ISL1 - Lecture 8: Cont.

Social Languages & Pragmatics Language 'attitudes': There are differences of social groups relating to language Attitudes are difficult to pinpoint "a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor" "disposition to react favorably or unfavorably to a class of objects" "behaviorist" vs "mentalist" conceptions (attitudes as behavioral responses) (attitudes as mental states of readiness) Language attitude: "any affective, cognitive or behavioral index of evaluativ reactions towards dif ferent language varieties or their speakers" Attidudes are within us and change the way we see someone (Souther American exam ple) Pragmatics: Deals with Ends and Activities (spEAking) Studies of languages goes back to philosophy "Using language is doing something, is acting". Speech Act Theory Theory developed by John Austin that deals with how humans use language to perform different actions Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context / interaction chair: Can mean a professorial position, a normal chair, usw. It depends on the context! co-text: Linguistic features relevant to the text context: Non-linguistic features relevant to the text. Speecht Act Theory - an example: "It's cold in here!" -What do we mean with this? --It's impossible to say without context! It can have a lot of different meanings Levels: What we say = locutionary act What we mean by it = illocutionary force What effect it has = perlocutionary effect Whatever people say, it works on three levels.

Caution Wet Paint - this sign has an purpose and effect. It's usually meant as warning "Walk slowly" "Be careful" Parking Sign - (P) The intention is more than a P. It gives us permission, directions... You need context, clearly. You have to find it in a fitting context in order to understand it! We act, clearly. John Searle's classification of speech acts: They can all be debated. 'representatives' > express some form of "statement" you believe is true to assert, claim, complain, etc. The weather is nice. It's sunny. 'directives' > get the hearer to do something to ask, order, beg, permit, etc. Do you think I can carry this tray? 'commissives' > commit the speaker to a future action to promise, voe, swear, etc. I'll come to the party. 'expressives' > express the speaker's feeling about something to thank, congratulate, compliment, etc. Thanks for your help! 'declaratives' > bring about a change of status of an object/person by saying so mething to fire, baptize, marry, sentence, etc. With this ring, I thee wed. Needs an instititutional context. preparatry conditions are required Direct speech act - what we say is what we intend! Indirect speech act - what we say is not what we mean Direct: The illocutionary act is reflected in the locution Indirect: The illocutionary act has to be inferred by the hearer from the contex t, on the basis Cooperative Principle etc. 'Preparatory'/'felicity' conditions (Austin) = (all aspects of) the context associated with the action "He put it down here yesterday" Has little meaning Needs shared knowledge to know Who is he? Where is "here"? What is it?

Deixis - pointing with language deictic: a linguistic expression which refers directly to the personal, temporal or locational characteristics of the situation it occurs in, in order to identify a referent. person deixis (pronouns - I, you, she) spatial deixis (place - here) temporal deixis (time - yesterday) points into context, outside the text. Phorics - pronouns lexical items that get their meaning from other noun phrases in the sentence or wider discourse (co-text) points into co-text, within the text. anaphoric reference: points back to a referent in a text/discourse Do you see that girl? SHE is nice. cataphoric reference: points forward to a referent in a text/discourse He put it down. Then Paul paused for a while.

'conduit metaphor' widely spread amongst everybody Someone says something, the hearer receive the same thing The joint construction of meaning There is an overlap, but there will always be differences. Cooperative Principle: We expect cooperation in communication 4 maxims: Maxim Of Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more, or less, than required. Maxim of Quality: Do not say that which you believe to be false, or for which you lack adequate evidence. Maxim of Relation: be relevant. Maxim of Manner: Be clear, brief and orderly. Humans must not follow these rules (they lie, they aren't clear, relevant) This are principles, not laws! Someone else came up with just one maxim: Maxim of Relevance

Maxim of Quantity: A: How many pets do you have? B: Two dogs. You assume: That is all neccessary as answer. If I get something else as the truth, you want to come up with a reason. Maxim of Quality: A: What's the time? B: 12 o' clock. You assume: That is what they believe to be true. Maxim of Relation: A: I'm glad the election are over. B: I voted for the Green Party! Maxim of Manner: A: Mary went to the bar and bought John a drink. Look at the order! Presuppositions situations which must exist for uterrances to be appropriate felicity conditions taken for granted by speakers/hearers who adhere to the coop erative principle Based on what is SAID prevent violations of the maxim of relevance remain when the sentence is negated John stopped crying at noon. Presuppose: John cries. Each of the children in the room is nice. Presuppose: There are children in this room. Presuppoistion are relativly close to language (within the sentences) 'Implicatures' What does 'yet' mean, after all? Deductions made by the hearer based on our assumption of what speaker is trying to achiebe, under the assumption of the cooperative principle Not only based on what is said, but also on world knowledge Possible consequences of utterances in their context. A: Dr. Soukup is such a windbag. B: Nice weather today, isn't it? (B: He stands behind you!) A: They might introduce free transportation for everyone. B: Pigs might fly. (B: I don't believe this)