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6. Pointers, Structs, and Arrays 1. Juli 2011

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Outline

Recapitulation Pointers Dynamic Memory Allocation Structs Arrays Bubble Sort Strings

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Recapitulation
What is an enum? How is it encoded? What is a for loop? What is a declaration and what is a denition? What is a namespace for? What is a header le and how do we use it? What is an enum? What happens at the end of a scope? What is the difference between call-by-value and call-by-reference? Why is there a range for all primitive variables in C?

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6.1. Pointers
Memory
We have talked a lot about the

mapping from variables to addresses. However, we have never analysed the real addresses.

21: 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28:

The memory is enumerated using an

20

// int a

integer.
Pointers are variables that hold the

memory number (address) instead of a value.

/ / holds a f l o a t i n g p o i n t / / number double a ; int a; / / h o l d s address o f a f l o a t i n g / / p o i n t number int b;

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We Have Already Used Pointers Before

: C/C++ only supports call-by-value. Call-by-reference is not a language concept.

v o i d f o o ( i n t & a ) { / / a c t u a l l y , C / C++ does n o t s u p p o r t t h i s } ... i n t a = 20; foo ( a ) ;

v o i d f o o ( i n t a ) { / / address now i s copied ( c a l l byv a l u e ) / / work on address o f a , n o t on a d i r e c t l y } ... i n t a = 20; f o o ( / address o f a / ) ;

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Pointers And Addresses

The * operator declares a pointer. int a; i n t p ;

The & operator returns the address of a variable (address operator or reference

operator).
p = &a ;

The * operator makes an operation act on the location an pointers points to

instead of the pointer itself (dereferencing operator.

a += 1 0 ; ( p ) += 1 0 ;

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Pointers and the Memory

Memory

int a; a = 20;
// int a // pointer p

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20 22

int *p; p = &a; a++; p++; (*p)++; *p++; // try this at home

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Exercise

void foo ( i n t & a ) { a +=1; } i n t main ( ) { i n t a = 20; foo ( a ) ; std : : cout < < a; ... }

Rewrite exactly this code without a return statement and without the reference operator.

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Solution
void foo ( i n t a ) { ( a ) + = 1 ; / / i n d i r e c t memory access } i n t main ( ) { i n t a = 2 0 ; / / d i r e c t memory access f o o (&a ) ; std : : cout < < a; ... }

Theres three modications. Analyse the call-by-value for the pointer. Which solution is the better/nicer solution?

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When to Use Pointers

void foo ( i n t a ) { (a ) + + ; . .. a ++; / / That c o u l d n o t have happened w i t h r e f e r e n c e s }

Pointers are difcult to handle (lots of syntactic overhead). We know how to do it, but do collaborators know? Avoid it whenever possible. Use C++ references instead.

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Pointer Syntax
The pointer operator binds to the right neighbour.
int a; i n t b1 ; i n t b2 ; i n t b3 ; i n t c1 , c2 ; i n t c3 , c4 ; i n t c5 , c6 ; i n t c7 , c8 ; i n t c9 ; c7 = c8 ; c7 = c8 ; c7 = c8 ; c7 = c8 ;

By the way, often people write int* p=0; to make the pointer point to nothing. However, also int* p = 20; would be ne (and for almost 100 percent is a bug).

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Pointers and Scopes

i n t p = &a ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <2; i ++) { i n t a = 2 i ; p = &a ; std : : cout < < a < < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < p < < std : : endl } std : : cout < < a < < s t d : : e n d l ; / / does t h i s work? std : : cout < < p < < s t d : : e n d l ; / / does t h i s work?

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Pointers and Scopes

i n t p = &a ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <2; i ++) { i n t a = 2 i ; p = &a ; std : : cout < < a < < std : : endl ; std : : cout < < p < < std : : endl } std : : cout < < a < < s t d : : e n d l ; / / does t h i s work? std : : cout < < p < < s t d : : e n d l ; / / does t h i s work?

With pointers, we can violate the end-of-scope rules, i.e. we can access variables that do not exist anymore. This is the principle of all these buffer overrun malware.

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6.2. Dynamic Memory Allocation Switching Off the Lifecycle Management

double p ; p = new double ; / / now , p p o i n t s t o an e x i s t i n g new v a r i a b l e p = 2 0 ; delete p ; p = 3 0 ; / / now v a r i a b l e i s f r e e d , b u t p s t i l l p o i n t s / / to t h i s variable .

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Two Memory Leaks

double p ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <20; i ++) { p = new double ; } delete p ;

f o r ( i n t i =0; i <20; i ++) { double p = new double ; }

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Two Memory Leaks

double p ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <20; i ++) { p = new double ; } delete p ;

f o r ( i n t i =0; i <20; i ++) { double p = new double ; }

The upper operation creates 20 doubles on the heap, but it destroys only one double in the end. Consequently, the remaining 19 doubles are lost for the future program execution. Lets sketch the memory layout! The second one destroys the pointer but not the space where the pointer is pointing to. This is why many applications crash after several hours of execution.

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6.3. Structsn-Tuples
/ T h i s r e p r e s e n t s one s t u d e n t i n our o n l i n e system / s t r u c t Student { int number ; double averageGrade ; };

Structs allow us to create user-dened data structures (n-tuples). Once declared, we can use them like built-in types. C/C++ takes care of the memory layout. This is particularly important for arrays of

structs.

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Declaration and Denition

/ / T e l l s c o m p i l e r t h a t something / / l i k e a StudentID does e x i s t s t r u c t StudentID ; / T h i s r e p r e s e n t s one s t u d e n t i n our o n l i n e system / s t r u c t Student { int number ; double averageGrade ; StudentID i d ; };

For pointers (and references), it is sufcient to tell the compiler that the type does

exist (declaration).
The declaration is needed for recursive denitions of structs. The declaration is needed for more the composition of structs.

Well rst analyse struct composition.

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Struct Composition (Attributes)

/ / T e l l s c o m p i l e r t h a t something / / l i k e a StudentID does e x i s t s t r u c t StudentID { int photoNumber ; bool isWinterTerm ; }; / T h i s r e p r e s e n t s one s t u d e n t i n our o n l i n e system / s t r u c t Student { int number ; double averageGrade ; StudentID i d ; / / i t i s n t a p o i n t e r anymore };

Take a sheet of paper and sketch the memory layout for an instance of Student if the id is a pointer and if it is not a pointer.

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Memory

Memory

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40 true

// photoNo // winter term

1234 3.4 22

// number // average grade // pointer

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1234 3.4 40 true

// number // average grade // photoNo // winter term

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Structs Referencing Structs

struct IntegerEntry { int value ; I n t e g e r E n t r y next ; };

Take a sheet of paper and sketch the memory layout for an instance of IntegerEntry referencing another instance of IntegerEntry. What could be the reasoning behind such a data structure?
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40 26

// value // next

23 0

// value // next

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Accessing the Elements of a Struct

/ / T e l l s c o m p i l e r t h a t something l i k e a StudentID does e x i s t struct IntegerEntry { int value ; I n t e g e r E n t r y next ; }; ... I n t e g e r E n t r y myEntry ; myEntry . v a l u e = 2 0 ; myEntry . n e x t = 0 ; I n t e g e r E n t r y p E n t r y = new I n t e g e r E n t r y ; pEntry >v a l u e = 2 0 ; pEntry >n e x t = 0 ; delete pEntry ;

The dot gives access to sub-elds. The -> operator gives access to sub-elds of pointers. Structs can be used with new as well.

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The Single Linked List

/ / T e l l s c o m p i l e r t h a t something l i k e a StudentID does e x i s t struct IntegerEntry { int value ; I n t e g e r E n t r y next ; }; void p r i n t L i s t ( IntegerEntry f i r s t E n t r y ) { while ( f i r s t E n t r y !=0) { std : : cout < < firstEntry >v a l u e < < ; firstEntry = firstEntry >n e x t ; } } v o i d append ( I n t e g e r E n t r y f i r s t E n t r y , i n t v a l u e ) { while ( f i r s t E n t r y >n e x t ! = 0 ) { firstEntry = firstEntry >n e x t ; } I n t e g e r E n t r y newEntry = new I n t e g e r E n t r y ; firstEntry >n e x t = newEntry ; newEntry >n e x t = 0 ; newEntry >v a l u e = v a l u e ; }

Can you rewrite append() recursively?

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Remove Element Operation

Play around with the list and create a

list [2, 4, 6, 8].

Write a remove operation that accepts

an integer k and removes the kth entry from the list.

Invoke it with remove(2). Print the result to the terminal. It

should return [2, 4, 8].

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An Excursus on Lists and Complexitythe big-O notation

f O(nk ) Doesnt grow faster than nk .

Faster or slower refers to the leading term of the runtime polynomial. Constants or polynomials of lower order are not considered. Often, one writes = or says is of instead of is contained in. What does this mean for our list? What is the n there?

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An Excursus on Lists and Complexitythe big-O notation

f O(nk ) Doesnt grow faster than nk .

Faster or slower refers to the leading term of the runtime polynomial. Constants or polynomials of lower order are not considered. Often, one writes = or says is of instead of is contained in. What does this mean for our list? What is the n there? Study the list in terms of n list entries. If we remove the rst element, this is a xed number of operations (O (1)). If we append an element, our while loop has to run over all n element before we

can append an element (O(n)).

If we search for an element, we have to study each element exactly once (O (n)). What could we do to make the append operation run faster?

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6.4. Arrays
Application example: At the university, we wanna keep track of four grades a student did throughout his Masters studies.
double double double double ... / Takes grades , computes t h e average , and r e t u r n s t h i s v a l u e . / double computeAverage ( c o n s t double& g1 , c o n s t double& g2 , . . . ) { double r e s u l t = g1+g2+g3+g4 ; r e s u l t /= 4 . 0 ; return result ; } analysis1 ; analysis2 ; linearAlgebra ; stochastics ;

Is this impractical, if we wanna store more than four values.

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Array Declaration
Memory

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// grade[0] // grade[1] // grade[2] // grade[3]

double grade [ 4 ] ; ...

22

// grade (pointer)

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Array Access
Memory

double grade [ 4 ] ; ...

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// grade[0] // grade[1] // grade[2] // grade[3]

grade [ 0 ] grade [ 2 ] grade [ 3 ] grade [ 1 ]

= = = =

1.3; 3.3; 1.0; 4.0;

22

// grade (pointer)

Depending on the context, [] either denes the size of an array (denition) or gives access to individual entries of an array (access).

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Arrays & Pointers

double grade [ 4 ] ; grade [ 0 ] = 1 . 3 ; grade [ 2 ] = 3 . 3 ; grade [ 3 ] = 1 . 0 ; grade [ 1 ] = 4 . 0 ; double p = grade ; i f ( grade [ 0 ] = = p ) ... i f ( grade [ 1 ] = = ( p + 1 ) ) . . .

/ / always t r u e / / always t r u e

An array variable is basically a pointer to the rst element of the array. An array element access internally implies pointer arithmetics and dereferencing. Again, we thus have to range checks (size of array) at hand at all.

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Grades RevisitedWe need a range variable

/ Takes grades , computes t h e average , and r e t u r n s t h i s value . / double computeAverage ( double grade , int numberOfGrades ) { double r e s u l t = 0 . 0 ; for ( i n t i =0; i <numberOfGrades ; i ++ ) { ... } double s c a l e = numberOfGrades ; r e s u l t /= scale ; return result ; } ... double grade [ 4 ] ;

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Array Arguments
double computeAverage ( double grade [ ] , i n t numberOfGrades ) { ... } double computeAverage ( c o n s t double grade [ ] , i n t numberOfGrades ) { ... }

This time, the user is not allowed to modify any entry of grade.

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Pitfalls
i n t gradesBSc , gradesMSc [ 5 ] ; gradesMSc [ 5 ] = 2 . 3 ; gradesMSc [ 3 ] + + ; i n t p0 = gradesMSc ; i n t p1 = &gradesMSc [ 0 ] ; i n t p2 = &gradesMSc [ 1 ] ; gradesMSc ++; / / t h a t does n o t work p2 ++; / / arrrgh

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Dynamic Arrays
double grades = new double [ 4 5 ] ; d e l e t e [ ] grades ;

We can create arrays on the heap. Size might be a variable, too. Corresponding delete has to be a delete[]. delete without brackets just deletes

the rst value.

If we omit delete, we will get a memory leak. If we use the array after delete or before new, it points to garbage (remember:

grades is only a pointer).

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Array As Return Functions

double createThreeRandomGrades ( ) { double r e s u l t [ 3 ] ; result [0] = 1.3; result [1] = 2.7; result [2] = 1.0; return result ; }

double createThreeRandomGrades ( ) { double r e s u l t = new double [ 3 ] ; result [0] = 1.3; result [1] = 2.7; result [2] = 1.0; return result ; }

At the end of the scope, the pointer is destroyed always. Arrays on the heap are not destroyed. This is called a factory mechanism. Someone else invoking the function has to delete the array.

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Multidimensional Arrays
double m a t r i x [ 4 ] [ 4 ] ; f o r ( i n t i =0; i <4; i ++) { f o r ( i n t j =0; j <4; j ++) { m a t r i x [ i ] [ j ] = i == j ? 1 . 0 : 0 . 0 ; } } matrix [ 2 ] [ 1 ] = 1.0; matrix [12] = 1.0;

What is the semantics of the for loop? Multidimensional arrays basically are at arrays. C/C++ uses row-major format (different to FORTRAN).

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Arrays of Structs
s t r u c t Person { int age ; double w e i g h t ; };

Person Person p ++;

couple [ 2 ] ; p = couple ;

C/C++ takes care of the memory padding. It stores the entries in the memory in the following order: couple[0].age,

couple[0].weight, couple[1].age, couple[1].weight.

The increment sets the pointer to the subsequent age address.

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Outlook C/C++ Arrays vs. FORTRAN

FORTRAN is claimed to be the language for linear algebra as it is faster. FORTRAN does not provide pointers and dynamic data structures. Consequently, compiler can keep track of who has access where. Consequently, compiler can optimise aggressively (it tries to keep book of all

possible values an array could haveside-effect!).

So, it is all a matter of exclusivity and the const operator.

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6.5. Sorting

How can we sort an array with n entries?

or: Yes We Can (watch a movie)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4RRi ntQc8

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Bubble Sort
void so rt ( int entries [ ] , c o n s t i n t & numberOfEntries ) { bool sorted = t r u e ; while ( sorted ) { sorted = false ; for ( i n t i =0; i <numberOfEntries 1; i ++ ) { i f ( e n t r i e s [ i ]> e n t r i e s [ i + 1 ] ) { ... sorted = true ; } } } }

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Complexity of Bubble Sort

Idea of bubble sort: Run over all elements in the list. Compare two subsequent elements whether they are in the correct order. Swap

them if necessary.
If a swap still had been necessary, run over list again. How expensive is the sorting?

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Complexity of Bubble Sort

Idea of bubble sort: Run over all elements in the list. Compare two subsequent elements whether they are in the correct order. Swap

them if necessary.
If a swap still had been necessary, run over list again. How expensive is the sorting? The number of comparisons is a good metric. So, let n be the number of elements

in our list.
At most (worst case), well need n runs over the list. In the average case, well need n/2 runs over the list. In each run, we have to do n 1 comparisons. Overall, the complexity is O (n2 ). More intelligent (but more complex) sorting algorithms need only O (n log n)

comparisons.

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6.6. Strings
C has no string concept. C++ has a nice string concept. C has chars. And C has arrays. Thus, C has arrays of chars. And C has a mapping of numbers to chars.

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CodesThe ASCII Code

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Termination Codes for Arrays

Memory

21: 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28: 29: 30:
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Lets have the following mapping:

24 12 71 71 14 0

0 Reserved (termination) 12 a 14 o 24 H 71 l

22

// s
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Strings as Arrays
char s [ 6 ] ; s [ 0 ] = H ; s [ 1 ] = a ; s [ 2 ] = l ; s [ 3 ] = l ; s [ 4 ] = o ; s [ 5 ] = 0 ;

Lets have the following mapping: 0 Reserved (termination) 12 a 14 o 24 H 71 l

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Strings are Arrays

char s [ 6 ] ; s [ 0 ] = H ; s [ 1 ] = a ; s [ 2 ] = l ; s [ 3 ] = l ; s [ 4 ] = o ; s [ 5 ] = 0 ; char myString = H a l l o ;

We dont want to pass an integer with each string. Thus, C appends a 0 as last

character.
Thus, the array has one element more than the string has chars. Pascal follows a different variant.

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24 12 71 71 14 0

Write a function length that takes a string and counts the number of entries. This number then is returned.

22

// s
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Length Operation
i n t l e n g t h ( c o n s t char [ ] s ) { i n t length = 0; while ( s [ length ]==0) { l e n g t h ++; } return length ; } char myString = H a l l o ; i n t l e n g t h O f M y S t r i n g = l e n g t h ( myString ) ;

What is copied here (call-by-value)! What happens, if we write char a n o t h e r S t r i n g = myString ;

can we then call length for both strings?

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Copying Strings

char myString = T h i s i s a t e s t ; char myCopy = myString ; d e l e t e [ ] myString ; l e n g t h ( myString )

What happens if we execute this

code?
Write an operation that copies a string.

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6.7. Trees

Remember our single linked list (for

double values). Imagine we wanna hold this list sorted all the time.
What would an insert operation look

like?
What is the (average) runtime of insert

in terms of elements?
How could we reduce this runime to

O(logn)?

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A list with three entries

struct ListEntry { double v a l u e ; ListEntry smallerEntry ; ListEntry biggerEntry ; };

Code the data structure from above,

and
create a list with three values

{0.4, 1.2, 22} (in this order) as follows:

Create list for 0.4 (with two null

pointers).
Create a list element for 1.2 and

6. Pointers, Structs, and Arrays

append it to 0.4. The append function checks whether it is bigger or equal to its current value. It is not, so it is appended to smallerEntry.
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Trees

The example we implemented is a

0.4 -1.2 12

binary tree, as each node has up to two children.

The average depth of this tree is

O(logn).

22 66.6

If we search for an element (as we

have to do if we insert), the search consequently also is in O(logn).

Theres hundreds of variants for trees

with different properties.

Tree algorithms and recursive code go

hand in hand.

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