A power system combining batteries and supercapacitors in a solar/hydrogen hybrid electric vehicle

Michael B. Burnett, Lawrence J. Borle

Power Electronics Applications & Research Laboratory (PEARL) School of Electrical, Electronics & Computer Engineering - M018 The University of Western Australia WA, Australia

Abstract- In this paper, a solar/hydrogen hybrid power system, which reduces the required hydrogen fuel cell power output by combining batteries and supercapacitors in an electric vehicle, is presented. It is shown that this combination can minimise vehicle costs in terms of capital outlay, weight, and fuel. The supercapacitors provide instantaneous peak power as the fuel cell responds to power demand over a few seconds. The batteries and fuel cell in conjunction provide extended peak power supply. The batteries and supercapacitors absorb fuel cell shut-off lag and regenerated power. The design is modelled using PSIM, and tested by simulating a likely driving scenario. The conclusion reached is that combining batteries and supercapacitors in a fuel cell power system could be an effective and cost-efficient means of providing power for an electric transport system. Keywords: Fuel cell, hybrid, solar, supercapacitor, battery, PSIM, renewable energy, sustainable energy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1. V-I curve for fuel cell [2]

It was proposed to build a light-weight, rear-wheel drive, two-passenger vehicle powered by a solar and hydrogen hybrid power system, to be driven around Australia on a journey of approximately 14,000 km. This journey defines the basis of the vehicle design strategy, which is that the vehicle must be designed to travel long distances on sealed, mostly flat roads. Low cost, durability and efficiency are primary concerns, whilst acceleration and handling are secondary.
2. THE TECHNOLOGY INVOLVED 2.1 PEM Hydrogen Fuel Cell

2.3 Lithium Polymer Batteries

The PEM hydrogen fuel cell has a fuel to electricity efficiency of around 50%, and a life-span of approximately 4000 working hours [1]. The fuel cell operates mainly in its linear (ohmic) region. A fuel cell V-I curve, including losses, is illustrated in Figure 1.
2.2 Solar Panels

Basic electric vehicle battery requirements may be summarized as follows [3]: high energy efficiency and low self-discharge in order to ensure high efficiency of the whole vehicle durability and safety affordability high charging current to accept regenerative braking long cycle life and long calendar life in order to attain a life as long as that of the vehicle design flexibility, small size and low weight high specific power to provide good acceleration and hill-climbing capacity adaptability to extreme environmental conditions. With the possible exception of affordability (at present), lithium-polymer batteries satisfy all of these requirements, and have been chosen for this application.

The solar power generated will vary with sun intensity, temperature, and vehicle orientation. Hence, it will be variable and not predictable in the short term.

0-7803-9280-9/05/$20.00 2005 IEEE.

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TABLE 1: BATTERY SPECIFICATIONS, ARRANGED 2 PARALLEL X 10 SERIES

Voltage range (V) Capacity (Ah) ESR ( ) Current limit (A) Mass (kg, excl balancing) Volume (L, excl balancing)

30 42 60 0.0035 charge: 60 discharge: 300 13.6 19.2

TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF SUPERCAPACITOR SPECIFICATIONS

Figure 2. Supercapacitor delivering constant 50 kW over 15 seconds [5].

2.4 Supercapacitors

Voltage range (V) Capacitance (F) ESR ( ) Current limit (A) Mass (kg, excl balancing) Volume (L, excl balancing)

0 42 102.9 0.011 None: limited by circuitry 5.1 4.25

The supercapacitors can deliver constant high power for a short time, in this case long enough for a car to accelerate from standing to 60 kph (see Figure 2). They are also more than 90% efficient. A DC/DC converter is required to boost the supercapacitor voltage to the bus voltage.
2.5 Bus voltage regulator (BVR) and battery current regulator (BCR)

The BVR and the BCR are half-bridge dc-dc converters operating as bidirectional current regulators. They each behave as a boost converter in the positive current direction (current out of battery, supercapacitor) and as a buck converter in the negative current direction.
2.6 Why Batteries AND Supercapacitors?
Figure 3. Simplified system power flow

The use of batteries to supplement high power requirements allows the fuel cell to be down-sized to meet the average power demand of the vehicle. The battery is designed to supply half of maximum power while the fuel cell supplies the other half. The battery, in combination with the fuel cell, facilitates extended high power supply and medium power recapture, while the supercapacitor supplies and protects the battery from frequent high-power bursts (due to fuel cell lag time) that would significantly reduce battery lifetime [4]. During sudden high power demand, e.g. accelerating from standstill, the fuel cell would initially supply no power due to its lag time. If the batteries were to supply the demanded power alone, they would require twice the current rating (double the number in parallel) compared to that required if augmented by the supercapacitors. Supercapacitors allow the battery and fuel cell to be sized to supply half maximum power each, with no loss of instantaneous power performance.

The battery would need to weigh 27.2kg to efficiently meet the requirements of this application alone (2 x 13.6kg since double the number of cells would be required in parallel), whereas the battery/supercapacitor combination weighs 18.7kg (5.1kg + 13.6kg). Refer to Table 2 SUMMARY OF SUPERCAPACITOR SPECIFICATIONS and Table 2 for the weight of components.
2.7 In-wheel brushless DC motors and motordrive

Besides removing the mass of the axle and differential, these also eliminate the losses involved in motor to wheel power transfer. Thus they are extremely efficient (up to 95% [6]).
3 POWER SYSTEM OVERVIEW

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The system controller controls the vehicle power system by monitoring all system parameters and sending instructions to the components. During operation, the system is in one of four states: 1. Regenerative braking 2. Power demanded within fuel cells capacity 3. Power demanded exceeding fuel cells capacity I = I m I sol (1) 4. Solar power alone is sufficient The components are instructed accordingly. The battery is used to supplement the fuel cells power and The battery current reference signal (Ibatt_out) is determined to absorb a limited portion of regenerated and fuel cell shut-off by power balance, since the current feedback is measured on lag excess power (The supercapacitors absorb the rest). The the battery-side of the BCR: battery current is controlled by the BCR (using equation 2), which is programmed to limit charging and discharging I batt _ outVbatt = I I fc Vbus (3) currents depending on the batterys limitations.

The power system combines two very different power sources and two different energy storage devices to provide a DC voltage source within upper and lower limits set by the motor drive requirements. Although the battery will provide a relatively constant voltage source, the supercapacitor voltage drops and rises quickly with power flow, the fuel cell takes a few seconds to reach full power and the solar power fluctuates. In solving this problem, all components of the power system are connected in parallel through appropriate power conversion to a DC Bus, which is essentially a large bus capacitor that acts as the voltage source required by the load. The fuel cell output and motordrive input are both connected directly to the DC Bus. The required bus voltage is maintained by a voltagefeedback-controlled current regulator, referred to as the bus voltage regulator (BVR), which holds the bus capacitor voltage steady by injecting current when the voltage drops, and by withdrawing current when it rises. To control the bus voltage in this way, the regulator needs both a source of current and a current sink. These functions are both facilitated by an array of supercapacitors, hereinafter referred to as the supercapacitor. The current demand on the system equals the current demand of the motors and electronics, minus the solar current supply. The result is the variable I which is used in calculations as the current required from the rest of the system.

cells operating current range. If current is demanded below this limit, the fuel cell supplies its minimum current and any excess is absorbed by the battery. If the battery is full, the fuel cell is switched out and set to idle, and the battery supplies the demanded current until the batterys state-of-charge (SOC) reaches a certain level and the fuel cell once again supplies current. The supercapacitor voltage is kept high when vehicle speed is low: ready to provide a burst of power for acceleration; and kept low when vehicle speed is high, ready to absorb regenerated and/or excess power in the event of braking. The voltage is controlled by a second negative feedback loop much slower than the primary bus voltage loop.
4 POWER SYSTEM MODEL 4.1 Component modelling 4.1.1 System controller

I b = I I fc

(2)

The battery is charged during regenerative braking as well as when the vehicle is cruising at a speed that demands less than the fuel cells maximum current. Since the DC Bus voltage is controlled, it determines the fuel cell current output according to the fuel cells I-V characteristic curve. For example, if motor current demand drops from 100A to 20A, the BVR will be instructed to raise the DC Bus voltage to the level required for the fuel cell output to drop to 20A plus battery charge current. Since the fuel cell will take a few seconds to respond to this reduction in demand, some of the excess current it produces will be redirected by the BCR to charge the battery, and some will be extracted from the bus capacitor by the BVR and absorbed by the supercapacitor. The maximum power point of the fuel cell should be close to the lower voltage limit of the motor drive. Ideally the entire fuel cell voltage range should be within the voltage limits of the motor drive, to facilitate full fuel cell operating control. If this is not the case there will be a minimum limit on the fuel

The battery switch is also controlled here. The current required from the fuel cell is determined based on the current I, the battery charging current limit and SOC. (This signal is sent to the fuel cell, where the DC Bus voltage required for this current is calculated and fed to the BVR).
4.1.2 Motor/load

The motor or load (including electronics) is modelled as a current source, drawing current from the system. A variable load representing various driving scenarios is entered via a lookup table with respect to time, as seen in Figure .

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4.1.5 Battery

For short duration simulations (in the order of seconds) the battery is modelled, for simplicity, as a voltage source, since no significant voltage drop will occur (after taking into account the initial IR drop). For longer duration simulations, the battery is simulated based on the Shepherd model equation:

Figure 4: Simulation model of load current

1 Vt = V0 Ri I batt K i 1 = Qacc / Q Qacc = Qacc + Q1

(5) (6) (7)

Figure 5: Simulation model of fuel cell

4.1.3 Fuel cell

In simulating this power system, the fuel cell is modelled as a current source dependent on the bus voltage, operating in the fuel cell ohmic (linear) region. The fuel cell algorithm is based on the ohmic region of the fuel cells V-I curve, which is modelled as a straight line:

Figure 7: Ki = 0.5: battery voltage and current; resistive load of 0.1365 ohm; exhibits a similar characteristic curve to Worley SLPB 78 216 216)

Vt = m I fc + V0

(4)

In modelling this system the slope m of the fuel cell V-I curve is set at 0.1. The load on the fuel cell can be controlled by varying the voltage across its terminals. As more current is drawn from the fuel cell, its terminal voltage decreases according to its characteristic V-I curve (ohmic region curve). The BVR is instructed to set the DC Bus voltage according to the current I demanded from the system, based on the fuel cells V-I relationship. (This voltage is represented by the variable Vfc.) So as the motor demands current and pulls the DC Bus voltage down, the BVR sets the DC Bus voltage at the level at which the fuel cell will supply the necessary current. The fuel cell takes a second or two to respond to changes in current demand, and this is reflected in the model. The model allows the fuel cell response to be simulated as being linear or exponential; exponential being the more realistic of the two [7].
4.1.4 Solar panels

Figure 8: Schematic of BVR simulation model

Solar panels are modelled as a varying current source.

The battery model is simulated as illustrated in Figure 6 (to be put in). In the power system simulation, a Ki value of 0.5 is used in simulating the Worley SLPB 75 216 216. The voltage and current curves for Ki = 0.5 are shown in Figure 7.

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4.1.6 Supercapacitor

A 5x17 Maxwell BCAP0350 supercapacitor array is simply modelled using a PSim capacitor with a maximum voltage of 42 V and capacitance of 102 F. The PSim capacitor voltage curve is nearly linear and is a good approximation for this study. ESR = 0.011 and is represented by a series resistor.
4.1.7 Bus voltage regulator (BVR)

Switching of the BVR is controlled by a current controller, with the supercapacitor output current fed back and combined with the bus voltage error, as well as a second slower feedback loop aimed at maintaining the supercapacitor voltage at a desired level over a medium time frame. The PI on the

Figure 11: Simulation: current load I

feedback error has a gain of 100 and a time constant of 0.01. The value of inductor L1, 0.1mH, in the BVR was chosen to give an acceptable ripple current.
4.1.8 Battery current regulator (BCR)

The battery current regulator consists of a half bridge dc-dc converter similar to that of the BVR. Switching of the BCR is controlled by a current controller.
4.1.9 Power system simulation model

Figure 9: Power system simulation model

Figure 9 illustrates the simulation model used in the design of the power system incorporating all components. (The bus capacitor is inside the BVR sub-circuit). 5 TRIP SIMULATION 5.1 Description of simulation This simulation is related to a real life driving experience and is illustrated in Figure 10. The relevant stages of the simulation are labelled, and described in the next section. 5.2 Simulation stages The 20 second period can be broken up into stages. The descriptions below refer to Figure 10 and 11, and to the simulation results. A: The driver accelerates hard for four seconds: 357 A is demanded (of which solar power supplies 10 A). The DC Bus voltage is set to 42 V. This equates to a power demand of approximately 15 kW. The supercapacitor and battery supply all the power demand while the fuel cell output increases. B: The driver hesitates for half a second: motor demand drops to 140 A. The fuel cell output remains high and the supercapacitor and battery absorb excess fuel cell current, which is less than the batterys maximum charging current. C: The driver accelerates again, but because the fuel cell output is still at maximum, the battery supplies the extra power needed. The supercapacitor cushions the sudden demand on the battery. D: During hard braking for 2 seconds, the fuel cell is slow to react to the sudden drop in current demanded and still supplies

Figure 10: Power system simulation output

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current for some time. The motors are now operating as generators and are supplying current. The battery absorbs maximum charging current, while the supercapacitor absorbs the excess current. E: During moderate acceleration to cruising speed, 115 A is demanded, which results in a DC Bus voltage of approximately 44 volts and power consumption of 5 kW. Once cruising, the fuel cell supplies all motor demand and charges the battery. F: The driver eases off the accelerator but does not brake. The battery and supercapacitor absorb excess current. Because the DC Bus voltage rises with decreasing fuel cell current demand, current to the battery as seen by the DC Bus is reduced in keeping the power balance. However, the actual current into the battery is unchanged; in this case 60 A. G: The driver accelerates again. 5.3 Results of 20-second simulation In the simulation results, fuel cell current, battery current, and supercapacitor current as seen by the DC Bus should sum to equal load current I. The BVR, using the supercapacitor, supplies exactly the amount of power required to make up the difference between current demand and fuel cell + battery supply by maintaining the DC Bus voltage, via a feedback

(E) the battery charges: the fuel cell is set to produce the load current plus battery charging current.
5.3.2 Cost Optimisation

The major considerations with respect to the size of the fuel cell are price and weight. Comparing a system that uses a fuel cell to supply all power demand with the fuel cell/battery combination (it is assumed that supercapacitors and solar panels would be used in both applications, therefore they are left out of this comparison) reveals that at around US$6,000 per kW (based on Ballard Nexa 1.2kW modules), a 7.75kW fuel cell costs US$46,500 and weighs 62kg , while a 15kW fuel cell costs US$90,000 and weighs 120kg. The batteries required to complement the 7.75 kW fuel cell system cost around US$6,250 and weigh 13.6kg, making the total cost of the combination US$52,750 and 75.6kg, which is US$37,250 and 44.4kg less than the 15kW fuel cell system. Cost dictates that the 7.75 kW fuel cell system combined with a battery is preferable, until fuel cell costs fall to below US$1000 per kW, and fuel cell weights fall to around 1kg per kW. And even then, still to be considered is the cost of the fuel saved by using a fuel cell optimised for average power requirements and a battery to capture excess and regenerated energy. The cost comparison is summarised in Table 3.
TABLE 3: COMPARISON: FUEL CELL ALONE VS FUEL CELL/BATTERY COMBINATION

Fuel Cell Power 15kW 7.75kW Batteries F.C./Batt combo

Cost US$90,000 US$46,500 US$6,250 US$52,750

Weight 120kg 62kg 13.6kg 75.6kg

Figure 12: Supercapacitor Voltage

loop, at the level dictated by the fuel cell V-I curve. Note the supercapacitor current spike at stage C in Figure 11 where the supercapacitor makes up for the slightly slower response of the battery The supercapacitor voltage, shown in Figure 12, falls as it supplies current during acceleration, and rises as it absorbs current during regenerative braking and times of excess fuel cell current supply.
5.3.1 Battery supplies extra power; charges while braking and cruising

As see in Figure 11, when current is demanded, the battery acts up to its capacity to supply demanded current above the fuel cells instantaneous output (A,C). During braking (D) the battery absorbs current up to its current limit. During cruising

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Motor controllers 10 5% Motors 40 20%

cell voltage, facilitating full control of the fuel cell from minimum to maximum current. The battery stores sufficient energy to meet requirements for sustained high power level supply. The supercapacitor energy storage level is based on the fuel cell response time, as well as on required energy recapture. The simulation shows that the designed power system performs to requirements.
REFERENCES

Solar panels 10 5% BVR 10.2 5%

Fuel cell 120 62%

[1]

I. Buchmann, BatteryUniversity.com [Online Document], 2004 Jan, [cited 2004 Oct 12], Available: http://www.batteryuniversity.com B. Ozpineci et al, Optimum Fuel Cell Utilization with Multilevel DC-DC Converters, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, DE-AC05-00OR22725, 2004. R.Rouillard et al, Development of the Lithium Polymer Battery for the GM Precept, [Online Document], 2000 Jul 13, [cited 2004 Oct 12], Available: http://www.avestor.com/rtecontent/document/gmtechpaper.pdf T. Andersson et al, Alternative Energy Storage System for Hybrid Electric Vehicles, [Online Document], 2004, [cited 2004 Sep 22], Available: http://www.elkraft.ntnu.no/norpie/10956873/Final%20Papers/03 6%20-%20norpie_andersson_groot3.pdf Paul Scherrer Institut, ECL Electrochemical Laboratory, [Online Document], 2004 Jun 1, [cited 2004 May 14], Available http://ecl.web.psi.ch/supercap/ SCM150-XXX Axial Flux, Brushless PM Motor, New Generation Motors Corporation, 2003 C. Wang, M.H. Nehrir, and S.R. Shaw, Dynamic Models and Model Validation for PEM Fuel Cells Using Electrical Circuits, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 20, Issue 2, June 2005, pp 442-451.

Supercapacit ors 5.1 3%

[2]

[3]

Figure 14: Pie chart of fuel cell alone power system component masses in kg and % of total (195.3kg).

Motor controllers 10 6%

[4]

Motors 40 25%

Fuel cell 62 39%

[5]

[6] [7]
Solar panels 10 6% BVR & BCR 20.4 13% Supercapacitor s 5.1 3% Batteries 13.6 8%

Figure 15: Pie chart of combined fuel cell / battery power system component masses in kg and % of total(161.1kg).

6 CONCLUSION

An efficient power system combining batteries and supercapacitors for a solar/hydrogen hybrid electric vehicle has been presented which will reduce the size and cost of the fuel cell required for a 15 kW (peak power) hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. The fuel cell and motor drive are chosen so that the voltage range of the fuel cell matches the bus voltage range tolerated by the motor drive. This allows the bus voltage regulator to regulate the DC Bus voltage from minimum to maximum fuel

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