Professional Documents
Culture Documents
| |
=
|
\ .
(1)
Ideally, if both the tank and the charging pipe were perfectly
adiabatic, the air temperature level could be maintained over
time. In practice, this is not the case. Due to its volume
(around 30liters) the air tank cannot be localized near the
engine, and a quite long charging pipe is needed. Even with a
thermal insulation of both air tank and charging pipe, the heat
transfer remains significant and the pressurized air quickly
cools to reach the ambient temperature. This phenomenon has
been experimentally observed on real pneumatic hybrid engine
by Trajkovic[11],Brejaud [12] and Donitz [3] . These authors
show that, without any additional heating system, the air tank
has to be considered isothermal.
Figure 2: Relative air mass consumed In pneumatic Motor Mode
As Function As Temperature [Wi=310 J/cycle- P
tank
=12 bar-1200
RPM]
Finally, when reusing the air in pneumatic motor mode, the
mass necessary to fill the cylinder is greater than the one that
would have been necessary if the air was not cool at its stay in
the tank.
Figure 2 gives the calculated relative air mass needed in
pneumatic motor mode as a function of the incoming air
temperature, in order to produce an indicated work of 120
J/cycle, 1200 RPM, for an air tank pressure level of 12 bars.
This figure clearly shows that a great benefit exists in using
heated air instead of "cold" one coming from an isotherm air
tank.
Single Main Heated Tank
Figure 3: Single Main Air Tank Concept heated with exhaust
gases. Source: [5]
293 393 493 593 693 793
0
20
40
60
80
100
Relative air mass consumed in pneumatic motor mode [%]
Air Temperature [K]
Page 3 of 12
This observation has leaded several authors to propose to heat
the air tank with the exhaust gases produced while the engine
is used in conventional mode. Tai and al. [5] was the first
research team to propose the concept of a single Air Tank
heated with the exhaust gases in a technical paper [5].The
proposed concept is also described in a US Patent [13]. See
Figure 3.
Figure 4: Energy Domains
This proposal for heating the air tank allows a new pathway in
the management of energy domains, as depicted in dashed line
by Figure 4. It is then possible, due to the heat exchanger
created by the double-walled air tank, to recover and to
transfer a part of the exhaust gas heat to the compressed air.
Proposed Concept
Figure 5: Schematic representation of the proposed concept
From the authors point of view, the idea for heating the air
tank is a smart way to improve the overall efficiency of the
hybrid engine, but its implementation by a single tank is
unrealistic. As mentioned before and due to its volume, it is
not possible to embed the air tank near the exhaust pipe of the
engine. Consequently two large length air circuits are needed
for both exhaust gas and the pressurized air circuits. The heat
transfer phenomenon along these pipes finally leads to an
important reduction of the energy efficiency of the concept.
First, while the engine operates in conventional mode, a
significant part of the exhaust gas heat is dissipated along the
pipe. Second, while the engine operates in pneumatic motor
mode, the hot pressurized air issued by the air tank is cooled
before entering into the cylinder.
For these reasons, authors propose an alternative charging air
path. See Figure 5. The proposed system consists of three
main components connected by various pipes: an intermediate
tank, a main tank and a optional three-way valve called "By-
pass valve". The main tank is a reservoir of compressed air
that presents a large capacity, up to 50 liters. The latter is
single-walled and has no special thermal insulation, so it has
to be considered as isothermal. The intermediate tank is
double-walled, low-capacity, and acts as a heat exchanger
between the pressurized air issued from the main tank and the
exhaust gas of the engine.
The main and the intermediate tank may be respectively
considered as a mass and enthalpy reservoir. The main
function for the intermediate tank is to guarantee the
availability of a sufficient volume of hot and pressurized air
that will be typically consumed during a vehicle start from a
null speed while using the pneumatic motor mode. Once the
engine switches to the conventional combustion mode, the
new function for the intermediate tank is then to warm-up the
cold air that has came from the main tank in previous state.
Next, when the engine is stopped, the double-wall acts as
insulation and limits the heat losses for the hot pressurized air.
The three-way By-pass valve is used to derive the flow of
exhaust gas when it is not desired that it passes through the
intermediate tank. Its presence is motivated by two reasons:
1. In pneumatic motor mode, because of the expansion
performed in the engine cylinder, the air discharged from
the exhaust valve reaches extremely low temperatures.
Thus, in order not to cool the intermediate tank, the
addition of a three way "By-Pass" valve is desirable. The
presence of the latter is not mandatory, but is
recommended in order to maximize the energy potential
of the concept.
2. The heat transfer process while the exhaust gas crosses
the intermediate tank lowers the temperature of the latter.
As a consequence, the efficiency of the catalytic converter
could be negatively impacted. The presence of the three-
way "By-Pass" valve allows, if desired, not to cool the
exhaust and get a rapid rise in temperature of the catalytic
converter.
Moreover, it is appropriate that the pipe connecting the
charging valve to the intermediate tank is the most thermally
insulated as possible. It is important to minimize the heat
Page 4 of 12
losses of the air between the outlet of the intermediate tank
and its entry into the engine cylinder.
Proposed Study
This paper is organized as follows. First, a 0D thermodynamic
model of the coupling of the intermediate and main tank is
proposed. Second, a 0D quasi-static thermal modeling of the
intermediate tank is developed. Third, the fuel savings, for the
NEDC and WLTP driving cycles under several thermal initial
states of the intermediate tank, are estimated by numerical
simulations. Finally, the influence of the intermediate heated
tank size is investigated.
THERMODYNAMIC MODELLING
Pneumatic Pump Mode: Air is entering
the Intermediate Tank
Figure 6: Thermodynamic model
The first law of thermodynamics, written for the intermediate
tank, leads to:
. . . ( )
. . . .
v air v air in out
p air in p ext out
mc dT c T dm dm
Q W c T dm c T dm o o
+ =
+ +
(2)
Where m, c
p
and c
v
respectively represents the air mass inside
intermediate tank, the specific heat at constant pressure and
the specific heat at constant volume. Using the perfect gas
law, the elementary rise of pressure inside the intermediate
tank can be expressed as:
| | ( ) .
int air in out air
int
r
dp T dm dm mdT
V
= + (3)
Where r represents the perfect gas constant (r=c
p
-c
v
). A similar
method, applied to the main tank gives:
. .
ext out
main
main
r T dm
dp
V
= (4)
Assuming there is no pressure losses (
nt main i
dp dp dp = = )
and re-arranging equations (2),(3) and (5), the transferred
mass from the intermediate tank to the main tank can be
determined:
. .
.
p in
out
int
v ext p
ma
n
in
i
air
Q c T dm
dm
V
c T c T
V
o +
=
+
(5)
Finally, the elementary rises of pressure and temperature, in
the intermediate tank, can be respectively determined using
equations (6) and (7):
ext
out
main
rT
dp dm
V
= (6)
1
( )
int
air ext out air out in
main
V
dT T dm T dm dm
m V
(
= +
(
(7)
Pneumatic Motor Mode: Air is leaving
the Intermediate Tank
In this case, dm
in
and
dm
out
both have to be considered as
negative values. Moreover, it is assumed (isotherm assumption
of the main tank) that the air mass transferred from the main
tank to the intermediate tank (dm
out
) is at the exterior
temperature level. Accordingly, Equation (5) becomes:
. .
.
p in
out
int
v
air
ext
m
ext p
ain
Q c T dm
dm
V
c T c T
V
o +
=
+
(8)
The elementary rises of pressure and temperature remains
governed by equations (6) and (7).
QUASI-STATIC HEAT TRANSFER
MODEL
Page 5 of 12
Figure 7: Resistor Model
A thermal resistance model, as depicted in Figure 7 has been
used for estimating the heat fluxes. Fives temperature nodes
are considered: exterior (T
ext
) air inside the intermediate tank
(T
air
) exhaust gas (T
ech
) and the inside wall temperature (T
wi
)
and the outside wall temperature (T
wo
) of intermediate tank.
The nature of the convective heat exchange process (Natural
Convection, Forced Convection and Conduction) between two
nodes of the model depends on the operating mode of the
engine. Table 1 presents the different possible cases. It is
assumed that the 3 ways "By-Pass" valve derives the "cold"
exhaust gas flow while the engine operates in both pneumatic
motor and pump modes.
Table 1: Heat Exchange Type as a function of the Engine
Operating Mode.
Engine Operating Mode
Off Conventional Pneumatic
Motor
k
12
Natural Conv. Natural Conv. Natural Conv.
k
23
Natural Conv. Forced Conv. Natural Conv.
k
24
Conduction Conduction Conduction
k
34
Natural Conv. Forced Conv. Natural Conv.
k
45
Natural Conv. Natural Conv. Forced Conv.
Natural Convection
In the case of a natural convection, the following correlation,
valid for a heat exchange between a stainless steel cylinder
and air, and was used:
0.25
1.32
e
T
k
D
| | A
=
|
\ .
(9)
D
e
and T are respectively the cylinder diameter and the
temperature gradient (SI Units).
Forced Convection
In the case of forced convection, the Colburn correlation has
been used:
0.8 0.33
0.023( ) ( ) Nu Re Pr = (10)
The Prandtl number is fixed to a value adapted for an ideal
gas: P
r
=0.75.
The Reynolds number is calculated assuming a flow inside a
tube, with following expression:
. .
m
v D
Re
= (11)
Where D and v
m
are respectively the tube diameter and the
mean gas velocity of the pulsed flow inside the tube. v
m
has
been estimated using following expression :
120.
m
m N
v
S
| | A | |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
(12)
Where m, , N and S are respectively the mass transferred
per cycle, the density, the engine revolution speed and the
cross section offered to the gas flow.
In combustion mode, m and are determined using some
two dimension data maps as a function of the engine
revolution speed and the effective torque. These 2D data maps
have been experimentally measured on a real engine under
stationary conditions on a test bench.
In pneumatic mode, m is determined using four dimensions
data maps as function as Pressure Tank, air temperature,
engine speed and engine effective torque. These 4D data maps
have been built using a quasi static modeling of the engine
under stationary conditions. The engine model that has been
used to build these 4D Maps is detailed in several previous
works from authors [14, 15, 12].
Conduction
The conductive heat exchange between both metallic walls of
the intermediate tank (nodes #2 and #4) is evaluated by using
Page 6 of 12
the Fouriers Law, assuming a steady state Conduction
Phenomena.
SIMULATION BACKGROUND:
Intermediate Heated Tank
Figure 8: Design of the Intermediate Heated Tank.
In a first approach, in order to work with numerical data as
representative as possible, a simple CAD design of the
intermediate tank has been conducted. Figure 8 gives a
perspective view of the proposed design. The intermediate
tank is entirely made from stainless steel. It is primary
constituted with 49 tubes (Diameter: 10 mm, thickness: 0.2
mm) as thin as possible in order to reduce thermal inertia but
sized to withstand a 20 bar pressure at 750 K. The outer wall
is a standard DN 250 tube, 3 mm thickness. The intermediate
tank is designed as a cross-flow heat exchanger: the exhaust
gases, entering and leaving via the below ports, are routed
through baffles in order to maximize the heat transfer
phenomena. One notes that a diffuser / deflector, not shown in
Figure 8, is intended to better distribute the incoming air flow
into the 49 tubes.
Table 2: Numerical data for the 3 intermediate heated tanks
considered.
Size #1 Size #2 Size #3
V
int
[liter]
2.5 5 7.5
V
ech
[liter]
5.3 10.70 16
m
ext
[kg]
5.953 8.749 11.543
m
int
[kg]
0.973 1.946 2.919
S
ext
[m]
0.1275 0.2551 0.3825
S
int
[m]
0.5329 1.0658 1.5987
S
air
[m]
0.0038
S
ech
[m]
0.0088
By varying the primary tubes length, three different volumes
for the hot pressurized air contained in the intermediate tank,
have been investigated (2.5, 5 and 7.5 liter). In each case, the
main tank volume was 30 liters. Table 2 gives the
characteristics for the three considered tanks. V
ext
and V
int
are
respectively the total volume for the exhaust gases and the air
contained in the tank. m
ext
and m
int
are respectively the total
mass for the outer and the inner parts of the tank. S
ext
and S
int
are respectively the total heat exchange surface for the outer
and the inner walls. S
air
and S
exh
are respectively the cross
section offered to air and exhaust gas flows used to determine
the mean velocity, see equation (12).
Engine and Vehicle
Table 3: Combustion-Pneumatic Hybrid Engine
Cylinder 3
Fuel Type Gasoline
Displacement Around 1.2 liter
Compression Ration Around 10
Max. Power 70 kW around 6.000 RPM
Table 3 and Table 4 respectively give the characteristic of the
considered engine and vehicle used for the road cycle
simulations. For confidential reasons, more details cannot be
given.
Table 4: Vehicle characteristics
Mass Around 1050 [Kg]
Drag Around 1.5 [m]
Cx Around 0.4
Rolling Resistance Around 0.07 [N/Kg]
Transmission 5 manual gearbox
Page 7 of 12
Energy Management Strategy
Figure 9: Causal strategy
The energy management retained for present work is a causal
strategy, which is based on the engineers experience
(heuristics) and consequent intuition about how to operate the
energy source in the most efficient regions. Figure 9 depicts
the organization chart for engine mode choice. This energy
management strategy has been selected because it leads to an
effective fuel savings close to the optimum obtained by a
dynamic programming [16, 17], but with a very significant
reduction of computational time. Moreover, the aim for
authors is not to determine this optimum fuel savings but to
establish if a benefit exists in the use of an intermediate heated
tank compared to a single isotherm main tank.
Efficiency Indicators
In order to precisely quantify, during a entire road cycle
simulation, the efficiencies over the entire energetic chain,
several indicators have been defined. See Figure 10.
Figure 10: Efficiency Chain
For a given engine cycle performed (index j),
, j regen
W is
defined as the negative work per cycle recoverable at
crankshaft in order to produce the needed deceleration of the
vehicle assuming there is no use of the braking system.
, j pump
W represents the effective work per cycle recovered
when the pneumatic pump mode is used. Because the
regenerative pneumatic pump mode is often unable to
consume all the recoverable energy that is available, a first
efficiency can be defined as the Pump Usage Efficiency. This
indicator has been evaluated over the entire road cycle as:
,
,
Pump_Usage_Efficiency
j pump
j regen
j regen
j regen
W
W
e
e
=
Next, assuming a homentropic compression of the pumped air
mass (m
in
), a Coefficient of Performance for the pneumatic
pump mode can be defined as:
, hom , hom
_
, ,
. .
j entropic p air entropic
j regen j regen
pneu pump
j regen j regen
in
j pump j pump
H m c T
COP
W W
e e
e e
A A
= =
Because, the main tank has to be considered in practice as
isothermal, a significant part of the Enthalpy transferred by the
Pump mode is lost by heat transfer process. m
in
and m
out
are respectively defined as the mass of pressurized air that
inflows and outflows from the intermediate tank. The
Coefficient of Performance of the isotherm tank is then
defined as:
,
_ tan
, hom , hom
. .
.
j isotherm out p ext
j regen j regen
isotherm k
j entropic in p air entropic
j regen j regen
H m c T
COP
H m c T
e e
e e
A A
= =
A A
When this pressurized cold air is re-used while the engine
operates in pneumatic motor mode, the latter is warmed while
its stay in the intermediate heated tank.
, air out
T , m
in
and
m
out
are respectively defined as temperature of the warmed
air out-flowing from the exchanger, the mass of warmed air
out-flowing from the exchanger and the mass of cold air that
out-flowing the main tank . The coefficient of Performance of
the exchanger can then be defined as:
, ,
,
. .
. .
j exchanger in p air out
j motor j motor
exchanger
j isotherm out p ext
j motor j motor
H m c T
COP
H m c T
e e
e e
A A
= =
A A
Next, the coefficient of performance for pneumatic motor is
defined as:
, ,
_
, ,
. .
j motor j motor
j motor j motor
pneu motor
p air out
j motor j motor
in j exchanger
W W
COP
C T m H
e e
e e
= =
A A
It then possible to define an Overall Regenerative Efficiency
over the entire road cycle as:
Page 8 of 12
,
,
Overall_Regenerative_Efficiency
j motor
j motor
j regen
j regen
W
W
e
e
=
SIMULATION RESULTS:
Cycles and Initial Thermal State Study
Two road cycles were considered: the New European Driving
Cycle (NEDC) cycle and a probable but still unconfirmed
Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures
(WLTP) cycle. For both cycles, four different simulations
were performed:
1. A reference simulation in pure combustion mode, with no
hybridization and no Start & Stop effect.
2. A single main isotherm tank simulation for a 20 C
exterior temperature level.
3. A 5 liters intermediate heated tank with an initial cold
thermal state, defined as the exterior temperature level.
4. A 5 liters intermediate heated tank simulation with an
initial hot thermal state, defined as the intermediate
heated tank final thermal state obtained for simulation #3.
Tables 5 and 6 respectively give the numerical results obtained
for the NEDC and WLTP cycles.
Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13, Figure 15 respectively
display the simulation results as function as time for the
Combustion Mode, Single Main Isothermal Tank, Cold Start
and Warm Start with an Heated Intermediate Tank.
Figure 14 and Figure 16 respectively give the temperature as
function as time of the 5 nodes of thermal resistance model,
for the Cold Start and the Warm Start with an Heated
Intermediate Tank.
Table 5: NEDC Results
Conventional
Combustion
Mode
Single
Main
Isothermal
Tank
Intermediate
Heated Tank
Cold
Start
Hot
Start
Fuel Mass
Consumed[Kg] 0,38573 0,35163 0,35136 0,34937
Consumption
(liter/100km) 4,67 4,26 4,25 4,23
Overall
regenerative
efficiency (%) x 6,41 6,93 8,57
Pneumatic Pump
Usage Efficiency
(%) x 29,16 27,12 28,99
COP Pneumatic
Pump(%) x 134,31 126,48 135,21
COP Isotherm
Tank (%) x 54,40 52,68 54,55
COP Exchanger
(%) x x 116,64 142,23
COP Pneumatic
Motor(%) x 17,55 20,17 17,92
Pair init (bar) x 11,10 11,70 11,10
Pair final (bar) x 11,07 11,72 11,14
T
air
init (K)
x 293 293 470
T
air
final (K)
x 293 470 577
T
wo
Init (K)
x 293 293 350
T
wo
final (K)
x 293 350 440
Relative Fuel
Saving Due to
Hybridization (%) x 21,04% 21,66% 25,94%
Relative Fuel
Saving Due to
Start Stop (%) x 78,96% 78,34% 74,06%
Page 9 of 12
Table 6: WLTP Results
Conventional
Combustion
Mode
Single Main
Isothermal
Tank
Intermediate
Heated Tank
Cold
Start
Hot
Start
Fuel Mass
Consumed[Kg] 0,79515 0,76289 0,76048 0,75393
Consumption
(liter/100km) 4,67 4,48 4,46 4,42
Overall
regenerative
efficiency (%) X 4,88 5,80 8,10
Pneumatic Pump
Usage Efficiency
(%) X 33,03 32,37 31,67
COP Pneumatic
Pump(%) X 153,77 148,07 153,07
COP Isotherm
Tank (%) X 53,84 53,12 53,74
COP Exchanger
(%) X x 120,20 167,76
COP Pneumatic
Motor(%) X 15,08 16,71 18,70
Pair init (bar) X 10,00 10,50 10,80
Pair final (bar) X 9,89 10,68 10,85
T
air
init (K)
X 293 293 609
T
air
final (K)
X 293 609 695
T
wo
Init (K)
X 293 293 481
T
wo
final (K)
X 293 481 594
Relative Fuel
Saving Due to
Hybridization (%) X 31,85% 36,60% 46,66%
Relative Fuel
Saving Due to
Start Stop (%) X 68,15% 63,40% 53,33%
Figure 11: WLTP Conventional Combustion Mode
Figure 12: WLTP Single Main Isothermal Tank
Figure 13:WLTP Cold Start with Heated Intermediate Tank
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Time[s]
CycleSpeed [km/h]
EngineSpeed [rpm]/100
WorkDemand [J]/100
Tank Pressure [bar]
Engine mode [10=Motor 20=Pump 30=Conv]
Cumulative comsumption [liter]*100
GivenWork [J]/100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Time[s]
CycleSpeed [km/h]
EngineSpeed [rpm]/100
WorkDemand [J]/100
Tank Pressure [bar]
Engine mode [10=Motor 20=Pump 30=Conv]
Cumulative comsumption [liter]*100
GivenWork [J]/100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Time[s]
CycleSpeed [km/h]
EngineSpeed [rpm]/100
WorkDemand [J]/100
Tank Pressure [bar]
Engine mode [10=Motor 20=Pump 30=Conv]
Cumulative comsumption [liter]*100
GivenWork [J]/100
Page 10 of 12
Figure 14: Temperature Evolution-WLTP- Cold Start with
Intermediate Heated Tank. [K]
Figure 15: WARM Start with Heated Intermediate Tank
Figure 16: Temperature Evolution-WLTP-WARM Start With
Heated Intermediate Tank.
Discussion
NEDC Cycle
The Single Main Isothermal Tank simulation leads to a value
of -8.78% for the relative fuel consumption in reference to the
combustion. Table 5 shows that this fuel saving is due, at first
order (78.96%) to the suppression of the engine idling (Start &
Stop Effect) and at second order (21.04%) in the use of the
pneumatic motor mode to drive the vehicle instead of the
conventional mode (Hybridization).
The use of an intermediate heated tank slightly improves the
relative fuel consumption in reference to combustion mode:
respectively -8.91 % and -9.43% for the cold and hot
initial thermal state. This rather low benefit is due to the low
level of engine load required by this cycle, which does not
allow an efficient heating of the intermediate tank.
However, a significant improvement of the overall
regenerative efficiency is observed: a value of 8.57% is
obtained for the intermediate tank (warm start) in comparison
to a value of 6.41% obtained for isothermal tank. An analysis
of Table 5 clearly establishes that this overall efficiency
improvement is due to the COP exchanger that reaches a value
up to 135.21%.
WLTP Cycle
First, one notes that the WLTP cycle is different than the
NEDC because of its higher energy demand and less idling
phases. In one hand, this cycle is unfavorable to every
hybridization technology and, in other hand, is favorable to the
intermediate heated tank concept.
Consequently, the single main isothermal tank simulation
leads to a poor value of -4.06% for the relative fuel
consumption in reference to the pure combustion mode. The
heated intermediate tank concept slightly ameliorates the
situation and leads to relative fuel consumption values of -
4.36% and -5.18% for the cold and hot initial state. This
improvement is one more time due to COP exchanger which
reaches a value up to 167.76% for the hot initial state
simulation. This undeniable heating of the air finally extends
the frequency of use of pneumatic motor mode, as it is shown
by Relative Fuel Saving Due to Hybridization that
respectively evolutes, for the Single Isothermal Main Tank
and for the hot Initial State of Intermediate Tank, from
31.85% to 46.66%. One notes that, with the use of an
intermediate heated tank, a balance is almost reached between
the contribution of the Hybridization and that of the Start &
Stop.
0 500 1000 1500 2000
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
Time[s]
Two [K]
Twi [K]
Tair [K]
T ech [K]
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Time[s]
CycleSpeed [km/h]
EngineSpeed [rpm]/100
WorkDemand [J]/100
Tank Pressure [bar]
Engine mode [10=Motor 20=Pump 30=Conv]
Cumulative comsumption [liter]*100
GivenWork [J]/100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Time[s]
Two [K]
Twi [K]
Tair [K]
T ech [K]
Page 11 of 12
Heated Intermediate Tank Size Study
In this part, the effects of the internal capacity of intermediate
heated tank are investigated. Three different sizes have been
considered, as given in Table 2. The considered road cycle is
the WLTP one, for a hot initial thermal state of the
intermediate tank. Table 7 gives the obtained numerical
results, and Figure 17 displays the evaluation of the air inside
the intermediate tank (Tair) as function as time, for the three
considered capacities.
Table 7: Numerical Results for the Intermediate Tank Size
Study.
2.5 liter 5 liter 7.5 liter
Fuel Mass Consumed[Kg] 0,75439 0,75393 0,75339
Consumption (liter/100km) 4,43 4,42 4,42
Overall regenerative efficiency (%) 7.91 8,10 8.4
Pneumatic Pump Usage Efficiency
(%) 32,17 31,67
31,72
COP Pneumatic Pump(%) 152,36 153,07 151,93
COP Isotherm Tank (%) 53,67 53,74 53,60
COP Exchanger (%) 149,80 167,76 178,58
COP Pneumatic Motor(%) 18,61 18,70 19,10
Pair init (bar) 10,80 10,80 10,80
Pair final (bar) 10,83 10,85 10.92
T
air
init (K)
609 609
609
T
air
final (K)
744 695
661
T
wo
Init (K)
481 481
481
T
wo
final (K)
628 594
571
Relative Fuel Saving Due to
Hybridization (%) 46,07 46,66
47,36
Relative Fuel Saving Due to Start
Stop (%) 53,93 53,33
52,64
Figure 17: Air Temperature as Function as Time for the 3
different size of the intermediate tank
Discussion
An analysis of Table 7 shows that the Intermediate Tank
volume has a slight impact on the fuel saving and the overall
Regenerative Efficiency. Compared to the reference size of 5
liters, a reduction or increase of 2.5 liters, respectively leads to
relative change for the overall regenerative efficiency of -
2.35% and +3.70%. The relative variation values for the COP
exchanger are respectively of -10.71 % and +6.45% for a
reduction and an increase of 2.5 liters of the reference size.
An observation of Figure 1 highlights two opposite effects .
First, the more the tank is large, the less is the air temperature
drop during a pneumatic start of the vehicle. Second the more
the tank is large, and less is the final temperature level reached
by the air at the cycle end. First effect is beneficial, but the
second one is unfavorable.
Previous remarks show that the reference size of 5 liters,
chosen to be a typical consumed air volume during a
pneumatic start of the engine, was an appropriate compromise.
Of course, a slight benefit exists in increasing the intermediate
tank size, but as mentioned before, the tank has to keep a
reasonable size in order to be located nearest the exhaust ports
of the cylinder head.
0 500 1000 1500 2000
400
600
800
0 500 1000 1500 2000
400
600
800
0 500 1000 1500 2000
400
600
800
Time[s]
2.5 liters
5 liters
7.5 liters
Page 12 of 12
SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, an alternative to the single main heated tank
concept, that authors judge unrealistic, has been proposed.
Both thermodynamic and steady state heat exchange models
have been proposed. The use of the numerical model, for road
cycle simulations, has shown that the proposed concept leads
to a slight but undeniable increase of the overall regenerative
efficiency. The reason for this improvement is the COP
exchanger that reaches values up to +167% for a hot initial
state of the intermediate tank. It has been shown that the
Internal Tank volume has an impact on the fuel saving and
other efficiency indicators, but that a volume around 5 liters is
sufficient and probably makes possible its implantation nearest
the exhaust ports of the engine.
Future works have to experimentally validate the theoretical
benefits highlighted. A validation of the heat exchange
correlations that have been used is needed. An intermediate
heated tank prototype has to be built and implemented on a
real engine on a test bench in order to validate the thermal
model for engine operating mode switches.
REFERENCES
[1] M. SCHECHTER. New cycles for automobile
engines. SAE Technical Paper, 1999-01-0623, 1999.
[2] P. HIGELIN and A. CHARLET. Thermodynamic
cycles for a new hybrid pneumatic-combustion engine
concept. SAE Paper, 2001-09-23, 2001.
[3] C. DONITZ, I. VASILE, C. ONDER, and
L. GUZZELLA. Realizing a concept for high efficiency and
excellent drivability: The downsized and supercharged hybrid
pneumatic engine. SAE paper, 2009-01-1326, 2009.
[4] M. ANDERSSON, B. JOHANSSON, and
A. HULTQVIST. An air hybrid for high power absorption and
discharge. SAE Paper, 2005-01-2137, 2005.
[5] C. TAI, T.TSAO, M.B. LEVIN, and
M. SCHECHTER. Using camless valvetrain for air hybrid
optimization. SAE Paper, 2003-01-0038, 2003.
[6] S. TRAJKOVIC, P. TUNESTAL, and
B. JOHANSSON. Investigation of different valve geometries
and valve timing strategies and their effect on regenerative
efficiency for a pneumatic hybrid with variable valve
actuation. SAE Paper, 2008-01-1715, 2008.
[7] C. DONITZ, I. VASILE, C. ONDER, and
L. GUZZELLA. Modeling and optimizing two- and four-
stroke hybrid pneumatic engines. IMechE Part D - Journal of
Automobile Engineering, Vol. 223, No. 2, pp. 255-280, 2009.
[8] A. IVANCO. Evaluation of energy management
strategies for a hybrid pneumatic engine. PhD thesis,
Universit dOrlans, 2009.
[9] S. TRAJKOVIC, P. TUNESTAL, and
B. JOHANSON. Vehicle driving cycle simulation of a
pneumatic hybrid bus based on experimental engine
measurements. SAE Technical paper, 2010-01-0825(2010-01-
0825), 2010.
[10] A. ELGOWAINY, A. BURNHAM, M. WANG,
J. MOLBURG, and A. ROUSSEAU. Well-to-wheels use and
greenhouse gas emissions of plug-in-hybrid electric vehicles.
SAE paper, 2009-01-1309, 2009.
[11] S. TRAJKOVIC. The Pneumatic Hybrid Vehicle. A
new Concept For Fuel Consumption Reduction. PhD thesis,
Lund University, 2010.
[12] P. BREJAUD. Etude thorique et exprimentale dun
nouveau concept de moteur hybride thermique pneumatique.
PhD thesis, Universit dOrlans., 2011.
[13] SCHECHTER. Operating an air-hybrid vehicle with
two-stages compression and expansion. us patent us 7,543,668
bi, 2009.
[14] P. BREJAUD, A. CHARLET .,
Y. CHAMAILLARD, A. IVANCO, and P. HIGELIN.
Pneumatic-combustion hybrid engine: A study of the effect of
the valve train sophistication on pneumatic modes. Oil and
Gas Science and Technology-Rev. IFP, DOI:
10.2516/ogst/2009054, 2009.
[15] P. BREJAUD, P. HIGELIN, A. CHARLET, and
Y. CHAMAILLARD. One dimensional modeling and
experimental validation of single cylinder pneumatic
combustion hybrid engine. SAE paper, 2011-24-0074, 2011.
[16] A. IVANCO, A. CHARLET, Y. CHAMAILLARD,
and P. HIGELIN. Energy management strategies for hybrid-
pneumatic engine studied on an Markov chain type generated
driving cycle. SAE Paper, 09PFL-1130, 2009.
[17] C. DONITZ, I. VASILE, C. ONDER, and
L. GUZZELA. Dynamic programming for hybrid pneumatic
vehicles. In Proceeding ACC09 proceedings of the 2009
conference on American control conference, 2009.