\

PERGAMON
Personality and Individual Di}erences 16 "0888# 478487

Review

Personality\ temperament and ADHD] a review of the literature

Joseph D[ White
Department of Psychology\ Virginia Commonwealth University\ P[O[ Box 731907\ 797 West Franklin Street\ VA 12173! 1907\ USA Received 8 June 0887^ received in revised form 1 November 0887^ accepted 14 November 0887

Abstract Despite the wealth of research on the etiology\ assessment and treatment of Attention!De_cit: Hyperactivity Disorder\ comparatively few studies have examined personality variables associated with the disorder[ This review examines the evidence of a relationship between ADHD and extraversion\ neuroticism\ openness to experience\ agreeableness and conscientiousness\ as well as temperament factors\ biological correlates\ and situational:environmental factors related to the development of the disorder[ Assessment and treatment planning of ADHD are discussed\ with attention to the biopsychosocial nature of the disorder[ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

0[ Introduction Attention!De_cit:Hyperactivity Disorder "ADHD# is characterized by inattention\ hyperactivity and impulsivity that lasts at least six months\ is present in more than one environment and is developmentally inappropriate "American Psychiatric Association\ 0883#[ ADHD is typically diagnosed in childhood when a concerned parent or teacher refers the child for evaluation after noticing that the child|s inattention\ hyperactivity or impulsivity is having an adverse impact on academic performance\ socialization or compliance with limits set by adults[ Children with ADHD may be primarily inattentive\ primarily impulsive or hyperactive\ or may show a combination of these features[ Children with primarily hyperactive:impulsive type ADHD often display symptoms in the preschool years\ while the primarily inattentive type ADHD may go unnoticed until the school age years or even later "Blum + Mercugliano\ 0886#[ The American Psychiatric Association "0883# estimates that about 2 to 4) of school!age children have ADHD\ with a male to female ratio of 3]08]0[ Due to its widespread prevalence and the
9080!7758:88:, ! see front matter 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[ PII] S 9 0 8 0 ! 7 7 5 8 " 8 7 # 9 9 1 6 2 ! 5

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stress that the disorder can place on both children and the adults charged with their care\ ADHD has been extensively researched by psychologists and other professionals in recent years[ Despite the wealth of research into the etiology\ assessment and treatment of ADHD\ com! paratively few studies have examined personality variables associated with the disorder[

1[ Key personality traits 1[0[ ADHD\ impulsivity and extraversion Much of the research on personality traits of individuals with ADHD has focused on the relationship between extraversion and the impulsivity that is characteristic of ADHD[ Speci_c components of impulsivity\ such as sensation!seeking and disinhibition\ have been correlated with extraversion[ 1[0[0[ Sensation!seeking Eysenck "0856# hypothesized that introverts are more arousable than extraverts\ due to di}erences in ascending reticular activating system "ARAS# functioning[ Excitation of the cerebral cortex is thought to result from stimulation of the ARAS[ According to Eysenck\ introverts may have a more active ARAS\ which leads to higher levels of baseline arousal[ For this reason\ introverts may be more sensitive to environmental stimulation\ whereas extraverts may seek out this stimulation in order to compensate for their lower levels of biological arousal[ However\ Eysenck further states that after certain levels of arousal are reached\ introverts are better able than extraverts to inhibit their arousal responses[ Some empirical evidence exists to support this hypothesis[ In one study\ Eysenck and Eysenck "0856# investigated the salivary secretions which resulted from a drop of lemon juice placed on participants| tongues[ This was thought to be a relatively low level of stimulation and consistent with Eysenck|s theory\ introverts salivated more than extraverts in this condition[ However\ when participants were instructed to swallow the lemon juice\ which would ostensibly be a much higher level of stimulation\ extraverts salivated more than introverts[ More recent studies "Gilbert + Hagen\ 0874^ Bullock + Gilliland\ 0882# also support Eysenck|s theory[ Using skin conductance as the measure of arousability and nicotine as the stimulant\ Gilbert and Hagen "0874# found that when nicotine consumption was relatively low\ introverts exhibited greater arousal than extraverts\ but under conditions of high nicotine consumption\ extraverts were more aroused than introverts[ In a study of the brainstem auditory pathway\ Bullock and Gilliland "0882# found greater ARAS activity in introverts than in extraverts[ It is widely believed that individuals with ADHD are constitutionally underaroused and thus seek external stimulation through increased activity and sensory experiences[ Shaw and Giambra "0882# found that college students diagnosed with ADHD as children exhibited more sensation seeking than controls[ Other studies have observed a similar relationship between sensation seeking and ADHD in children "Hines + Shaw\ 0882#[ Empirical evidence suggests that children and adolescents with ADHD may be more likely than normal peers to engage in risky behavior[ In a study by Farmer and Peterson "0884#\ two groups of boys between the ages of 6 and 10 "03 children with ADHD and 05 controls# were shown videos of play activities and asked to identify risky behaviors[ Next\ they were asked questions about

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risky scenes[ The two groups did not di}er signi_cantly in their ability to identify hazards\ but children with ADHD\ when compared with controls\ predicted less severe consequences following risky behavior and reported fewer active methods of injury prevention[ 1[0[1[ Disinhibition Gray "0864\ 0870\ 0876# hypothesized that three systems interact to regulate behavior] the Behavioral Approach System "BAS#\ which responds to reward stimuli\ the Behavioral Inhibition System "BIS#\ which is sensitive to signals of punishment\ and the Non!speci_c Arousal System "NAS#\ which controls the speed of behavioral responding[ In an adaptation of Gray|s theory\ Quay "0877# hypothesized that individuals with ADHD have less active Behavioral Inhibition Systems[ Recent research\ including behavioral studies of response inhibition and pharmacological and neuroimaging studies\ appears to support this hypothesis "Quay\ 0886#[ As is true for extraverts\ though individuals with ADHD seem to be underaroused and may seek out arousing experiences even to the point of engaging in risky behavior\ they also have lower levels of inhibitory control when presented with high levels of stimulation[ Oosterlaan and Sergeant "0884# used the stop signal task to investigate inhibitory control in four groups of children ages 5 to 01[ Both children in the ADHD group and children with chronic aggressive behavior showed poorer inhibitory control and a slower inhibitory process than children in the control group[ Citing this study and similar evidence\ Barkley "0886# recently introduced a model of ADHD which conceptualizes ADHD as a de_cit in behavioral inhibition which leads to dysfunction in executive neuropsychological abilities such as working memory\ self!regulation of a}ect\ motivation\ and arousal\ internalization of speech and behavioral analysis and synthesis[ 1[1[ ADHD and neuroticism Neuroticism is another trait that may be related to ADHD[ About one third of children with ADHD have been found to have a lifetime history of anxiety disorder "Perrin + Last\ 0885#[ In one recent study\ Lu_ and Parish!Plass "0884# used questionnaires to assess locus of control\ anxiety and persistence in 17 individuals with ADHD\ ages 6 to 12 years\ compared with 72 normal controls[ Participants with ADHD reported an elevated level of {concentration:social worry|\ a Revised Children|s Manifest Anxiety Scale subscale[ The emotional lability which is characteristic of individuals high on neuroticism may also be present in individuals with ADHD[ Shea and Fisher "0885# assessed variability of mood\ a}ect and arousal in 65 children ages 700 and compared the results with teacher ratings of ADHD classroom behaviors[ Boys who rated themselves as impulsive were characterized by more variable and more negative a}ect[ Teacher ratings of ADHD behaviors in girls were positively correlated with variability of mood and variability of arousal[ Though neuroticism may be associated with ADHD in children\ recent studies indicate that the same relationship may not exist for adults[ A study comparing 061 adults with ADHD with 29 controls found no signi_cant di}erence between the two groups in frequency of anxiety and mood disorders "Murphy + Barkley\ 0885#[ Braaten and Rosen "0886# examined the relationship between ADHD\ personality traits and emotional behavior in adults[ Individuals high in ADHD symptoms rated themselves as higher in both neuroticism and extraversion[ However\ participants with ADHD did not signi_cantly di}er

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from controls in emotional intensity or reactions to reward situations\ and their reactions to punishment situations were actually signi_cantly lower than those of controls[ High ADHD symptom adults in the Braaten and Rosen study did not di}er from controls in self!reported levels of neuroticism or extraversion[

2[ ADHD and other Big!Five trait factors 2[0[ Openness to experience Though little research exists which examines openness of experience in individuals with ADHD\ a relationship may exist between ADHD and creativity[ Shaw and Brown "0880# assessed 86 5th and 6th graders with ADHD and IQ|s of 004 or above[ These children showed higher _gural creativity than high!IQ children without ADHD[ Cramond "0883# states that several characteristics of children with ADHD are also common descriptors of creative persons\ namely higher creativity scores\ sensation seeking and the use of imagery[ 2[1[ Agreeableness The relationship between ADHD and agreeableness has\ thus far\ not been examined[ It is possible that the emotional lability that seems to correlate with ADHD in children may result in frequent irritability and therefore lower levels of agreeableness\ but the relationship seems indirect at best[ One study "Cotugno\ 0884# found more dependence in 4 and 5 year old children with ADHD than in their typically!developing peers\ suggesting that the acquiescence characteristic of high levels of agreeableness may be present in younger children with ADHD[ 2[2[ Conscientiousness Recent research indicates that individuals with ADHD may have lower than average levels of conscientiousness[ In the Murphy and Barkley "0885# study\ adults with ADHD showed a sig! ni_cantly greater prevalence of conduct disorders\ oppositional behavior and substance abuse disorders than adults in the non!ADHD group[ Seidman et al[ "0884# observed signi_cantly more organizational di.culties in boys with ADHD compared with controls on the Rey!Osterrieth Complex Figure "ROCF# test\ suggesting that individuals with ADHD may be less organized than their typically!developing peers[

3[ ADHD and temperament factors The relationship between temperament and ADHD is well established[ Perhaps the most obvious related temperamental characteristic is activity level "McIntosh + Cole!Love\ 0885#[ Children with unusually high activity levels may also be more distractible and more impulsive\ and are frequently diagnosed with ADHD "Martin\ 0883#[ Temperamental di}erences in level of inhibition\ another key factor in ADHD\ have also been observed\ even in infants\ and appear to remain relatively

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stable throughout the lifespan "Kagan + Snidman\ 0880#[ Both of these temperamental factors are also highly correlated with extraversion in adults\ at least to the extent that they remain stable through the more variable years between childhood and adulthood "Costa + McCrae\ 0875^ Maddi\ 0885^ Brody + Ehrlichman\ 0887#[ The temperament trait of emotionality is a key aspect of neuroticism and may\ as previously discussed\ be somewhat related to ADHD\ at least in childhood[ 4[ Biological factors 4[0[ Genetic evidence Twin studies of the heritability of ADHD have suggested that the disorder has a strong genetic component "Hechtman\ 0885#[ Goodman and Stevenson "0878# compared 18 monozygotic twin pairs and 34 dizygotic twin pairs and examined genetic as well as environmental factors[ Mono! zygotic twin pairs were more alike than same!sex dizygotic twin pairs on objective measures of attentiveness and on teacher and parent ratings of hyperactivity[ The authors concluded that genetic factors accounted for about 49) of the variance in inattention and hyperactivity[ A more recent twin study "Sherman\ Iacono + McGue\ 0886# also found evidence of substantial genetic contributions[ Results from this study suggested that genetic factors play an important role in the expression of the separate dimensions of inattention and impulsivity:hyperactivity children with ADHD and also in the covariation between these two dimensions[ In a study by Biederman et al[ "0881#\ _rst degree relatives of children of ADHD were found to be at _ve times greater risk for ADHD compared with relatives of normal controls[ First degree relatives were also observed to be at greater risk than relatives of normal controls for major depressive disorder and the combination of conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder[ Adoption studies have also linked ADHD to genetic factors[ An adoption design was used in a study by Cadoret and Stewart "0880# to examine the relationships among genetic background\ environmental factors and clinical outcome of ADHD\ aggression and adult antisocial personality[ Biological parents with adult criminal convictions were more likely to have sons with ADHD[ However\ environmental factors\ such as socio!economic status and psychiatric problems in adop! tive parents\ correlated with clinical outcomes of ADHD\ aggressive behavior and adult antisocial personality[ The authors conclude that ADHD is in~uenced by both genetic and environmental factors[ Extraversion and neuroticism also appear to be strongly in~uenced by genetic factors[ Loehlin "0881# summarizes twin studies of Big Five personality traits[ With monozygotic twin pairs\ correlations from 9[37 to 9[47 have been found for neuroticism\ and correlations of 9[35 to 9[51 have been observed for extraversion[ Correlations between dizygotic twins have generally been much lower\ between 9[01 and 9[15 for neuroticism and 9[02 to 9[17 for extraversion[ When the contribution of genetic and nonshared environmental in~uences are combined\ nearly 099) of the variance in neuroticism and extraversion is explained[ There seems to be little evidence\ therefore\ for the in~uence of shared family environments for these traits "Brody + Ehrlichman\ 0887#[ 4[1[ Physiological structures and functions Several recent studies have examined biological factors which may contribute to\ or result from\ ADHD[ A review of the research on the measurement of norepinephrine\ epinephrine and

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dopamine systems in ADHD and normal subjects led Pliszka\ McCracken\ and Maas "0885# to propose a multistage hypothesis of ADHD[ Speci_cally\ they state that the central norephinephrine system may not be properly regulated in individuals with ADHD\ resulting in ine.cient {priming| of the cortical posterior attention system to external stimuli[ An anterior {executive| system depending on dopaminergic input controls e}ective mental processing of information\ and the peripheral epinephrine system\ according to Pliszka et al[\ may play a role in the response of many individuals with ADHD to stimulant medication[ In summary\ Pliszka and colleagues argue that ADHD is a disturbance in the interaction of norepinephrine\ epinephrine\ and dopamine to modulate attention and impulse control[ A review of recent data from animal studies "Arnsten\ Steere + Hunt\ 0885# supports at least some of this hypothesis[ Empirical evidence suggests that norepinephrine may enhance the attentional\ mnemonic\ and inhibitory abilities of the prefrontal cortex[ Lou\ Henriksen\ Bruhn\ and Borner "0878# examined regional cerebral blood ~ow in children and young adults with ADHD[ The participants in the study were examined both before and after their daily dose of methylphenidate[ Results indicated hypoperfusion and\ most likely\ low neural activity in the striatal regions[ After the participants took methylphenidate\ blood ~ow in the central regions was increased\ with a slight decrease in cortical areas[ De_cits in focusing the electrical activity of the brain may also play a role in ADHD[ Dumais! Huber and Rothenberger "0881# examined the brain activity of children\ adolescents and young adults while they completed a paired stimuli reaction time task[ ADHD children had signi_cantly more di.culty focusing their electrical brain activity than did children with tics and normal controls[

5[ Situational:environmental factors Studies of environmental factors which may be important in the development of ADHD have been numerous[ Prenatal factors may have an impact[ Botting\ Powls\ Cooke\ and Marlow "0886# investigated outcomes in very low birthweight children and found the greatest psychiatric risk for these children was Attention De_cit Hyperactivity Disorder\ which was present in about one quarter of the sample at age 01[ Parent personality traits and psychopathology also may play a role in childhood ADHD[ A recent study by Nigg and Hinshaw "0887# found that boys with ADHD were more likely than controls to have mothers with a major depressive episode and:or marked anxiety symptoms in the past year\ and fathers with a childhood history of ADHD[ Boys with comorbid ADHD and Conduct Disorder or Oppositional De_ant Disorder had fathers with higher levels of neuroticism\ lower levels of agreeableness\ and more likelihood of having Generalized Anxiety Disorder[ An association between neuroticism in mothers and aggression in children with ADHD was also observed[ Other studies indicate that parents of hyperactive children have higher rates of soci! opathy\ alcoholism and hysteria compared to parents of typically!developing children "Morrison + Stewart\ 0860^ Cantwell\ 0861#[ Hechtman "0885# reviewed the empirical research related to parentchild interactions of children with ADHD[ When viewed together\ studies of parentchild interactions seem to indicate that parents of children with ADHD provide more impulse!control directions\ encouragement and

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disapproval than parents of children without ADHD[ While these parent behaviors appear initially to be responses to the behavior problems of the child\ research suggests that these parent behaviors persist even when the child|s behavior improves and may later contribute to behavior problems[ Several factors a}ect the long!term outcome of children with ADHD "Hechtman\ 0880#\ includ! ing the intelligence of the child\ temperament\ physical health and other psychological factors[ Children with higher IQs tend to fare better than children with lower IQs\ due to improved chances of success both academically and socially[ Less vulnerable\ more re~ective children often tend to fare better\ as do children with fewer health problems[ An internal locus of control\ high self! esteem\ positive coping skills\ achievement orientation and social skills\ are other characteristics which may serve as protective factors for children with ADHD[ Unfortunately\ ADHD is characterized by low levels of many of the psychological and tem! peramental characteristics listed above[ Individuals with ADHD are likely to be less re~ective\ have inferior social skills\ lower achievement orientation and an external locus of control[ It may as well be said that children who exhibit fewer symptoms of ADHD have a better prognosis\ which seems self!evident[ Family predictors of positive long!term outcome\ according to Hechtman\ include high levels of cohesion\ support and warmth within the family[ Other protective factors include higher socioeconomic status\ two!parent families with fewer children and a larger social and physical environment[ 6[ Summary] a biopsychosocial perspective In summary\ a complex cluster of biological\ psychological and situational:environmental factors appear to be related to the etiology and symptom presentation of ADHD[ Adoption and heritability studies indicate a strong genetic component in the etiology of ADHD[ Di}erences in nervous system and brain activity may also play a role[ Temperament variables\ such as activity level and level of inhibition\ are also related to ADHD[ More indirect relationships have been observed between ADHD and the personality traits of extraversion and neuroticism and\ to a lesser extent\ openness to experience\ agreeableness and conscientiousness[ Situational and environmental vari! ables include prenatal factors such as low birth weight[ Parental personality traits and psy! chopathology and quality of parentchild interactions may also be related to ADHD[ The relationship between ADHD and the variables listed above may not necessarily be unidi! rectional[ Some relationships may be more transactional in nature[ For example\ the challenges of parenting a child with ADHD may place a considerable amount of strain on the parent and in so doing a}ect the quality of the parentchild relationship\ which in turn may have an impact on the child|s behavior[ The combined e}ects and interactions of the combination of variables outlined above are yet to be investigated[ 7[ Treatment of ADHD 7[0[ Biopsychosocial case conceptualization and treatment planning Treatment of ADHD should begin with an analysis of biopsychosocial pathogenic processes[ It is necessary to assess many aspects of the client|s life to plan treatment that will address the variety

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of factors which may be involved[ For children\ assessment may involve parent\ child and teacher interviews\ a medical and:or neurological screening\ an analysis of the home and school environ! ments\ intellectual and achievement testing and behavioral observation[ Like the assessment process\ treatment of ADHD is ideally multimodal[ Due to the biological aspects of the disorder\ pharmacological intervention is often one component[ Clients with ADHD are typically prescribed methylphenidate "also known as Ritalin# or another similar stimulant[ About 89) of children respond to either methylphenidate or dextroamphetamine with a lessening of symptoms "Sylvester\ 0882#\ resulting in an increase in attention span and a corresponding decrease in activity level[ This paradoxical response to stimulant therapy is consistent with the arousal hypothesis of ADHD\ that children with ADHD are underaroused and seek out additional stimulation to compensate[ Because high activity level and impulsivity are also characteristics of individuals high in extraversion\ it would seem to follow that children who respond to stimulant therapy would present as lower on extraversion while on medication\ though the author has no knowledge of research in this area[ Family counseling may also be an important component of treatment of children and adolescents\ given the potential contributions of family interactions to the child|s behavior prob! lems[ Intervention with parents may include facilitating their knowledge of developmentally appro! priate expectations\ limit!setting skills and advice on how to structure the child|s environment and daily schedule to best meet his or her needs[ In!school intervention may include consultation with the classroom teacher on behavioral management and academic tutoring to help the child {catch up| in subject areas where he or she may have fallen behind[ Work with children with ADHD often includes skills training in the area of impulse control\ which may be accomplished through psychotherapeutic games and feedback from the therapist\ role!play techniques\ or more structured interventions like the Stop and Think Workbook "Kendall\ 0877#[ The Stop and Think Workbook presents children with problem!solving steps which include examining the situation\ generating alternatives\ choosing the best alternative\ taking action\ and evaluating the consequences[ These steps are then applied to arithmetic\ word problems\ social scenarios and other diverse situations[ Psychotherapy with individuals who have ADHD may also include helping them cope with the social isolation or occupational failures that may have already resulted from their behaviors[ Therapy may also involve addressing any comorbid psychological disorders\ such as those that may accompany high trait neuroticism[ Both adults and children are commonly treated for ADHD[ It is important\ however\ to assess and treat ADHD as early in life as possible\ due to the possible adverse a}ects in many areas of life if the disorder goes untreated[ Early intervention gives individuals the best chance of long term success[

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