How German Geopolitics Passed Through the Netherlands, 1920 1945 !

! case stud" in the geograph" o# geograph" Herman van der Wusten Department of Geography, Planning and International Development Studies, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengra ht !"#, !#!$ %& Amsterdam Netherlands' ()mail* h'h'vanderwusten+uva'nl and ,en de Pater -a ulty of Geos ien es, Utre ht University, Post.o/ $#'!!0, "0#$ 12 Utre ht Netherlands' ()mail* .' 'depater+uu'nl

!$stract 1he term 3geopoliti s4 was hardly ever used in the Netherlands .etween the -irst and Se ond World War .ut it .e ame a .it more ommon with the looming threat of a se ond war and during the German o upation' 5eanwhile Dut h geographers too6 note of the efforts of Haushofer and his ir le to laun h a German)style geopoliti s' Around !7"#, their initial rea tion to this pro8e t too6 various forms )) onstru tive riti ism, ooperation and indignant dismissal )) .ut the attention waned over the de ade' When war seemed imminent, the severe riti ism of German geopoliti s resurfa ed in the Dut h pu.li arena' During the o upation, a ommodative and Na9i)friendly geographers dis ussed the possi.ility of laun hing a new geopoliti s: had this o urred, however, it would have signifi antly deviated from Haushofer4s heritage' %e" words Geopoliti s, interwar years, 1he Netherlands, Haushofer, Steinmet9, 1er %een, %an %uuren, ;oohuis'

Interest in the geography of s ien e has in reased steadily over the past de ade <see for e/ample ,arnes =##", ;ivingstone =##">' Geographers of s ien e emphasi9e the situatedness of s ientifi ideas, and this applies to geographi al notions as well' 1he premise is that ideas are on eived somewhere and their pla e of .irth o)shapes their ontent: thus, geographi al 6nowledge is lo al 6nowledge' 1hese ideas develop and start to travel to other pla es, where their re eption may differ* they may .e re eived warmly, relu tantly or perhaps re8e ted' 1hey may also .e altered to suit lo al ir umstan es' In short, not only the produ tion .ut also the onsumption of geographi al ideas will .ear the mar6 of the lo ation where that o urs' In this paper we e/amine the re eption of geopoliti s in the Netherlands, parti ularly of the version developed in Germany .y ?arl Haushofer4s ir le from the early !7=#s on' While the idea had initially travelled from Sweden to Germany, it was in this version that the term Geopolitik really started to ome alive' @ur study overs its re eption in the interwar years and during the German o upation of the Netherlands' We will mainly deal with te/ts on the su.8e t .y geographers, highlighting four in parti ular' S'A' Steinmet9 <!$B=)!7C#> and H'N' 1er %een <!$$")!7C7> taught so ial geography at the University of Amsterdam' ;' van %uuren <!$D")!70!> first held a position in olonial geography in Amsterdam and then .e ame professor of human geography in Utre ht' E'G' ;oohuis <!7#C)!7D7>, who had .een %an %uuren4s student in Utre ht, .e ame a prominent 8ournalist and eventually the first and only a ademi appointed to tea h geopoliti s in Utre ht and Amsterdam during the Se ond World War' During the period of our study the only two geography programmes in the ountry were taught at these two universities' However, this does not imply that the tea hing of geopoliti s was naturally lin6ed to the geography programmes as we shall see .elow' Apart from the re eption of German Geopolitik .y geographers, we will onsider how it entered the Dut h pu.li arena and then tra e its role in the lo al dis ourse on international relations' 1his part of our analysis is .ased on perusal of the ele troni ar hives of Het Vaderland <situated in www'6ranten'6.'nl>, a prominent daily during our period <so far it is the only newspaper ar hive that allows sear hes for terms li6e 3geopoliti s4>' We also onsulted the re ord of the parliamentary pro eedings <www'statengeneraaldigitaal'nl> to study the o urren e of 3geopoliti s4 in parliamentary deli.erations' So, this paper deals with geopoliti al writing and spea6ing in .oth the geographi al s ien es and the pu.li arena in the Netherlands .etween !7=# and !7C0' 1he s ope is limited to te/ts that e/pli itly use the term or are related to self)identified geopoliti al authors' It does not deal with other te/ts, images, pra ti es or events that might .e read geopoliti ally .ut do =

not identify themselves as su h <refle tions on the state of the ountry, street names, song te/ts, e/hi.itions et '>' %irtually the entire orpus thus delimited is in some way related to the notion of geopoliti s introdu ed .y Haushofer and his ir le from the early !7=#s in Germany and to no other tradition from elsewhere, nor to an indigenous invention' 1herefore, we have in effe t hroni led the attention drawn .y Haushofer and his ir le4s geopoliti s in the Netherlands' 1his attention prompted the introdu tion of the word geopolitiek into the Dut h language and promoted various forms of engagement with the e/panding geopoliti al literature, parti ularly .y geographers' 1he paper will now give some onte/tual information a.out the geopoliti al environment in Germany and the Netherlands .efore the Se ond World War' 1hen, in se tion =, it will tra e the use of the term geopoliti s in the pu.li arena in the Netherlands' 1wo .rief periods of rather intensive wor6 on geopoliti s an .e identified among Dut h geographers* around !7"# <!7=7)!7"=>: and during the o upation, spe ifi ally the years .efore the ivil order ollapsed and the run)up to war <!7"7)!7CC>' -or these two periods we identify the main ontri.utions .y Dut h geographers in se tions " and C, whi h omprise the main .ody of the paper' We will wrap up our argument in se tion 0 with some general on lusions' G(@P@;I1I2A; S(11ING IN G(A5ANF AND 1H( N(1H(A;ANDS ,(-@A( !7C# 1he seeds of geopoliti s )) that a ademi and pra ti e)oriented intelle tual pro8e t to per eive and interpret international relations in light of their geographi al onte/t and territorial impli ations )) fell on fertile soil in Germany after the Great War' 1he Versailles Diktat was still fresh* after a sudden military defeat in a total war, the ountry4s politi al regime had ollapsed and a onsidera.le part of its territory had .een lost through the pea e treaty that followed' 1he supposed la 6 of Lebensraum for the resulting state plus the e/ lusion of large groups of o)Germans from the state4s own territory provided a onvin ing .asis for a politi al programme aimed at redress' ?arl Haushofer and his ir le Gui 6ly aptured a si9a.le domesti audien e' ,y using the word Hpro8e tH in on8un tion with Haushofer4s name, we are not suggesting a tightly organi9ed operation' It was more li6e what we now all a networ6, with Haushofer as a entral node' Sprengel <=###, p' !0!> asts some dou.t on the entrality of Haushofer4s position in that networ6' In any ase Ea o.sen4s .iography and edition of his voluminous orresponden e <Ea o.sen !7D7> do ument Haushofer4s important role in a wide

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networ6 of geopoliti al enthusiasts, a networ6 that showed signs of rupture and insta.ility' -urther study on this point would .e wel ome' At the time, the Netherlands was intimately lin6ed to Germany' 1he Dut h and German e onomies were intertwined in myriad ways' Dut h a ademi life tended to .e primarily oriented to German universities and personal onta ts among olleagues there' German s ien e had a high reputation' Haushofer4s message was learly heard in the small ommunity of Dut h geographers as well' ,ut the so ial and politi al onditions prevailing in Germany did not apply in the Netherlands' 1he Dut h had preserved a pre arious neutrality during World War I and had not lost any territory' So ial dislo ation after the war was mu h less severe' Fet this does not ne essarily mean that there was no room for geopoliti s' What a.out the Dut h spe ifi ities that might indu e geopoliti al reasonings on erning the position of the ountry in the we. of international relationsI In terms of the geographi al environment, its situation on the delta put it on a strategi node of infrastru ture <waterways> that was vital to international trade in raw materials and industrial goods' 1hat situation ould well .e interpreted as a typi al geopoliti al on ern' A set of issues onne ted with the delta position derive from the waterways that would optimally lin6 the ports of Aotterdam and Antwerp with industrial areas in the hinterland and, in the ase of Antwerp, also with the open sea <as the Dut h dominated the entry to the port>' 1he use of these waterways has generated longstanding geopoliti al disputes .etween the Netherlands and ,elgium' 1he issues are further ompli ated .y a partial ommon history and partially a ommon language too, plus different positions at the end of World War I <,elgium as a temporarily o upied ountry on the side of the vi tors and the Netherlands as a neutral outsider>' -rom a slightly .roader perspe tive, the Netherlands was situated .etween three great powers of the time* the U?, -ran e and Germany' 1hat position in itself was an invitation to entertain geopoliti al onsiderations a.out Dut h se urity on erns' In addition, the Netherlands had huge olonial possessions that were open to foreign investment .ut were also intensively e/ploited .y Dut h apital, formed a vital destination for Dut h e/ports in several se tors and had to .e administered' However, the dominant way in whi h Dut h foreign poli y per eived the world, hampered the emergen e of a geopoliti al world view' 1hough formerly a great power and having some of its attri.utes still inta t <nota.ly the si9e of its olonial possessions>, for a long time the Netherlands had played the typi al small)power role in the (uropean state system, remaining C

aloof from the great)power games and preserving its neutrality <Wels !7$=>' It tended to stress the importan e of international norms, referring the solution of international issues to the wor6ings of international law <there.y identifying post ho with the Dut h patriar h of international law, the e/iled Hugo Grotius>' It thus put emphasis on universals, negle ting parti ularities, putting 8udi ial rule).ound de ision)ma6ing far .efore the power relations that are so entral to geopoliti s, and trying to .e politi ally invisi.le in the world of interstate rivalries'

G(A5AN G(@P@;I1I2S IN 1H( DU12H P@;I1I2A; AA(NA Until the late !7=#s, Dut h intelle tuals and 8ournalists asso iated the name of Haushofer first of all with Eapan and the Pa ifi ' -or instan e, his .oo6 on the newly emerging great power in the -ar (ast, Japan und die Japaner <!7=">, had .een well re eived' 1he distinguished daily Het Vaderland <Septem.er !0, !7=">, whi h appeared in 1he Hague and had a si9a.le readership of people with ties to the olony, alled it 3a relia.le overview4 written 3.y an e/ ellent e/pert on that ountry4' 1he term 3geopoliti s4 was used in Het Vaderland for the first time in !7=$ in two reports' Neither of them was on erned with Haushofer' @ne was a translated pie e ta6en from a German paper e/plaining 5ussolini4s foreign poli y, the other the review of a German geopoliti al te/t.oo6 J Hennig4s Geopolitik; die Lehre vom Staat als Lebewesen <!7=$> )) written .y the Dut h onsul in ;eip9ig' He alled it a .oo6 3overflowing with notes that provo6e further thin6ing and the writing of all 6inds of arti les4 <@ to.er ", !7=$>' However, the se ond edition of this .oo6 got a more riti al review .y an anonymous author <5ay !C, !7"!>' 1he des ription .y Hennig of the state as a living organism was 3a wrong analogy4, it 3suggests a false representation of reality4' Unfortunately, 3in nearly all geopoliti al writings s ien e is too mu h su.servient to pre on eived politi al ideals4' ,etween !7=# and !7CC, the term 3geopoliti s4 appeared in CC separate pie es in Het Vaderland' 1his is a very low freGuen y' 1he term 3sphere of influen e4 turned up C=$ times and 3neutrality4 even 0B!" times in the same newspaper during the same period' Eust as importantly, 0#K of all ontri.utions ontaining the term 3geopoliti s4 appeared in !7C!) !7C", thus under German o upation when the press was strongly ensored' 5ore than D0K of all o urren es date from !7"$ onwards' 1he num.er of arti les in Het Vaderland mentioning geopoliti s grew from one to five in !7"$, the year of Austria4s in orporation into Germany <Anschluss> and Germany4s o upation of part of 29e hoslova6ia <Sudetenland>' 0

1hese events e/emplify the entral themes around whi h Haushofer4s geopoliti s was organi9ed' 1he ne/t year, 8ust a wee6 after the out.rea6 of war in Poland and pro.a.ly in response to the signing of the 5olotov)Ai..entrop Pa t on August =", Het Vaderland <Septem.er $, !7"7) printed a report, apparently from a ,ritish sour e, alled 3Glo.al plans' 1he influen e of those who do geopoliti s4' It ontains the story of 5a 6inder warning a.out a German)Aussian understanding, ta6en up .y Haushofer as an interesting intermediary step towards a Eapanese J Aussian J German ompa t to ounter Anglo)Sa/on apitalism and in ite an insurre tion of the olonial world' 1his is the only pre)war tra e of a ommonality in geopoliti al interests .etween Haushofer and an Anglo)Sa/on author <it is in fa t the only time the name of 5a 6inder turns up> that we found in Het Vaderland, here representing the Dut h press' @ne might have e/pe ted a more freGuent use of the term in the restri ted radi al right wing of the politi al spe trum' In its midst there was growing interest in new formats for the Dut h state, entailing hanged .oundaries and a shift in population .ased on linguisti , histori al)geographi al or, in the end, ra ist onsiderations' An analysis of the ideologi al dis ussions within the largest politi al party of the radi al right laun hed in !7"! <NS,> situates a distin t shift in that dire tion from !7"0 on, after initially ignoring these issues' Any eviden e of a dire t influen e of German geopoliti s in this shift is, however, la 6ing <?ei89er =##=, p' "C)CB>' 1he term 3geopoliti s4 was not used in these de.ates' In .oth ham.ers of the Dut h parliament, the term 3geopoliti s4 was ompletely ignored throughout the interwar period' 1he term was mentioned for the first time in parliament in Eune !7C$ during a .rief de.ate on the premature release of ;oohuis from prison where he was .eing held for Na9i)friendly a tivities during the o upation <see .elow>' In sum, the word 3geopoliti s4 was hardly heard in the Dut h pu.li arena until war loomed' -irst of all, Haushofer was re ogni9ed in the Dut h press as an e/pert on Eapan, a relevant topi with respe t to the Dut h olonial empire' During the Se ond World War geopoliti s was part of the terminology that the German o upation authorities o asionally used, so it was admitted to the vo a.ulary of the dis ourse and o urred with some freGuen y in the press' DI%(AG(N1 A2AD(5I2 (NGAG(5(N1S WI1H G(A5AN G(@P@;I1I2S !7=7)!7"=

In a ademi human geography the German geopoliti al pro8e t was Gui 6ly per eived, ta6en into onsideration and differently assessed' Some signs of professional interest showed up .etween !7=7 and !7"= after an early, rather mi/ed review of Haushofer4s .oo6 on the geopoliti s of the Pa ifi in the 8ournal of the Aoyal Dut h Geographi al So iety <%an ,alen !7=0>' 1he ontent of two dissertations <Aoos !7=7, ;oohuis !7"!> suggests that the wor6s of Haushofer4s ir le were well 6nown in Dut h geography around that time' German geopoliti s was apparently a epted as a theme for ontri.utions to the a ademi literature, with the provisos that normally apply* de.ata.le points, errors of 8udgment et ' 1hey were generally lose enough to geography to .e re ogni9ed as 3one of ours4, .ut there were also voi es who la.elled them as sui generis' A new dis ipline in the ma6ingI Perhaps' Aoos and ;oohuis In his !7=7 dissertation prepared under Steinmet9 on Eapan, Aoos made a.undant use of Haushofer4s wor6s on Eapan and the Pa ifi , though learly stating his general disapproval of the geographi al determinism that geopoliti s implies' 3Never do the traits of the earth surfa e e/ luding the human will provide a s ientifi .asis for the art of state raft4' And, 3in the emergen e and evolution of states, apart from geographi al fa tors, parti ularly other fa tors do play their role, su h as tradition and national hara ter, religion, e onomi relations and so ial stratifi ation4 <Aoos !7=7, p' !=)!": this re apitulates his advisorHs long)held views>' ,ut as he wrote in the introdu tion, apart from riti ism of the starting points of the Geopolitiker he felt there is mu h to appre iate in a positive vein in Haushofer4s pu.li ations on the Pa ifi <he also Guoted other authors from the same ir le>' At several points there are e/pli it lin6s with the Netherlands Indies <that Aoos, showing his progressive redentials, already alled Indonesia, whi h would only offi ially .e the ase after independen e>' Aoos, writing in !7=7, did not e/pe t Eapan to .e aggressive and foresaw a future of fruitful trade relations .etween Eapan and the Netherlands Indies, whi h he thought would alleviate the pro.lems of Eapan4s soon)to).e)e/pe ted overpopulation' A ording to the trend seen in the trade statisti s, this pro ess was already underway' (ventually, of ourse, things turned out differently' ;oohuis, in his !7"! dissertation under %an %uuren, gave pride of pla e to the e onomi s of the olonial relation' 1his topi omes first and o upies nearly half the te/t' Su.seGuently ;oohuis dealt with some fa tors that were not .enefi ial to 3the harmonious development of the relation .etween the tropi s and the 9one of moderate limate4: in other words, fa tors that D

might hasten the end of olonial dominan e .y the (uropeans' He was referring to ommunism and so ialism, .ut also to widespread views in (urope a.out 3the demise of the @ ident4' He finished the dissertation .y dis ussing the signs of e onomi and politi al awa6ening among the peoples of South (ast Asia' His on lusion was that, for the sa6e of .oth partners and for the time .eing, this awa6ening had to ontinue under enlightened leadership from within the moderate 9one' In the end <unspe ified when, .ut not soon> new relations would .e esta.lished' 1he geopoliti al parts of ;oohuis4 te/t were .a 6ed up .y a handful of more or less geopoliti al wor6s mentioned in the .i.liography of over =## items* two .y Haushofer, one .y @.st, one .y a lose prede essor Supan, and one .y ?8ellLn' No 5a 6inder, 5ahan or Aat9el' Among the many hundreds of footnotes, @.st and Supan are ea h used twi e, Haushofer appears eight times whereas ?8ellLn is ignored' ;ater in his areer the latter author would ma6e a strong ome.a 6' ;oohuis reported there <in !7CC> that the German translation of ?8ellLn4s Staten som Li!s!orm )) mentioned .ut not used in his !7"! dissertation )) had .een .rought to his attention as a student <geography !7=C)!7=$ in Utre ht, see ;oohuis !7CC, p' ", B$> and had .een re ommended, apparently .y %an %uuren' Interestingly, in nearly all ases where he refers to Haushofer in his dissertation, ;oohuis disputes Haushofer4s points of view* he is too anti) olonial, he thin6s wrongly that the 2hinese in South (ast Asia will strongly oppose olonial authority and that Eapan will not ta6e the lead of Pan Asianism, and that there will .e no Pan Asianism at all <;oohuis !7"!, p' =B" twi e, =DB, =DD, "#7, "!!, "!0, "!B>' 2uriously, the .oo6 has a summary in (nglish' While the esta.lished ran6ings in the a ademi world still pointed to Germany as the hegemoni power, a younger generation seemed to .e moving in another dire tion' Seemed' After the defen e of his PhD, ;oohuis wor6ed for some years at the ,ataafse Petroleum 5aats happi8, a Shell @il su.sidiary' He was then appointed editor)in) hief at "trechts Dagblad, the more onservative)li.eral of the two main lo al newspapers in Utre ht' ;oohuis moved its editorial line ever more toward the radi al right, and during the o upation he .e ame a disputed a ademi , as we shall see in Se tion C' While the main fo us of his dissertation is elsewhere, it learly shows an interest in geopoliti s' 1he literature of the German geopoliti ians is used where suita.le, .ut ertainly not without reservations' 1he geopoliti al interest is not framed in the spe ifi terminology of the emerging German geopoliti al s hool'

Steinmet9 and %an %uuren In !7"# and !7"=, the two ma8or hairs in human geography in the Netherlands were held .y Steinmet9 <Amsterdam> and %an %uuren <Utre ht>, who ontri.uted to German)language pu.li ations within the purview of Haushofer and his ir le' We do not 6now how they .e ame involved in these pu.lishing ventures' ,ut it pro.a.ly refle ts the differen e in their networ6s .ased on their s ientifi perspe tives that Steinmet9 ended up in a geopoliti ally inspired series edited .y Gra.ows6y whereas %an %uuren pu.lished a hapter in a olle tive wor6 edited .y Haushofer that omplemented ?8ellLn4s wor6 on great)power rivalries with an emphasis on additional politi al a tors' While Gra.ows6y was a geopoliti ian with a .a 6ground in the emerging dis ipline of politi al s ien e, Haushofer was a ademi ally lin6ed to the geographers' However geopoliti ally onte/tuali9ed their ontri.utions were, neither Steinmet9 nor %an %uuren used the term itself' Steinmet9 at this 8un ture was lose to the end of a long a ademi areer <for a .iographi al portrait and an appre iation of part of his wor6, see %an der Wusten =##0, !77!>' He had done a PhD in ethnography, had an interest in the so ial s ien es in general and had o upied the hair in geography at the University of Amsterdam sin e !7#$' Eust .efore his appointment he had pu.lished his .oo6 on the philosophy of war' 1here, he set forth the fun tionality of war for the individual and so ietal sele tion, arguing that war was ne essary to ensure further progress' In !7=# he pu.lished another .oo6 on the Guestion of nationalities in (urope, followed in !7=7 .y one on the so iology of war' 1he latter was a greatly e/panded and largely rewritten version of his earlier .oo6 on the su.8e t' 1he new edition, despite the e/perien e of World War I, reiterated his former statements and .a 6ed them up with a wealth of additional eviden e' After retirement he produ ed <together with some other authors> a large .oo6 on the human ra es' His whole s ientifi perspe tive was o.viously deeply im.ued with So ial Darwinism' ,ut he was very riti al of the e ologi al ideas and environmental determinisms this often implied in geographi al ir les as well as in geopoliti s' His ooperation in Gra.ows6y4s geopoliti al venture is therefore intriguing' It should pro.a.ly .e seen as a ooperative gesture to an appre iated a ademi a Guaintan e, where apparent details of new moves in ontinuous rivalries over dis iplinary .oundaries did not ount for mu h' How did Steinmet9 <!7"#> portray his home ountry in his .oo6 in Gra.ows6y4s seriesI 1o assess his efforts it is important to onsider the following' In the previous period, to demar ate his a ademi position, Steinmet9 had developed the standpoint that there should .e a differentiation .etween so iology <as the theory)driven .ran h of the general so ial 7

s ien es> and so iography' 1he latter would en ompass the empiri al .ran h, where des riptions of so ial groups of all si9es would .e produ ed, prefera.ly in a omparative fashion' 1hese des riptions should not put parti ular emphasis on the geographi al environment: this was 8ust one of the potentially important aspe ts to onsider' Aather, of prime importan e were notions of shared ulture and ommon psy hologi al hara ter that made up the essen e of the group4s identity' In that vein he had proposed ways of doing so iographi al wor6, defended the distin tion and made it lear that this was the road human geography <his own immediate a ademi environment> had to go' While Steinmet9 had proposed prin iples and ideals that should guide the so iographi al des riptions he had in mind, he had so far produ ed hardly any e/amples of su h wor6' 1his attempt to paint the Dut h portrait in words was an o asion to put his ideas into pra ti e' @ne imagines the editor framing the Dut h pi ture in terms of the geopoliti al reGuirements that were .eing developed and had .een tentatively proposed in the pre eding years' Steinmet94 imagery of his ountry re on iles these two ontrary impulses' @n the one hand, in line with the desired so iography, there are se tions at the very heart of the .oo6 where he des ri.es the national hara ter, and then moves on to the high arts <Guite e/tensively>, s ien e, hur h and religion, universities and s hools' @n the other hand, the .oo6 opens with on ise overviews of soils, limate and the geographi al situation and ends with a relatively large se tion on foreign poli y plus a .rief analysis of the army and navy' 1he .eginning and end thus learly refer to the geopoliti al programme' All in all, Steinmet9 produ ed a sandwi h, and the risp rusts did not have mu h relation to the stuffing inside' In s ien e this is perhaps a less fortunate format than in oo6ery' %an %uuren had entered a ademia more re ently, after a olourful olonial military areer' He was .orn in the Netherlands Indies' After parti ipating in the ma8or military operation of the late olonial e/pansion around !7## <the last stage of the A eh war at the northern tip of Sumatra ad8oining the 5ala a Straits>, he had .een a olonial administrator in the newly ontrolled area' ;ater he was appointed to a military staff position heading a newly esta.lished .ureau for the produ tion of reports des ri.ing a tual livelihoods and potential wealth) reating opportunities in lo alities and regions within the olony' Having moved to the Netherlands in !7=!, he .e ame an a ademi geographer, first in Amsterdam in the new ( onomi s -a ulty in !7== and then in Utre ht as head of department in !7=D' In fa t he had already .een tea hing in Utre ht for a ouple of years, after the professor in human geography there suddenly died <de Pater =##!>' !#

Apart from the ontri.ution .y %an %uuren, Haushofer4s .oo6 ontained hapters .y several of the initial inner ir le of geopoliti ians, in luding Gra.ows6y, whom we have already met <his hapter dealt with the ;eague of Nations>' 1he hapter .y %an %uuren <!7"=, a summari9ed version of a longer manus ript that appeared at the same time in Dut h,> started with a geologi al des ription of the delta formed .y many rivers <the Ahine, 5euse and S heldt in parti ular>, a delta shared .y the Netherlands and ,elgium' It .riefly des ri.ed the politi al history of the region sin e its earliest human settlement and moved on to treat the olonial empire' He then presented the ase for Dut h independen e .y virtue of its delta position and defended the value of its olonial empire in a (uropean onte/t under the ir umstan es following the Great War' In his introdu tory pie e, after on urring with these views, Haushofer had suggested that the Dut h la 6ed the ne essary wider spatial frame, perhaps .e ause they remained en losed in their restri tive delta position' We do not 6now when %an %uuren .e ame more intimately a Guainted with German ir les, in parti ular with people dire tly involved in the geopoliti al venture' It is lear that German geopoliti s fit in perfe tly with a num.er of interests that he had long entertained as a military man turned administrator' ,ut ;oohuis4 re olle tion, mentioned a.ove, strongly suggests that %an %uuren had earlier and approvingly read ?8ellLn in German' While .oth Steinmet9 and %an %uuren unmista6a.ly ontri.uted to the geopoliti al pro8e t initiated .y Haushofer and his ir le, their parti ipation was not prompted .y wholehearted support for its aims' Steinmet9 had serious o.8e tions to a entral item on its agenda, namely the preponderant weight of geographi al ir umstan es' In %an %uuren4s more pra ti al view, e onomi development onsiderations arried more weight in his geographi al resear h, despite his professional military interest in se urity issues' In these ir umstan es they .oth apparently gladly a eded to ollegial reGuests for ooperation, onsidering the predominan e of the German a ademi world in the development of s ien e' 1er %een 1here was one strongly dissenting voi e among the rea tions to the geopoliti al pro8e t during these years' In !7"! 1er %een, reader in e onomi geography at the University of Amsterdam sin e !7=D and politi ally a So ial Demo rat, pu.lished a s athing verdi t on German geopoliti s in the prominent ultural and politi al monthly De Gids, a entury)old de.ating platform for the .roadly li.eral elite'

!!

1er %een started his diatri.e with a point that had on erned him throughout his areer, the relation .etween so ial s ien e and so ietal development' Governmental a tion is nowadays in reasingly grafted on s ientifi 6nowledge, he wrote, .ut their ever loser union implies ris6s for .oth* the produ tion of good Guality s ientifi 6nowledge an .e spoiled .y the interferen e of so ietal desires' S ien e then .e omes a guide that has lost his way' 1hese ris6s grow with the si9e of the group whose position is at sta6e and with the range of the onseGuen es following from de isions to .e ta6en' A ording to 1er %een, geopoliti s is a so ial s ien e' Its su.8e t is the state and its aim is to provide guidelines for state raft' 1hose guidelines were provided right from the start' 1he initiators of geopoliti s went in sear h of supporters and people who ould implement their pres riptions' In other words, so ietal am.itions are deeply em.edded in the produ tion of geopoliti al 6nowledge' 1er %een reproa hes geopoliti ians not to wor6 in 3a sterili9ed study4 whi h is ne essary for the produ tion of Gualitatively good so ial s ien e' 1his is a lear referen e to the wor6ing onditions in the la.oratories of the admired physi al s ien es' 1here is some logi to geopoliti s4 .eginnings in Germany, having .een driven .y the defeat of !7!$' It resulted from an urgent need for larifi ation and redress' General Haushofer <it is 1er %een4s hoi e to emphasi9e his military .a 6ground> is referred to as its main initiator' However, the pie e in De Gids was .y no means only a.out Haushofer: it dealt with the full range of German geopoliti al authors that had pu.lished .y then' 1er %een was learly very well read in this literature' We are not aware of any strong onta ts he maintained there, nor did he pu.lish in German or international 8ournals, forming Guite a ontrast to Steinmet94 high international profile' S ientifi ally, as 1er %een wrote, geopoliti s is firmly grounded in .iology, giving the organi ist view of the state a new lease on life' 1his analogy is ondu ive to assertions on growth and de line, whi h an hardly .e ontrolled .y the 3free will4 of human institutions' 1he appeal of this strong language lies in the prestige of the natural s ien es from whi h su h statements derive and from the pu.li a laim they an garner on a ount of the apparent ertainties they provide' ,ut o.viously the enduring pro.lem with geopoliti s was that a purely deterministi a ount of state raft with natural for es in the lead left very little room for poli y pres riptions of any sort' Geopoliti s is also fo used on the geographi al environment as the ultimate determining fa tor of the state4s fortunes' In the do uments that aim to demar ate its field of studies there is room for additional fa tors, parti ularly in the sphere of so ial organi9ation' ,ut in the geopoliti al laws Guoted and e/plained, or in any ase illustrated, a state4s growth !=

and de line are always related to some feature of the natural environment' 1his am.iguity is learly demonstrated .y Haushofer4s ompletely unsu.stantiated statement that perhaps =0K of all relevant variation ould .e e/plained .y the geographi al environment' He su.seGuently limited himself to geographi al ausality while laiming to provide general pres riptions on foreign poli y' 1er %een strongly opposed the whole idea of immuta.le laws, parti ularly in the so ial s ien es' ,ut his ma8or riti ism was dire ted at methodologi al failures' 1he so) alled laws are introdu ed without any proof' 2onfirmation is done .y way of e/ample' In many ases some simple e/ploration of potential eviden e already un overs ounter e/amples' In his strong preferen e for an indu tive methodology, piling up the eviden e arefully to ome to grips with so ial reality and to onstru t areful omparisons and not to spea6 in terms of merely suggestive metaphors, he followed in the footsteps of his mentor Steinmet9' 1o his taste, geopoliti s was e/ eedingly areless and far too hasty' 1he organi ist metaphors are sometimes amusing .ut J a ording to 1er %een J it is .etter not to laugh as they have far)rea hing imperialist impli ations' -or instan e, as organi .eings, states have a drive to reprodu e' 1his is diffi ult for states demar ated mainly .y land .oundaries <e'g' Germany>' Aelief ould only ome from a marriage with the sea' Woe .etide the neigh.ouring state <e'g' the Netherlands> whose lo ation impedes su h a union' 5ore homely perhaps .ut no less unsettling is the idea that a people annot do without the mouths of their rivers 8ust as a father annot do without the 6eys to his house' Where, inGuired 1er %een, in all this does one find grounds for international law or for the reasona.leness of our indignation a.out politi al violen eI 1his has lear impli ations for the traditional Dut h attitude in international affairs, notwithstanding the mu h earlier dire t hegemoni e/perien e of the Netherlands and its memory of olonial warfare, still fresh' In the end 1er %een deemed geopoliti s to .e a ridi ulous and ris6y venture' 1here is merit in the idea of getting a sense of the future .y reviewing the s ientifi eviden e' ,ut in the ase of geopoliti s so ial pressure derails riti al resear h' At the same time, there turns out to .e fertile ground for the s ientifi laims of geopoliti s, .ut this spells trou.le as its messages pervaded with imperialisti assumptions' 1er %een felt it was his duty to de lare that geopoliti s is 3s ientifi ally worthless and so ially dangerous4 <!7"!, p' "B7>' 1er %een4s rea tion to German geopoliti s is ompletely different from the other Dut h rea tions we retrieved from the ar hives' 1er %een atta 6ed them head on from the start and de lared geopoliti s to .e outside the realm of respe ta.le a ademi wor6, a lear and present !"

danger for a mentally healthy so ial life' As far as we 6now, not a single rea tion to his arti le was pu.lished in the Dut h press or in the geography 8ournals' What motivated 1er %een .ut not others to ta6e a stan e at this momentI While we have no definite answer, we an offer some suggestions' -irst of all, there is the a tual international onte/t' 1er %een finished his manus ript on Eanuary =, !7"! a ording to a note at the end of the pu.li ation' In Septem.er !7"# Hitler4s NSDAP won its ama9ing ele toral vi tory' Did the NSDAP propaganda give rise to a fear of German imperialism at least partially .ased on geopoliti al reasoning, the rotten fruit of .ad s ien eI 1er %een may well have thought it did' As a So ial Demo rat he may have sensed this danger more a utely than others' After all, the So ial Demo rats had .een the ma8or party sustaining the Weimar Aepu.li ' Se ondly, 1er %een may have .een motivated .y the attitudes and a tions of the ountry4s most prominent geographers, Steinmet9 and %an %uuren' He may have thought they saw the geopoliti al venture in Germany as 8ust another stage in the development of German geography as a university dis ipline' Fet he himself felt that mu h more was at sta6e' 1his differen e in attitudes may have .een the result of Steinmet94 and %an %uuren4s more e/tensive relations in Germany as this pro ess unfolded in ontrast to 1er %een4s more 3provin ial4 ha.itus' (arly on, the small ommunity of a ademi geographers in the Netherlands was aware of Haushofer4s geopoliti al pro8e t in Germany' While they generally engaged with it in a matter)of)fa t way, sorting out its strengths and wea6nesses', one rea tion stood out, namely 1er %een4s' Having .een following developments in Germany, .oth in politi s and in the domain of a ademi geography, from a ertain distan e, .y late !7"# he was more a utely sensitive to German geopoliti s than the two geography professors' 1he latter, with their ongoing German onta ts, too6 noti e of the new venture in geopoliti s in a .usiness)as)usual way' 1his is refle ted in their own interpretations and in the rea tions of those who wrote dissertations under their guidan e' ,ut whatever om.ination of fa tors instigated 1er %een4s atta 6 on geopoliti s, he revived it on very few o asions' His ma8or interest apparently lay elsewhere' In his inaugural le ture, as Steinmet94 su essor, he treated Eapan4s e onomi development .ut only mentioned its imperialist ventures and their geopoliti al impli ations in passing <1er %een !7"">' It was only after the war, 8ust .efore he died, that he pu.lished two e/ ellent longer te/ts learly onne ted to his earlier engagement with geopoliti s' @ne was on .oundaries, implying the uselessness of Dut h post)war anne/ation plans for parts of Germany <another !C

e/ample of unfortunate Lebensraum longings>: the other was on Eapan4s fateful imperialist adventures <1er %een !7CD, !7C$>'

-UA1H(A (NGAG(5(N1S @- DU12H G(@GAAPH(AS WI1H G(A5AN G(@P@;I1I2S !7"7)!7CC 1he ne/t period in whi h there was dis erni.le interest in the geopoliti al perspe tive among Dut h geographers has two stages' During the first, the threatening ir umstan es of approa hing war, whi h would ultimately draw the Netherlands into outright warfare on 5ay !#, !7C#, ast international relations issues into the forefront of the pu.li de.ate' In the ensuing polari9ation of views, either the idealist perspe tive of yore was passionately maintained or a hard, realist argument was proposed, as in the ase of geopoliti s .a 6ed up .y geographi al onsiderations <e'g' territorial issues>' During the se ond stage <from 5ay !C, !7C# onwards, after the Dut h defeat> only a limited set of dis ourses was admitted in the pu.li arena, geopoliti s .eing one of them' 1he term geopoliti s was in reasingly used in the press during .oth stages, though for different reasons, as noted a.ove in se tion =' Geographers too6 part in the ensuing de.ates' ;ater in the war, as ir umstan es .e ame more haoti , the pu.li spa e shrun6 and ommuni ation dwindled' 1he last pu.li ation that appeared in !7CC did not arouse any response: .y then people had other priorities' During the first stage there was still freedom of e/pression' @ne of the very few geographers to ma6e his voi e heard in that period was 1er %een' 1he radi al wee6ly De Groene Amsterdammer arried his fier e .ut eloGuent atta 6 on geopoliti s in 5ar h !7"7, half a year .efore war .ro6e out' In fa t his argument followed the lines he had already drawn in !7"!' ,ut the rhetori was even more emotive, revealing deep on ern' Geopoliti s, he on luded, 3under the guise of s ien e, offers .ogus grounds for alling the e/pansionist urge of aggressive peoples reasona.le* it hit hes the masses up to 5ars4 triumphal hariot, the driver of whi h uses Mnatural lawsN as reins and the .linding authority of s ien e as .lin6ers4' Somewhat more than a year after 1er %een4s warning, the Netherlands fell vi tim to the German e/pansionist urge' (arly in the o upation an air of normality was arefully maintained' In 5ar h !7C!, Al.re ht Haushofer, ?arl4s son, visited 1he Hague at the invitation of the #iederl$ndisch Deutsche %ulturgemeinscha!t, a propaganda vehi le that had !0

8ust .een laun hed .y the o upation authorities and lo al Na9i enthusiasts' At the time he was a professor of geopoliti s in ,erlin and part)time diplomat' <;ess than two months later, after Hess disappeared on his mysterious flight to S otland, the entire Haushofer family4s standing with the Na9i regime de lined: Al.re ht was eventually arrested and then shot at the end of the war>' While in 1he Hague he gave two pu.li spee hes in Pul hri, a well 6nown venue in the very entre of the ity' Het Vaderland <5ar h =!, !7C!> agreed with his view that the days of a (urope fragmented .y politi al .oundaries were over and the time had ome for larger spatial units' 1he paper Guoted him as saying that 3the a.solute sovereignty of the small states has now finished4' 1he Dut h people should now harmoniously ooperate with the Germans 3li6e the people of ,avaria and the Austrians4' Despite the ensorship the 8ournalist su.tly inserted at that point that the Dut h relation to the Germans was nonetheless different' @n .ehalf of the German people Haushofer also praised 3the grandiose wor64 of the Dut h in the Netherlands)Indies' He hoped that the Dut h would li6ewise ome to .etter appre iate the ompara.le efforts that Germany was now ma6ing in 2entral and (astern (urope' In !7C= the entral authorities <Na9ified Dut h> in 1he Hague wanted to esta.lish an a ademi post for the tea hing of geopoliti s at Utre ht University' Shortly .efore, %an %uuren had .e ome the <temporary> re tor at the university' In the eyes of many he was too willing to give in to outside pressure' His fee.le resistan e to Na9i dominan e also showed up in the 8ournals where he pu.lished his papers' His latest analysis of the Dut h delta appeared in the monthly 8ournal #ieuw #ederland whi h was losely tied to the NS,, the largest Dut h Na9i party <%an %uuren !7C=>' 2onfronted with the hoi e of a university department to host the new a ademi geopoliti ian, he seems to have .een instrumental in moving it to the ;aw -a ulty' ,ut the initiators may well have had their own motives for putting it there' ;oohuis again Haushofer4s audien e in Pul hri in luded ;oohuis, who su.seGuently .e ame a mem.er of the #iederl$ndisch Deutsche %ulturgemeinscha!t <,arnouw =##$, p' $7>' In !7C! and !7C= ;oohuis pu.lished two papers, one in De &aag, a Dut h Na9i)affiliated review, and the other in 'eitschri!t !(r Geopolitik' 1he former was on erned with the Pan)region of (urafri a, a on ept repeatedly dis ussed in the German geopoliti al literature <@4;oughlin O %an der Wusten !77#>' 1he latter re ounted how the Dut h long ago lost the 5alay peninsula to the ,ritish and how Singapore was esta.lished as the main trading hu. and the prote tor of the vital 5ala a Straits' In general .oth papers had a measured, a ademi tone, despite the !B

appeal to the Dut h at the end of the first to 8oin in the onstru tion of the new order and despite the harged title of the se ond <3How (ngland de eived Holland regarding Singapore4>' ;oohuis4 rea tion to German geopoliti s during the war, here and in his further pu.li ations signifi antly differed from rea tions .y geographers in other small (uropean ountries <Paasi !77#, pp' 0")B0: ;arsen =#!!, pp' "$)C$>' 1hese were far more dire tly engaged with the urrent geopoliti al position of their own ountry, while ;oohuis addressed more general or histori al topi s and also the re on eptuali9ation of the geopoliti al enterprise as a whole' 1here is room for further omparative wor6 on this issue' In !7C= ;oohuis was appointed to the ountry4s first a ademi position in geopoliti s <not as full professor .ut as reader>' In his post)war trial the ourt found that he had o.tained the position .y 3pu.li ly urrying favour with the enemy4 and that, .y ontri.uting arti les to olla.orationist newspapers, he had demonstrated 3a worryingly un)Dut h mentality4 <,arnouw =##$, p' $7>' His inaugural le ture in Utre ht dealt with politi al ignoran e and the dis ipline of politi s <;oohuis !7C=>' 1hat spee h was well re eived .y Het Vaderland <Septem.er !!, !7C=>, whi h .y then was under lose German s rutiny, and of ourse also in the Na9i review De &aag, whi h pu.lished a series of pie es entitled 3Geopoliti al lessons4' 1he underground resistan e paper Slaet op den )rommele <De em.er =0, !7C=> rea ted in a Guite different tone* geopoliti s 3has 8ust as little to do with s ien e as national) so ialism with law4' 1he paper warned a.out the Na9ifi ation of the Dut h universities and alled upon students to .oy ott ;oohuis4 le tures* 3@ne should never forget that the Deutschland*(ber*alles slogan also applies to the field of s ien e' Students, avoid the le tures of this politi al o topus4' 1hese words had most li6ely .een written .y Wim (ggin6, a student of human geography in Utre ht who was an editor of this and other 3illegal papers4' He .e ame one of the ma8or figures in the students4 national resistan e movement' (ggin6 was arrested in Eanuary !7CC and died at age =C in a German prison amp in the last days of the war' In the early spring of !7C", Utre ht University was effe tively losed' 1he same happened in Amsterdam where ;oohuis had also .een appointed a .it later' 2andidates were apparently not a.undant' He su.seGuently wrote a num.er of arti les for the 8ournal Haagsch +aandblad and these were then pu.lished as a .oo6let <;oohuis !7CC>' @ne of the interesting things that ;oohuis did in these pu.li ations was to return to the original sour es' He too6 his ue not from Haushofer .ut from Haushofer4s main sour e of a ademi inspiration, the Swede Audolf ?8ellLn' 1he sort of resear h programme he proposed !D

in his latest ontri.utions redu ed the importan e of geographi al fa tors in state development from the privileged status they had at least rhetori ally o upied in the pro8e t of German geopoliti s from the !7=#s' 1here were earlier voi es in the Na9i)inspired 8ournals that pointed in the same dire tion <Noordhoff !7C!>' It may well .e that this idea also inspired the administrators in 1he Hague who were initiating the new a ademi position and indu ed them to install it in the ;aw -a ulty' In the end ;oohuis steered geopoliti s away from geography and toward the emerging dis ipline of politi al s ien e <whi h already e/isted in Germany>' ?8ellLn had rea hed that position from a different point of departure' In ?8ellLn4s view the study of the state was dominated far too mu h .y the 8urists who were merely interested in the norms that should guide state .ehaviour, also in the field of international relations J the traditional Dut h position' Aoom should .e provided for the state as a node of power omposed of different elements that should .e empiri ally studied and ran6ed' -rom the various possi.le onfigurations of ran6s one should .e a.le to as ertain the a tual interstate relationships' @.viously there was some degree of freedom for .etter or worse state raft that would affe t final out omes' Fet in the mutual relations of the powers, mu h was in fa t preordained' 2learly this is the same perspe tive that informs the realist s hool in international relations' ;oohuis also distan ed himself from another part of the earlier German geopoliti al pro8e t' 1he Germans had sought to find a ni he in a ademia and at the same time to mo.ili9e pu.li support for the pro8e t that hardly disguised its politi al drives and intentions' ;oohuis now emphasi9ed the purely s ientifi nature of geopoliti s and was wary of all propaganda in its pu.li ations' -or instan e, he strongly opposed the rude themati maps that were so hara teristi of geopoliti s, alling them the wor6 of 3geo).rushers)up4, not of <serious> geopoliti ians' In his view, <geo>politi s should go .a 6 to the 3sterili9ed study4 , the la.oratory of the so ial s ien es, as 1er %een had in fa t re ommended' ;oohuis, interestingly, dis ussed the wor6 of -ren h and ,ritish geopoliti ians and thought that there was mu h to learn from them' He even mentioned 1er %een4s !7"! arti le in a footnote, .ut thought the author had not re ogni9ed the true value of the geopoliti al pro8e t, whi h was patently evident despite the wea6nesses he himself now indi ated' His .asi aim was to onstru t an a ademi ni he for a new dis ipline, politi al s ien e' It would have .een the first programme of its 6ind in the ountry <Daalder !77!>' ;oohuis wor6ed stu..ornly on his a ademi reputation' Why did he hoose this pathI Did he 8ust pursue his earlier orientation <thin6 of his riti ism of Haushofer as formulated in his !7"! dissertation>I Was this his way to .uy time and survive without ompromising !$

himself too mu h .y aligning himself with something in whi h he had already lost faithI Was he then hanging his tra 6 to ompensate for Haushofer4s de lining position within GermanyI Did he foresee an eventual German defeat <his latest writings were post)Stalingrad>I Whatever the answer to these Guestions, ;oohuis was immediately fired when the war ended' In !7CD he was senten ed to three years of imprisonment and loss of voting rights' He was also prohi.ited from wor6ing in 8ournalism for some time' In fa t ;oohuis J and possi.ly others in the same ir les J had in the ourse of his wartime geopoliti al a tivities overstepped the .oundaries of Haushofer4s pro8e t' ,y his return to Haushofer4s original sour e of inspiration, ?8ellLn, he had put himself in a position to move in a different dire tion' However, the so ial and politi al onditions of the time ompletely .lo 6ed all possi.ilities for him to ontinue along that road any further'

2@N2;USI@NS While the interwar years and those of the Se ond World War were generally high)water mar6s of geopoliti al writing, geopoliti s4 popularity in the Netherlands remained modest' An attitude of aloofness vis P vis foreign relations was dominant, resulting in a passive neutrality' 1o the e/tent that there was an engagement with foreign poli y, idealist views stressing the importan e of international law and the ;eague of Nations too6 the upper hand' Geopoliti s was therefore not a widely used term and there was no fier e de.ate a.out geopoliti al issues' Nonetheless, as the German pro8e t of geopoliti s envisioned .y Haushofer and his ir le emerged in the !7=#s, it evo6ed a ertain amount of response among geographers in the Netherlands' Its pu.li ations were Guoted and used as part of Dut h a ademi resear h' And a few Dut h geographers with international onta ts <Steinmet9, %an %uuren> ooperated in German geopoliti al pu.li ation ventures, resulting in some outlines for a spe ifi ally Dut h geopoliti s' 1his parti ipation refle ted the high standing in whi h German s ien e still stood in the Netherlands and the lose onta ts that were maintained' Apparently this was onsidered to .e another venture in the development of dis iplines <geography, general so ial s ien e> to whi h one ould respond in the usual way )) re eptively .ut not without riti ism' 1here was one strongly dissenting voi e .y a geographer* 1er %een' He de lared the German geopoliti al pro8e t out of .ounds for normal s ientifi pra ti e and warned of its nefarious, aggressive onseGuen es' 1hese a tions and rea tions, mainly within the geographi al segment of Dut h a ademia, were largely on entrated in the years !7=7)!7"=' !7

As tensions in (urope .ut also in the -ar (ast grew and the prospe t of yet another ma8or war started to loom large, geopoliti s got some mileage in the general press' It is in these ir umstan es that we find the first referen e to a non)German geopoliti ian* 5a 6inder' During the su.seGuent German o upation of the Netherlands, geopoliti s was one dis ourse that was admitted, so the use of the term geopoliti s in reased in the general < ensored> press' At the same time the Na9i)related, more or less a ademi reviews arried a dis ussion a.out a sensi.le geopoliti s, a de.ate repeatedly informed .y ontri.utions from geographers' Interestingly, a politi al initiative to reate a geopoliti al position at the University of Utre ht led to the appointment of an erstwhile geographer, ;oohuis, within the ;aw -a ulty' He de isively rewrote the intended programme for geopoliti s into a new dis ipline of politi al s ien e, ta6ing distan e from Haushofer4s pro8e t' ;ong .efore the war had ended, German geopoliti s had already left the Netherlands'

&i$liograph" ' ,alen, 2';' van <!7=0>' Aeview of ?' Haushofer, Geopoliti6 des Pa9ifis hen @9eans' )i,dschri!t Aardri,kskundig Genootschap C=, 0DD)0D7' ,arnes, 1'E' <=##">' 1he pla e of lo ational analysis* a sele tive and interpretive history' -rogress in Human Geograph. =D, B7)70' ,arnouw, D' <=##$>' 1he Na9i New @rder and (urope' In* 5' Wintle <ed'> /magining 0urope1 0urope and 0uropean civilisation as seen !rom its margins and b. the rest o! the world in the 23th and 45th centuries <pp' D")7=>1 ,ru/elles* Peter ;ang' Daalder, H' <!77!>' Politi al s ien e in the Netherlands' 0uropean Journal o! -olitical 6esearch =#, =D7)"##' Ea o.sen, H')A' <!7D7>' %arl Hausho!er1 Leben und &erk' = vols' ,oppard* Harald ,oldt %erlag' ?ei89er, E' <=##=>' Hausho!er in Holland1 0en studie naar de geopolitieke visie binnen de #S7' Amsterdam* 5aster thesis UvA' =#

;arsen, H'G' <=#!!>' 31he need and a.ility for e/pansion4* on eptions of living spa e in the small)state geopoliti s of Gudmund Hatt' -olitical Geograph. "#, "$)C$

;ivingstone, D' <=##">' -utting science in its place8 Geographies o! scienti!ic knowledge' 2hi agoQ;ondon* 1he University of 2hi ago Press' ;oohuis, E'G' <!7"!>' De verhouding tussen den tropischen landbouwgordel en de industriecentra der gematigde 9one in hare betekenis voor het huidige aspect van het koloniale vraagstuk in 'uid*:ost*A9i;' Hilversum* 5er uur' ;oohuis, E'G' <!7C!>' Het don6ere werelddeel' (en du..el) ontinentaal pro.leem' De &aag, !0 mei' ;oohuis, E'G' <!7C=a>' :ver politieke onwetendheid en de wetenschap der politiek' Inaugural le ture Utre ht University' ;oohuis, E'G' <!7C=.>' Wie (ngland Holland um Singapur .etrog' 'eitschri!t !(r Geopolitik !7, "$")"$$' ;oohuis, E'G' <!7CC>, +ensch en mogendheid1 0en probleem van alle ti,den' ;eiden* ,attel8ee O 1erpstra' Noordhoff, E'D' <!7C!>' Geopolitie6' #ieuw #ederland $, 7=")7"7' @4;oughlin, E' O H' van der Wusten <!77#>' 1he geography of Pan)regions' Geographical 6eview $#, pp' !)=#' Paasi, A' <!77#>' 1he rise and fall of -innish geopoliti s' -olitical Geograph. <uarterl., 7, 0")B0

=!

Pater, ,' de <=##!>, Geography and geographers in the Netherlands sin e !$D#s' Serving 2olonialism, (du ation and the Welfare State' In G'S' Dun.ar <ed'>, Geograph.8 Discipline -ro!ession and Sub,ect since 2=>5 <pp' !0")!7#>' Dordre ht* ?luwer' Aoos, H' <!7=7>' Japan in den Grooten :ceaan' Amsterdam* H'E' Paris' Sprengel, A' <=###>' Geopoliti6 und Nationalso9ialismus* (nde einer deuts hen -ehlentwi 6lung oder fehlgeleiteter Dis6urs' In I' Die6mann et'al <eds'> Geopolitik1 Gren9g$nge im 'eitgeist <pp' !CD)!B$>' Potsdam* %erlag fRr ,erlin),randen.urg' ,and !' Steinmet9, S'A'<!7"#>' Die #iederlande' Weltpolitis he ,R herei ,and !0' ,erlin* &entral) %erlag' 1er %een, H'N' <!7"!>' De Geopolitie6 als so iale wetens hap' De Gids 70, "C$)"B7' 1er %een <!7"">' De sociale beteekenis der industrialisatie van Japan' Inaugural le ture Amsterdam' 1er %een, H'N' <!7"7>' Geopolitie6' (en Duitse wetens hap' De Groene Amsterdammer C 5ar h' 1er %een, H'N' <!7CD>' Gren9en' 1he Hague* Servire' 1er %een <!7C$>' Japan bakermat van het A9iatische imperialisme' 1erra ree6s' 5eppel* ,oom' %uuren, ;' van <!7"=>' Die NiederlSnde und ihr ?olonialrei h' In ?' Haushofer <ed'> Jenseits der Grossm$chte1 0rg$n9ungsband 9ur #eubearbeitung der Grossm$chte 6udol! %,ell?ns <pp' !!!)!"!>' ;eip9igQ,erlin* 1eu.ner' %uuren, ;' van <!7C=>' De fun tie van het deltage.ied van Ai8n, 5aas en S helde .innen het .este6 der Nederlands he ver6eers) en handelse onomie' #ieuw #ederland 7, 77)!!='

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Wels, 2','<ed'> <!7$=>, Aloo!ness and neutralit.8 studies on Dutch !oreign relations and polic.*making institutions' Utre ht* HOS Pu.lishers' Wusten, H' van der <!77!>' ( hoes of !7=#* Steinmet94 views on the 3nationalities Guestion4' In H' van Amersfoort O H' ?nippen.erg <eds'>, States and nations1 Netherlands Geographi al Studies !"D <pp' "#)C#>' Amsterdam* ?NAGQISG' Wusten, H' van der <=##0>, Se.ald Audolf Steinmet9 !$B=)!7C#' In P'H' Armstrong O G'E' 5artin <eds'>, Geographers 7iobibliographical Studies =C <pp' !#7)!=">' ;ondonQNew For6* 1hoemmes 2ontinuum'

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