roo' that 'reedo0 <s(iritual a-ti%ity= is to be 'ound in the reality o' hu0an deeds# To do this it /as ne-essary to se(arate 'ro0 the total s(here o' hu0an deeds those a-tions that -an be dee0ed 'ree by unbiased sel'1obser%ation# They are the deeds /hi-h (ro%e to be the realization o' ideal intuitions# No other deeds& i' -onsidered /ithout (re5udi-e& -an be regarded as 'ree# But unbiased sel'1obser%ation /ill lead 0an to re-ognize that it is inherent in his nature to (rogress along the (ath to/ard ethi-al intuitions and their realization# >et this un(re5udi-ed obser%ation o' 0an8s ethi-al nature -annot arri%e at an ulti0ate -on-lusion about 'reedo0 by itsel'# For i' intuiti%e thin.ing had its sour-e in so0e other being& i' its being /ere not su-h as had its origin in itsel'& then the -ons-iousness o' 'reedo0& /hi-h s(rings 'ro0 0orality& /ould (ro%e to be an illusion# But the se-ond (art o' this boo. 'inds its natural su((ort in the 'irst (art& /here

intuiti%e thin.ing is (resented as an inner& s(iritual a-ti%ity o' 0an& /hi-h is e!(erien-ed# To understand this nature o' thin.ing in li%ing e!(erien-e is at the sa0e ti0e to re-ognize the 'reedo0 o' intuiti%e thin.ing# And i' one .no/s that this thin.ing is 'ree& then one also re-ognizes that s(here o' the /ill to /hi-h 'reedo0 -an be as-ribed# A-ting hu0an beings /ill -onsider that /ill as 'ree to /hi-h the intuiti%e li'e in thin.ing& on the basis o' inner e!(erien-e& -an attribute a sel'1sustaining essen-e# One unable to do this -annot dis-o%er any altogether indis(utable argu0ent 'or the a--e(tan-e o' 'reedo0# The e!(erien-e /hi-h is re'erred to here 'inds intuiti%e thin.ing in -ons-iousness& /hi-h has reality not only in -ons-iousness# And thereby it is dis-o%ered that 'reedo0 is the -hara-teristi- 'eature o' all deeds that ha%e their sour-e in the intuitions o' -ons-iousness# +nd Addition to the Re%ised Edition& )*)?# The -ontent o' this boo. is built u(on intuiti%e thin.ing& o' /hi-h the e!(erien-e is (urely s(iritual& and through /hi-h& in -ognition& e%ery single (er-e(tion is (la-ed /ithin reality# This boo. intends to (resent no 0ore than -an be sur%eyed through the e!(erien-e o' intuiti%e thin.ing# But it also intends to (resent the .ind o' thought /hi-h this e!(erien-ed thin.ing re7uires# It re7uires that in the (ro-ess o' .no/ledge thin.ing is not denied as a sel'1de(endent e!(erien-e# It re7uires that one does not deny its ability to e!(erien-e reality in union /ith (er-e(tions& instead o' loo.ing 'or reality only in a /orld lying outside this e!(erien-e& an in'erred /orld in relation to /hi-h the hu0an a-ti%ity o' thin.ing /ould be so0ething 0erely sub5e-ti%e# 1 This -hara-terizes thin.ing as the ele0ent through /hi-h 0an gradually enters s(iritually into reality# <It ought not to be (ossible to -on'use this /orld %ie/& based on e!(erien-ed thin.ing& /ith a 0ere rationalis0#= On the other hand& it should be e%ident 'ro0 the /hole s(irit o' this (resentation that 'or hu0an .no/ledge& the (er-e(tual ele0ent -ontains a reality1-ontent only i' it is gras(ed by thin.ing# 2hat -hara-terizes reality as reality -annot lie outside thin.ing# There'ore it 0ust not be i0agined that the (hysi-al .ind o' (er-ei%ing guarantees the only reality# 2hat -o0es to 0eet us as (er-e(tion is so0ething 0an 0ust si0(ly e!(e-t on his li'e 5ourney# All he -an as. is4 Is one 5usti'ied in e!(e-ting& 'ro0 the (oint o' %ie/ resulting 'ro0 the intuiti%ely e!(erien-ed thin.ing& that it is (ossible 'or 0an to (er-ei%e not only (hysi-ally but also s(iritually6 This -an be e!(e-ted# For e%en though on the one hand intuiti%ely e!(erien-ed thin.ing is an a-ti%e (ro-ess ta.ing (la-e in the hu0an s(irit& on the other hand it is also s(iritual (er-e(tion gras(ed /ithout a (hysi-al organ# It is a (er-e(tion in /hi-h the (er-ei%er is hi0sel' a-ti%e& and it is an a-ti%ity o' the sel' /hi-h is also (er-ei%ed# In intuiti%ely e!(erien-ed thin.ing 0an is trans'erred into a s(iritual /orld as (er-ei%er# 2hat -o0es to 0eet hi0 as (er-e(tions /ithin this /orld in the sa0e /ay as the s(iritual /orld o' his o/n thin.ing -o0es to 0eet hi0& 0an re-ognizes as a /orld o' s(iritual (er-e(tion# This /orld o' (er-e(tion has the sa0e relationshi( to thin.ing as the /orld o' (hysi-al (er-e(tion has on the (hysi-al side# 2hen 0an e!(erien-es the /orld o' s(iritual (er-e(tion it /ill not a((ear 'oreign to hi0& be-ause in intuiti%e thin.ing he already has an e!(erien-e /hi-h is o' a (urely s(iritual -hara-ter# A nu0ber o' 0y /ritings /hi-h ha%e been (ublished sin-e this boo. 'irst a((eared& deal /ith su-h a /orld o' s(iritual (er-e(tion# The :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity lays the (hiloso(hi-al 'oundation 'or these later /ritings# For here the ai0 is to sho/ that a (ro(erly understood e!(erien-e o'

thin.ing is already an e!(erien-e o' s(irit# For this reason it a((ears to the author that one able in all earnestness to enter into the (oint o' %ie/ o' The :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity /ill not -o0e to a standstill at the entry into the /orld o' s(iritual (er-e(tion# It is true that by dra/ing -on-lusions 'ro0 the -ontent o' this boo. it is not (ossible to deri%e logi-ally /hat is (resented in 0y later boo.s# But 'ro0 a li%ing gras( o' /hat in this boo. is 0eant by intuiti%e thin.ing& the 'urther ste( /ill result 7uite naturally4 the a-tual entry into the /orld o' s(iritual (er-e(tion#

FIRST APPENDIX (A

!"!#$ "# "%& R&'!(& E !"!#$ #) 1918)

Jarious ob5e-tions brought 'or/ard by (hiloso(hers i00ediately a'ter this boo. /as 'irst (ublished indu-e 0e to add the 'ollo/ing brie' state0ent to this re%ised edition# I -an /ell understand that there are readers 'or /ho0 the rest o' the boo. is o' interest& but /ho /ill regard the 'ollo/ing as su(er'luous& as a re0ote and abstra-t s(inning o' thoughts# They 0ay /ell lea%e this short des-ri(tion unread# "o/e%er& (roble0s arise /ithin (hiloso(hi-al /orld %ie/s /hi-h originate in -ertain (re5udi-es on the (art o' the (hiloso(hers& rather than in the natural se7uen-e o' hu0an thin.ing in general# 2hat has so 'ar been dealt /ith here a((ears to 0e to be a tas. that -on'ronts e%ery hu0an being /ho is stri%ing 'or -larity about 0an8s being and his relationshi( to the /orld# 2hat 'ollo/s& ho/e%er& is rather a (roble0 /hi-h -ertain (hiloso(hers de0and should be -onsidered /hen su-h 7uestions are under dis-ussion as those dealt /ith here& be-ause through their /hole /ay o' thin.ing& they ha%e -reated di''i-ulties /hi-h do not other/ise e!ist# I' one si0(ly ignores su-h (roble0s& -ertain (eo(le /ill soon -o0e 'or/ard /ith a--usations o' dilettantis0 and so on# And the o(inion arises that the author o' a dis-ussion su-h as this boo. -ontains has not thought out his (osition in regard to those %ie/s he does not 0ention in the boo.# The (roble0 to /hi-h I re'er is this4 There are thin.ers /ho are o' the o(inion that a (arti-ular di''i-ulty e!ists /hen it is a 7uestion o' understanding ho/ the soul li'e o' another (erson -an a''e-t one8s o/n <the soul li'e o' the obser%er=# They say4 y -ons-ious /orld is en-losed /ithin 0e3 the -ons-ious /orld o' another (erson li.e/ise is en-losed /ithin hi0# I -annot see into the /orld o' another8s -ons-iousness# "o/& then& do I -o0e to .no/ that /e share the sa0e /orld6 A /orld %ie/ /hi-h -onsiders that 'ro0 a -ons-ious s(here it is (ossible to dra/ -on-lusions about an un-ons-ious s(here that -an ne%er be-o0e -ons-ious& atte0(ts to sol%e this di''i-ulty in the 'ollo/ing /ay# This /orld %ie/ says4 The -ontent o' 0y -ons-iousness is only a re(resentati%e o' a real /orld /hi-h I -annot -ons-iously rea-h# In that real /orld lies the un.no/n -ause o' the -ontent o' 0y -ons-iousness# In that /orld is also 0y real being& o' /hi-h li.e/ise I ha%e in 0y -ons-iousness only a re(resentati%e# And in it e!ists also the being o' the other (erson /ho -on'ronts 0e# 2hat is e!(erien-ed -ons-iously by hi0 has its -orres(onding reality in his real being& inde(endent o' his -ons-iousness# This reality rea-ts on 0y 'unda0ental but un-ons-ious being in the s(here that -annot be-o0e -ons-ious& and in this /ay a re(resentati%e that is 7uite inde(endent o' 0y -ons-ious e!(erien-e is (rodu-ed in 0y -ons-iousness# One sees here that to the s(here a--essible to 0y

-ons-iousness& hy(otheti-ally is added another s(here& ina--essible to 0y -ons-iousness& and this is done be-ause it is belie%ed that /e /ould other/ise be 'or-ed to 0aintain that the /hole e!ternal /orld /hi-h see0s to -on'ront 0e is only a /orld o' 0y -ons-iousness& and this /ould result in the R soli(sisti- 1absurdity that the other (ersons also e!ist only in 0y -ons-iousness# It is (ossible to attain -larity about this (roble0& /hi-h has been -reated by se%eral o' the 0ore re-ent a((roa-hes to a theory o' .no/ledge& i' one endea%ors to sur%ey the 0atter 'ro0 the (oint o' %ie/ that obser%es 'a-ts in a--ordan-e /ith their s(iritual as(e-t& as (resented in this boo.# To begin /ith& /hat do I ha%e be'ore 0e /hen I -on'ront another (ersonality6 Let us -onsider /hat the %ery 'irst i0(ression is# The 'irst i0(ression is the (hysi-al& bodily a((earan-e o' the other (erson& gi%en 0e as (er-e(tion& then the audible (er-e(tion o' /hat he is saying& and so on# I do not 0erely stare at all this3 it sets 0y thin.ing a-ti%ity in 0otion# To the e!tent that I -on'ront the other (ersonality /ith 0y thin.ing& the (er-e(tions be-o0e trans(arent to 0y soul# To the e!tent that I gras( the (er-e(tions in thin.ing& I a0 obliged to say that they are not at all /hat they a((ear to be to the e!ternal senses# 2ithin the (er-e(tions as they a((ear dire-tly to the senses so0ething else is re%ealed& na0ely /hat they are indire-tly# The 'a-t that I bring the0 be'ore 0e 0eans at the sa0e ti0e their e!tin-tion as 0ere a((earan-es to the senses# But /hat& in their e!tin-tion& they bring to re%elation& this& 'or the duration o' its e''e-t on 0e& 'or-es 0e 1 as a thin.ing being 1 to e!tinguish 0y o/n thin.ing and to (ut in its (la-e the thin.ing o' /hat is re%ealed# And this thin.ing I gras( as an e!(erien-e that is li.e the e!(erien-e o' 0y o/n thin.ing# I ha%e really (er-ei%ed the thin.ing o' the other# For the dire-t (er-e(tions& /hi-h e!tinguish the0sel%es as a((earan-es to the senses& are gras(ed by 0y thin.ing& and this is a (ro-ess that ta.es (la-e -o0(letely /ithin 0y -ons-iousness3 it -onsists in the 'a-t that the thin.ing o' the other ta.es the (la-e o' 0y thin.ing# The di%ision bet/een the t/o s(heres o' -ons-iousness is a-tually -an-elled out through the e!tin-tion o' the a((earan-es to the senses# In 0y -ons-iousness this e!(resses itsel' in the 'a-t that in e!(erien-ing the -ontent o' the other8s -ons-iousness I a0 a/are o' 0y o/n -ons-iousness as little as I a0 a/are o' it in drea0less slee(# Iust as 0y day1-ons-iousness is e!-luded in drea0less slee(& so in the (er-ei%ing o' the 'oreign -ontent o' -ons-iousness& the -ontent o' 0y o/n is e!-luded# There are t/o reasons /hy one tends to be deluded about these 'a-ts3 one is that in (er-ei%ing the other (erson& the e!tin-tion o' the -ontent o' one8s o/n -ons-iousness is re(la-ed not by un-ons-iousness as in slee(& but by the -ontent o' the other8s -ons-iousness3 the other reason is that the alternation bet/een e!tin-tion and re1a((earan-e o' sel'1-ons-iousness o--urs too 7ui-.ly to be noti-ed in ordinary li'e# 1 This /hole (roble0 -annot be sol%ed by an arti'i-ial -onstru-tion o' -on-e(ts /hi-h dra/s -on-lusions 'ro0 /hat is -ons-ious to /hat -an ne%er be-o0e -ons-ious& but by a-tual e!(erien-e o' /hat o--urs in the union o' thin.ing /ith (er-e(tion# Instan-es li.e the abo%e o'ten o--ur in regard to 0any (roble0s /hi-h a((ear in (hiloso(hi-al literature# Thin.ers should see. the (ath to un(re5udi-ed obser%ation in a--ordan-e /ith 'a-ts& both (hysi-al and s(iritual& but instead they ere-t an arti'i-ial -onstru-tion o' -on-e(ts& inserting this bet/een the0sel%es and reality#

Eduard %on "art0ann& in an essay@, in-ludes 0y :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity a0ong (hiloso(hi-al /or.s /hi-h are based on 9e(iste0ologi-al 0onis0#; And this theory is re5e-ted by hi0 as one that -annot e%en be -onsidered# The reason 'or this is as 'ollo/s# A--ording to the %ie/(oint e!(ressed in the essay 0entioned abo%e& only three (ossible e(iste0ologi-al stand(oints e!ist# The 'irst is /hen a (erson re0ains at the nai%e stand(oint and ta.es (er-ei%ed (heno0ena to be realities e!isting outside o' hu0an -ons-iousness# In this -ase -riti-al insight is la-.ing# It is not re-ognized that a'ter all one re0ains /ith the -ontent o' one8s -ons-iousness 0erely /ithin one8s o/n -ons-iousness# It is not realized that one is not dealing /ith a 9table1in1itsel'; but only /ith the ob5e-t o' one8s o/n -ons-iousness# One re0aining at this stand(oint& or returning to it 'or any reason& is a nai%e realist# "o/e%er& this stand(oint is i0(ossible& 'or it o%erloo.s the 'a-t that -ons-iousness has no other ob5e-t than itsel'# The se-ond stand(oint is /hen all this is re-ognized and is ta.en into a--ount 'ully# Then to begin /ith& one be-o0es a trans-endental idealist# As trans-endental idealist one has to gi%e u( ho(e that anything 'ro0 a 9thing1in1itsel'; -ould e%er rea-h hu0an -ons-iousness# And i' one is -onsistent& then it is i0(ossible not to be-o0e an absolute illusionist# For the /orld one -on'ronts is trans'or0ed into a 0ere su0 o' ob5e-ts o' -ons-iousness& and indeed only ob5e-ts o' one8s o/n -ons-iousness# One is 'or-ed to thin. o' other (eo(le too 1 absurd though it is 1 as being (resent only as the -ontent o' one8s o/n -ons-iousness# A--ording to %on "art0ann the only (ossible stand(oint is the third one& trans-endental realis0# This %ie/ assu0es that 9things1in1the0sel%es; e!ist& but our -ons-iousness -annot ha%e dire-t e!(erien-e o' the0 in any /ay# Beyond hu0an -ons-iousness 1 in a /ay that re0ains un-ons-ious 1 they are said to -ause ob5e-ts o' -ons-iousness to a((ear in hu0an -ons-iousness# All /e -an do is to dra/ -on-lusions about these 9things1in1the0sel%es8 F 'ro0 the 0erely re(resented -ontent o' our -ons-iousness /hi-h /e e!(erien-e# In the essay 0entioned abo%e& Eduard %on "art0ann 0aintains that 9e(iste0ologi-al 0onis0; 1 and this he -onsiders 0y stand(oint to be 1 /ould in reality ha%e to -on'ess to one o' the three stand(oints 5ust 0entioned3 this is not done& be-ause the e(iste0ologi-al 0onist does not dra/ the a-tual -on-lusion o' his (resu((ositions# The essay goes on to say4 9I' one /ants to 'ind out /hat (osition a su((osed 0onist o--u(ies in regard to a theory o' .no/ledge& it is only ne-essary to as. hi0 -ertain 7uestions and -o0(el hi0 to ans/er the0# Joluntarily he /ill not gi%e any o(inion on these (oints& and he /ill go to any length to a%oid ans/ering dire-t 7uestions on the0& be-ause ea-h ans/er /ill sho/ that as a 0onist his -lai0 to belong to so0e other stand(oint than one o' the abo%e three& in relation to a theory o' .no/ledge& is out o' the 7uestion# These 7uestions are as 'ollo/s4 )= Are things -ontinuous or inter0ittent in their e!isten-e6 I' the ans/er is4 They are -ontinuous& then /e are dealing /ith one 'or0 or another o' nai%e realis0# I' the ans/er is4 They are inter0ittent& then /e ha%e trans-endental idealis0# But i' the ans/er is4 They are on the one hand -ontinuous <as -ontent o' the absolute -ons-iousness& or as un-ons-ious re(resentations& or e!isting as (ossibilities o' (er-e(tions=& on the other hand they are inter0ittent <as -ontent o' li0ited -ons-iousness=& then /e re-ognize trans-endental realis0# 1 += I' three (ersons sit at a table& ho/ 0any e!a0(les o' the table are (resent6 "e /ho ans/ers4 One& is a nai%e realist3 he /ho ans/ers4 Three& is a trans-endental idealist3 but he /ho ans/ers4 Four& is a trans-endental realist# This last ans/er does indeed (resu((ose that it is legiti0ate to (ut under the one heading&

8e!a0(les o' the table8 so0ething so dissi0ilar as the one table as thing1in1itsel'& and the three tables as (er-e(tual ob5e-ts in the three -ons-iousnesses# 2hoe%er 'inds this too 0u-h /ill ha%e to ans/er Fone and three8 instead o' F'our#8 1 ,= I' t/o (ersons are in a roo0 by the0sel%es& ho/ 0any e!a0(les o' these (ersons are (resent6 One ans/ering4 T/o& is a nai%e realist3 one ans/ering4 Four <na0ely& one FI8 and one Fother8 in ea-h o' the t/o -ons-iousnesses=& is a trans-endental idealist3 but one ans/ering4 Si! <na0ely& t/o (ersons as Fthings1in1the0sel%es8 and 'our ob5e-ts o' re(resentation o' (ersons in the t/o -ons-iousnesses=& is a trans-endental realist# One /ishing to (ro%e that e(iste0ologi-al 0onis0 is a di''erent stand(oint 'ro0 any o' these three& /ould ha%e to ans/er ea-h o' the abo%e 7uestions di''erently& and I -annot i0agine /hat su-h ans/ers -ould be#; The ans/ers o' The :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity /ould be4 )= "e /ho only gras(s the (er-e(tual -ontent4 and ta.es this to be the reality& is a nai%e realist3 he does not 0a.e it -lear to hi0sel' that he -an a-tually regard the (er-e(tual -ontent as enduring only so long as he is loo.ing at it and he 0ust& there'ore& thin. o' /hat he has be'ore hi0 as inter0ittent# "o/e%er& as soon as he realizes that reality is (resent only /hen the (er-e(tual -ontent is (er0eated by thought& he rea-hes the insight that the (er-e(tual -ontent that -o0es to 0eet hi0 as inter0ittent& is re%ealed as -ontinuous /hen it is (er0eated /ith /hat thin.ing elaborates# There'ore4 the (er-e(tual -ontent& gras(ed by a thin.ing that is also e!(erien-ed& is -ontinuous& /hereas /hat is only (er-ei%ed 0ust be thought o' as inter0ittent 1 that is& i' it /ere real& /hi-h is not the -ase# 1 += 2hen three (ersons are sitting at a table& ho/ 0any e!a0(les o' the table are (resent6 One table only is (resent3 but as long as the three (ersons re0ain at their (er-e(tual (i-tures they /ill ha%e to say4 These (er-e(tual (i-tures are no reality at all# And as soon as they (ass o%er to the table as gras(ed in their thin.ing& there is re%ealed to the0 the one reality o' the table3 /ith their three -ontents o' -ons-iousness they are united in this one reality# 1 ,= 2hen t/o (ersons are in a roo0 by the0sel%es& ho/ 0any e!a0(les o' these (ersons are (resent6 There are 0ost de'initely not si! e!a0(les (resent 1 not e%en in the sense o' trans-endental realis0 1 there are t/o# Only to begin /ith& ea-h o' the t/o (ersons has 0erely the unreal (er-e(tual1(i-ture o' hi0sel' as /ell as that o' the other (erson# O' these (i-tures there are 'our& and the result o' their (resen-e in the thin.ing1a-ti%ity o' the t/o (ersons is that reality is gras(ed# In their thin.ing1a-ti%ity ea-h o' the (ersons goes beyond the s(here o' his o/n -ons-iousness3 /ithin ea-h o' the0 li%es the s(here o' the other (erson8s -ons-iousness& as /ell as his o/n# At 0o0ents /hen this 0erging ta.es (la-e& the (ersons are as little -on'ined /ithin their o/n -ons-iousness as they are in slee(# But the ne!t 0o0ent& -ons-iousness o' the 0erging /ith the other (erson returns& so that the -ons-iousness o' ea-h (erson 1 in his e!(erien-e o' thin.ing 1 gras(s hi0sel' and the other# I .no/ that the trans-endental realist des-ribes this as a rela(se into nai%e realis0# But then I ha%e already (ointed out in this boo. that nai%e realis0 retains its 5usti'i-ation /hen a((lied to a thin.ing that is e!(erien-ed# The trans-endental realist does not enter into the a-tual 'a-ts -on-erned in the (ro-ess o' .no/ledge3 he e!-ludes hi0sel' 'ro0 the0 by the net/or. o' thoughts in /hi-h he gets entangled# Also& the 0onis0 /hi-h is (resented in the :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity should not be -alled 9e(iste0ologi-al&; but rather& i' a na0e is /anted& a 0onis0 o' thought# All this has been 0isunderstood by Eduard %on "art0ann# "e did not enter into the s(e-i'i- (oints raised

in the :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity& but 0aintained that I had 0ade an atte0(t to -o0bine "egel8s uni%ersalisti- (anlogis0@B /ith "u0e8s@D indi%idualisti(heno0enalis0@@ /hereas in a-tual 'a-t the :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity has no si0ilarity /ith these t/o %ie/s it is su((osed to -o0bine# <This is also the reason I did not 'eel in-lined to -o0(are 0y %ie/ /ith the 9e(iste0ologi-al 0onis0; o' Iohannes Reh0.e&@A 'or e!a0(le# In 'a-t& the %ie/(oint o' the :hiloso(hy o' S(iritual A-ti%ity is utterly di''erent 'ro0 /hat Eduard %on "art0ann and others -all e(iste0ologi-al 0onis0#=

SECOND APPENDIX In this A((endi! is re(eated& in all essentials& /hat ser%ed as a .ind o' 9Fore/ord; to the 'irst edition o' this boo. <)?*B=# In this edition I (la-e it as an a((endi! be-ause it -on%eys the .ind o' thoughts that o--u(ied 0e /hen I /rote the boo. t/enty1'i%e years ago& rather than ha%ing any dire-t bearing on the -ontent# It is not (ossible to o0it it altogether& sin-e the o(inion -ro(s u(& again and again& that be-ause o' 0y /ritings on the s-ien-e o' the s(irit& I ha%e to su((ress so0e o' 0y earlier /ritings# L'ootnote4 Only the %ery 'irst o(ening senten-es <in the 'irst edition= are le't out here& be-ause to1day they see0 to 0e to be 7uite irrele%ant3 /hereas to say the rest see0s to 0e as ne-essary to1day as it did then& des(ite the (re%alent s-ienti'i- trend o' thought& and in 'a-t 5ust be-ause o' it#M Our age is one in /hi-h truth 0ust be sought in the de(ths o' hu0an nature# O' S-hiller8s t/o /ell1.no/n (aths& it /ill be the se-ond that 0ost a((eals to 0odern 0an4

9Truth see. /e both 1 Thou in the li'e /ithout thee and around3 I in the heart /ithin# By both -an Truth ali.e be 'ound# The healthy eye -an through the /orld the great $reator tra-.3 The healthy heart is but the glass /hi-h gi%es $reation ba-.#;

92ahrheit su-hen /ir beide& du aussen i0 Leben& i-h innen In de0 "erren& und so 'indet sie 5eder ge/iss# Ist das Auge gesund& so begegnet es aussen da0 S-hS('er3 Ist es das "erz& dann ge/iss s(iegelt es innen die 2elt#;

<transl# by E# Bul/er Lytton= A truth /hi-h -o0es to us 'ro0 outside al/ays bears the sta0( o' un-ertainty# Only that truth /hi-h a((ears to us as -o0ing 'ro0 /ithin oursel%es do /e trust# Only truth -an bring us se-urity in de%elo(ing our indi%idual (o/ers# In so0eone tor0ented by doubts& the (o/ers are /ea.ened# "e -an 'ind no goal 'or his -reati%e (o/ers in a /orld that a((ears to hi0 as an enig0a# No longer do /e 0erely /ant to belie%e3 /e /ant to .no/# Belie' de0ands a-.no/ledge0ent o' truths /hi-h are not 7uite -lear to us# But /hat is not -learly re-ognized goes against /hat is indi%idual in us& /hi-h /ants to e!(erien-e e%erything in the de(th o' its being# Only that .ind o' .no/ing satis'ies us /hi-h is not sub5e-ted to any e!ternal standard& but s(rings 'ro0 the inner e!(erien-e o' our (ersonality# Nor do /e /ant a .ind o' .no/ledge /hi-h has be-o0e hardened into 'or0ulas and is stored a/ay& %alid 'or all ti0e# Ea-h o' us -onsiders hi0sel' 5usti'ied in (ro-eeding 'ro0 his i00ediate e!(erien-e& 'ro0 the 'a-ts he .no/s& and 'ro0 there going 'or/ard to gain .no/ledge o' the /hole uni%erse# 2e stri%e 'or -ertainty in .no/ledge& but ea-h in his o/n /ay# Our s-ienti'i- tea-hings& too& should no longer ta.e a 'or0 that i0(lies their a--e(tan-e to be a -o0(ulsion# Today no one should gi%e a s-ienti'i- /or. a title li.e that Fi-hte on-e ga%e a boo.4 9A :ellu-id Re(ort 'or the Broader :ubli- -on-erning the Essential Nature o' Re-ent :hiloso(hies# An Atte0(t to $o0(el the Reader to Understand#; To1day no one is to be -o0(elled to understand# 2e de0and neither a--e(tan-e nor agree0ent 'ro0 anyone unless his o/n (arti-ular& indi%idual need urges hi0 to the %ie/ in 7uestion# Today e%en the still i00ature hu0an being& the -hild& should not ha%e .no/ledge -ra00ed into hi03 rather /e should see. to de%elo( his 'a-ulties so that he no longer needs to be -o0(elled to understand& but understands# I a0 under no illusion -on-erning these -hara-teristi-s o' the (resent age# I .no/ ho/ 0u-h o' a stereoty(i-al attitude& la-.ing all indi%iduality& is (re%alent e%ery/here# But I also .no/ that 0any o' 0y -onte0(oraries stri%e to order their li%es in the dire-tion I ha%e indi-ated# To the0 I /ould dedi-ate this boo.# It is not 0eant to be the 9only (ossible; /ay that leads to truth& but it des-ribes a (ath ta.en by one /hose heart is set u(on truth# This boo. at 'irst leads the reader into abstra-t regions& /here thought 0ust ha%e shar( outlines i' it is to rea-h se-ure -on-lusions# But the reader is also led out o' these arid -on-e(ts into -on-rete li'e# I a0 -on%in-ed that one 0ust raise onesel' u( into the ethereal real0 o' -on-e(ts i' one /ants to e!(erien-e e!isten-e in all its as(e-ts# One understanding only the (leasures o' the senses& 0isses the essential en5oy0ents o' li'e# Oriental sages 0a.e their dis-i(les li%e a li'e o' resignation and as-eti-is0 'or years be'ore they i0(art their o/n /isdo0 to the0# The 2estern /orld no longer de0ands (ious e!er-ises and as-eti- (ra-ti-es as a (re(aration 'or s-ien-e& but it does re7uire that

one should ha%e the good /ill to /ithdra/ o--asionally 'ro0 the i00ediate i0(ressions o' li'e and enter the real0 o' (ure thought# The s(heres o' li'e are 0any& and 'or ea-h o' the0 s(e-ial s-ien-es de%elo(# But li'e itsel' is a /hole& and the 0ore the s-ien-es stri%e to (enetrate into the de(ths o' the se(arate s(heres& the 0ore they /ithdra/ the0sel%es 'ro0 seeing the /orld as a li%ing unity# There 0ust be a .no/ledge /hi-h see.s in the se(arate s-ien-es the (rin-i(le that leads 0an ba-. to the 'ulness o' li'e on-e 0ore# Through his .no/ledge the resear-her in a s(e-ial bran-h o' s-ien-e /ants to be-o0e -ons-ious o' the /orld and ho/ it /or.s3 in this boo. the ai0 is a (hiloso(hi-al one4 s-ien-e itsel' 0ust be-o0e a li%ing& organientity# The %arious bran-hes o' s-ien-e are (reli0inary stages o' the s-ien-e stri%en 'or here# A si0ilar relation is to be 'ound in art# The -o0(oser8s /or. is based on the theory o' -o0(osition# This latter is a .no/ledge /hi-h is a ne-essary (rere7uisite 'or -o0(osing# In -o0(osing& the la/ o' -o0(osition ser%es li'e& that is& it ser%es true reality# In e!a-tly the sa0e sense (hiloso(hy is an art# All genuine (hiloso(hers ha%e truly been artists in -on-e(ts# For the0& hu0an ideas be-o0e the 0aterial 'or art& and the s-ienti'i0ethod be-o0es artisti- te-hni7ue# Abstra-t thin.ing thereby gains -on-rete& indi%idual li'e# Ideas be-o0e li'e1'or-es# 2e then ha%e not 5ust a .no/ledge o' things& but /e ha%e 0ade .no/ledge into a real organis0& ruled by its o/n la/s3 the reality o' our a-ti%e -ons-iousness has risen beyond a 0ere (assi%e re-e(tion o' truths# "o/ (hiloso(hy as an art is related to hu0an 'reedo0 <s(iritual a-ti%ity=& /hat 'reedo0 is& and /hether /e do or -an (arti-i(ate in it& is the (rin-i(al (roble0 dealt /ith in 0y boo.# All other s-ienti'i- dis-ussions are in-luded solely be-ause they ulti0ately thro/ light on this 7uestion /hi-h& in 0y o(inion& is 0an8s 0ost i00ediate -on-ern# These (ages o''er a 9:hiloso(hy o' Freedo0#; All s-ien-e /ould be nothing but the satis'a-tion o' idle -uriosity i' it did not stri%e to ele%ate the %alue o' e!isten-e o' the hu0an (ersonality# The s-ien-es attain their true %alue only through (resenting the signi'i-an-e o' their results in relation to 0an# The ulti0ate goal o' the indi%idual -annot be the ennoble0ent o' one single soul1'a-ulty only& but a de%elo(0ent o' all the -a(a-ities that slu0ber /ithin us# All .no/ledge has %alue only inso'ar as it is a -ontribution to the all1round un'olding o' 0an8s entire nature# There'ore& in this boo. the relation bet/een s-ien-e and li'e is not regarded in the sense that 0an 0ust bo/ do/n to ideas and let the0 ensla%e hi03 rather the relation should be that 0an -on7uers the /orld o' ideas in order to 0a.e use o' it 'or his hu0an ai0s& /hi-h go beyond the ai0s o' 0ere s-ien-e# One 0ust be able to -on'ront the idea in li%ing e!(erien-e& or else 'all into bondage to it#