SOLAR HEATING

By

Aruliya Keerthi S (CB105PE006)

Gokulnath P (CB105PE015)
Karthikeyan G (CB105PE023)
Sneha R (CB105PE035)

Guided by

Dr. Sriram Devanathan.

Department of Polymer Engineering,
Amrita School of Engineering.

Amrita Institute of Technology

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham
Ettimadai, Coimbatore – 641 105.
MARCH 2007
 Eyes, though not ours, shall see
Sky-high a signal flame,
The sun returned to power above
A world but not the same

- CECIL DAY LEWIS

INTRODUCTION

Strictly speaking, all forms of energy are derived from the sun. However, our most common form
of energy fossil fuels – received their solar input eons ago and has changed their characteristics
so that they are now in a highly concentrated form. Since it is apparent that these stored,
concentrated energy forms are now being used at such a rapid rate that they will be depleted in
the not too distant future, we must begin to supply a large portion of our energy needs not from
stored, but from incoming solar energy as soon as possible.

This report describes Solar Water Heating Systems that have been used in many parts of the
world for decades. Water heating is one of the simplest applications of solar heat in building and
one of the least expensive. Therefore it is also the most common application. Solar water heating
systems have excellent life cycle cost characteristics, since water heating loads are rather
uniform year round compared to that for all solar space heating loads and the payback in fuel
savings is therefore accelerated compared to that for all solar space heating systems.

This report also compares Solar water heating system with Standard water heating System, and
shows which is better and finally concludes what type of solar water heating system used in our
college and why its opted rather than other solar water heating systems and standard water
heaters.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The first person known to have used the sun’s energy on a large scale is Archimedes, who
reputedly set fire to an attacking Roman fleet at Syracuse in 212 B.C. “by means of a burning
glass composed of small square mirrors moving every way upon hinges … so as to reduce [the
Roman fleet] to ashes at the distance of a bowshot.” Serious studies of the sun and its potential
began in the seventeenth century, when Galileo and Lavoisier utilized the sun in their research.
By 1930 Robert Goddard had applied for five patents on various solar devices to be used in his
project to send a rocket to the moon.

By the1920s and 1930s practical use was being made of the sun’s energy in California for solar
service hot-water heaters. The first building to be practically heated with converted solar service
hot-water heaters was constructed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1938. The
success of solar cells in powering service modules of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) in terrestrial orbit and lunar excursions led some engineers to propose
other uses for solar energy in the space program.

CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY TO HEAT

Solar energy is transmitted from the sun through space to the earth by electromagnetic radiation.
It must be converted to heat before it can be used in practical heating or cooling systems. Since
solar energy is relatively dilute when it reaches the earth, a system used to convert it to heat on a
practical scale must be relatively large. Solar energy Collectors, the devices used to convert the
sun’s radiation to heat, which raises the temperature of the absorbing material. Part of this energy
is then removed from the absorbing surface by means of a heat transfer fluid, which may be
either liquid or gaseous.
Hence Solar Collectors are used in Solar Hot Water Systems, which use the sun's energy either
to heat water directly or to heat a fluid such as antifreeze that indirectly heats the water through a
heat exchanger. Solar-heated water is then stored for use as needed. A conventional water
heater provides any additional heating that might be necessary.

The heat exchanger keeps two different liquids physically separated but allows heat energy to
pass between them. In a solar hot water system, tubes carry hot antifreeze in and out of a
reservoir filled with water. The detailed explanation is given in Solar Collector.

SOLAR COLLECTORS

A Solar Collector is a device for extracting the energy of the sun directly into a more usable or
storable form. The energy in sunlight is in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared
(long) to the ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The solar energy striking the earth's surface at any
one time depends on weather conditions, as well as location and orientation of the surface, but
overall, it averages about 1000 watts per square meter on a clear day with the surface directly
perpendicular to the sun's rays.

A solar thermal collector that stores heat energy is called a "batch" type system. Other types of
solar thermal collectors do not store energy but instead use fluid circulation (usually water or an
antifreeze solution) to transfer the heat for direct use or storage in an insulated reservoir.
Water/glycol has a high thermal capacity and is therefore convenient to handle. The direct
radiation is captured using a dark colored surface which absorbs the radiation as heat and
conducts it to the transfer fluid. Metal makes a good thermal conductor, especially copper and
aluminium. In high performance collectors, a "selective surface" is used in which the collector
surface is coated with a material having properties of high-absorption and low-emissive. The
selective surface reduces heat-loss caused by infrared radiant emission from the collector to
ambient. Another method of reducing radiant heat-loss employs a transparent window such as
clear UV stabilized plastic or Low-emissive glass plate. Again, Low-E materials are the most
effective, particularly the type optimized for solar gain. Borosilicate glass or "Pyrex" has low-
emissive properties, which may be useful, particularly for solar cooking applications.

As it heats up, thermal losses from the collector itself will reduce its efficiency, resulting in
increased radiation, primarily infrared. This is countered in two ways. First, a glass plate is placed
above the collector plate which will trap the radiated heat within the airspace below it. This
exploits the so-called greenhouse effect, which is in this case a property of the glass: it readily
transmits solar radiation in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum, but does not transmit the lower
frequency infrared re-radiation very well. The glass plate also traps air in the space, thus reducing
heat losses by convection. The collector housing is also insulated below and laterally to reduce its
heat loss. The second way efficiency is improved is by cooling the absorber plate. This is done by
ensuring that the coldest available heat transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber, and with
a sufficient flow rate. The fluid carries away the absorbed heat, thus cooling the absorber. The
warmed fluid leaving the collector is either directly stored, or else passes through a heat
exchanger to warm another tank of water, or is used to heat a building directly. The temperature
differential across an efficient solar collector is usually only 10 or 20°C. While a large differential
may seem impressive, it is in fact an indication of a less efficient design.

Solar collectors can be mounted on a roof but need to face the sun, so a north-facing roof in the
southern hemisphere and a south-facing roof in the northern hemisphere are ideal. Collectors are
usually also angled to suit the latitude of the location. Where sunshine is readily available, a 2 to
10 square meters array will provide all the hot water heating required for a typical family house.
Such systems are a key feature of sustainable housing, since water and space heating is usually
the largest single consumer of energy in households.

There are basically three types of thermal solar collectors:

• Flat-plate Collectors
• Evacuated tube Collectors
• Concentrating Collectors

Flat-Plate collectors or Nonconcentrating collectors intercept solar radiation on a metal or

glass absorber plate from which heat is transferred and used in the thermal application. It
comprise of an insulated, weatherproof box containing a dark absorber plate under one or more
transparent or translucent covers. Water or heat conducting fluid passes through pipes located
below the absorber plate. As the fluid flows through the pipes it is heated. Since the temperature
of the absorber plate is greater than that of the environment, unrecoverable heat losses occur
from the entire absorbing surface of the collector to the environment. Consequently, 100 percent
collector efficiency cannot be realized in practice. This style of collector, although inferior in many
ways to evacuated tube collectors, is still the most common type of collector in many countries.

Evacuated Tube solar water heaters are made up of rows of parallel, glass tubes. There are
several types of evacuated tubes (sometimes also referred to as Solar Tubes).

Type 1 (Glass-Glass) tubes consist of two glass tubes, which are fused together at one end. The
inner tube is coated with a selective surface that absorbs solar energy well but inhibits radiative
heat loss. The air is withdrawn ("evacuated") from the space between the two glass tubes to form
a vacuum, which eliminates conductive and convective heat loss. These tubes perform very well
in overcast conditions as well as low temperatures. Because the tube is 100% glass, the problem
with loss of vacuum due to a broken seal is greatly minimized. Glass-glass solar tubes may be
used in a number of different ways, including direct flow, heat pipe, or U pipe configuration.

Type 2 (Glass-Metal) tubes consist of a single glass tube. Inside the tube is a flat or curved
aluminium plate, which is attached to a copper heat pipe or water flow pipe. The aluminium plate
is generally coated with Tinox, or similar selective coating. These types of tubes are very efficient
but can have problems relating to loss of vacuum. This is primarily due to the fact that their seal is
glass to metal. Glass-glass tubes although not quite as efficient glass-metal tubes are generally
more reliable and much cheaper.

Type 3 (Glass-glass - water flow path) tubes incorporate a water flow path into the tube itself. The
problem with these tubes is that if a tube is ever damaged water will pour from the collector onto
the roof and the collector must be "shut-down" until the tube is replaced.
Concentrating collectors for are usually parabolic troughs that use mirrored surfaces to
concentrate the sun's energy on an absorber tube (called a receiver) containing a heat-transfer
fluid, or the water itself. This type of solar collector is generally only used for commercial power
production applications, because very high temperatures can be achieved. It is however reliant on
direct sunlight and therefore does not perform well in overcast conditions.

SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

The solar heating system consists of the collector described above; a heat transfer circuit that
includes the fluid and the means to circulate it; and a storage system including a heat exchanger
(if the fluid circulating through the collector is not the same liquid being used to heat the object of
the system). The system may or may not include secondary distribution of heat among different
storage reservoirs or users of the heat. The system can be used in a variety of ways, including
warming domestic hot water, heating swimming pools, heating water for a radiator or floor-coil
heating circuit, heating an industrial dryer, or providing input energy for a cooling system, among
others. The heat is normally stored in insulated storage tanks full of water. Heat storage is usually
intended to cover a day or two's requirements, but other concepts exist including seasonal
storage (where summer solar energy is used for winter heating by just raising the temperature by
a few degrees of several million liters of water.)

Types of Solar Water Heating Systems

Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive. An active system uses an electric
pump to circulate the fluid through the collector; a passive system has no pump and relies on
thermo-siphoning to circulate water. The amount of hot water a solar water heater produces
depends on the type and size of the system, the amount of sun available at the site, installation
angle and orientation. SWHS are also characterized as open loop (also called "direct") or closed
loop (also called "indirect"). An open-loop system circulates household (potable) water through
the collector. A closed-loop system uses a heat-transfer fluid (water or diluted antifreeze) to
collect heat and a heat exchanger to transfer the heat to the household water. A disadvantage of
closed looped system is that efficiency is lost during the heat exchange process.

1. Active Systems

Active systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or other heat-
transfer fluids through the collectors. They are usually more expensive than passive systems but
generally more efficient. Active systems are often easier to retrofit than passive systems because
their storage tanks do not need to be installed above or close to the collectors. If installed using a
PV panel to operate the pump, an active system can operate even during a power outage.

Open-Loop Active Systems or Direct Systems use pumps to circulate household potable water
through the collectors. This design is efficient and lowers operating costs but is not appropriate if
water is hard or acidic because scale and corrosion will gradually disable the system. Open-loop
active systems are popular in regions that do not experiences subzero temperatures. Flat plate
open-loop systems should never be installed in climates that experience sustained periods of
subzero temperatures.

Closed-Loop Active Systems or Indirect Systems pump heat-transfer fluids (usually a glycol-
water antifreeze mixture) through the solar water heater. Heat exchangers transfer the heat from
the fluid to the water that is stored in tanks. Double-walled heat exchangers or twin coil solar
tanks prevent contamination of household water. Some standards require double walls when the
heat-transfer fluid is anything other than household water. Closed-loop glycol systems are popular
in areas subject to extended subzero temperatures because they offer good freeze protection.
However, glycol antifreeze systems are more expensive to purchase and install and the glycol
must be checked each year and changed every few years, depending on glycol quality and
system temperatures.

Drainback systems use water as the heat-transfer fluid in the collector loop. A pump circulates the
water through the solar water heater. When the pump is turned off, the solar water heater drains
of water, which ensures freeze protection and also allows the system to turn off if the water in the
storage tank becomes too hot. A problem with drainback systems is that the solar water heater
installation and plumbing must be carefully positioned to allow complete drainage. The pump
must also have sufficient head pressure to pump the water up to the collector each time the pump
starts. Electricity usage is therefore slightly higher than a sealed closed or open loop.

These indirect systems work well in colder climates because they minimize the chance that
frozen water in some part of the system could damage the solar water heater.

2. Passive Systems

Passive systems move household water or a heat-transfer fluid through the system without
pumps. Passive systems have the advantage that electricity outage and electric pump breakdown
are not issues. This makes passive systems generally more reliable, easier to maintain, and
possibly longer lasting than active systems. Passive systems are often less expensive than active
systems, but are also generally less efficient due to slower water flow rates through the system.

Thermosiphon Systems relies on warm water rising, a phenomenon known as natural

convection, to circulate water through the solar absorber and to the tank. In this type of
installation, the tank must be located above the absorber tubes/panel. As water in the absorber
heats, it becomes lighter and naturally rises into the tank above. Meanwhile, cooler water in the
tank flows downwards into the absorber, thus causing circulation throughout the system. This
system is widely used with both flat plate and evacuated tube absorbers. The disadvantages of
this design are the poor aesthetics of having a large tank on the roof and the issues with
structural integrity of the roof. Often the roof must be reinforced to cope with the weight of the
tank.

Batch Heaters are simple passive system consisting of one or more storage tanks placed in an
insulated box that has a glazed side facing the sun. Batch heaters are inexpensive and have few
components, but only perform well in summer when the weather is warm. Evacuated tube solar
collectors are now an affordable and much more efficient alternative to either batch or flat plate
collectors.
Passive solar water heaters don't have electrically powered components, they are generally more
reliable, easier to maintain and sometimes last longer than active systems.

Pros and Cons of Solar Water Heating Systems

Pros: Solar hot water systems have many advantages. First, they are nonpolluting. Solar water
heaters are fueled by the sun, a renewable energy source that emits none of the greenhouse
gases that contribute to global warming.

Second, solar water heaters save energy. In fact, by cutting down on conventional water heating,
some estimates show solar water heating systems can reduce the use of electricity to heat water
by as much as 80%. Using the sun instead of conventional fuels to heat water also conserves
non-renewable energy sources like oil, coal and natural gas for other uses.

Third, solar water heaters save consumers money. Research shows that an average household
with an electric water heater spends about 25% of its home energy costs on heating water. Using
solar water heaters, which use free solar energy, can save hundreds of dollars a year. When
electricity rates increase, the savings increase. The average solar water heating system pays for
itself over the long run, usually in four to eight years. Adding a solar water heater to an existing
home can also raise its resale value.

Depending on where you live, installing a solar hot water heater may allow you to take advantage
of state and local government tax incentives and rebates. Some electric utilities also offer
rebates.

Cons: Depending on where you live and what kind of system you choose, solar hot water
systems can present some challenges. For example, to take advantage of solar water
heating, an unshaded, south-facing location is necessary.

Areas with hard or acidic water are not prime locations for some active solar water heating
systems. Hard or acidic water tends to corrode systems that circulate water. Direct systems
should never be installed in climates that experience freezing temperatures for long periods. And
because they require parts that run on electricity, active solar hot water systems will not function
during power outages.

Passive solar hot water systems also have some potential disadvantages. For example, simple
batch heater systems that use storage tanks housed in insulated boxes to heat water need a roof
or other structure strong enough to support them. Special building regulations in areas where
there is earthquake or hurricane danger also may limit the weight or type of equipment that can
be placed on a roof.

Even though solar hot water heating systems pay for themselves over time, the up-front purchase
and installation costs, usually between $1000 and $3000, are higher than those of conventional
electric or gas water heaters.

Applications

Using the sun to heat water is not a new idea. Solar energy has been used for years to heat
water for homes and businesses. In some countries, such as Israel, solar hot water systems are
mandatory for residential use. In the United States, as far back as the turn of the 20th century,
solar hot water systems were common in southern California.
Today, solar heated water systems provide hot water for everything from park bathrooms and
single-family homes to hospitals and prisons.

Large facilities generally require more complicated active solar hot water systems. Active systems
require electric pumps, valves and other equipment. Some homes and smaller facilities in remote
areas can use passive solar hot water systems, which don't require electricity to function. For
example, the federal government uses solar systems to heat water in many buildings in its
national parks.

Solar water heaters also can be used to heat swimming pools, hot tubs, and spas. More than a
million solar pool heaters have been installed in the United States alone. Swimming-pool solar
water-heaters are quite simple in design. The pool's existing filtration system pumps water
through simple solar heat collectors, usually made of black plastic or rubber, and the heated
water then goes directly into the pool.

GENERALISED PROCESS FLOW CHART OF SOLAR WATER HEATING

WATER HEATING LOADS

Solar water heating energy demands can be calculated precisely if the quantity of hot water
required is known. The amount of energy needed to heat water is the product of the volume of
water, its density, its specific heat, and the required temperature increase. Expressed in equation
form, the amount of heat required to heat water is given by

Qhw = V (ρc) (Tset – Tsource)  (1)

in which Qhw is the energy requirement per day, V is the volume of water required per day, ρ is the
density, c is the specific heat, Tset is the thermostat set point and desired delivery temperature,
and Tsource is the temperature of the inlet water from the city water mains or a well.
A second thermal demand is present for solar water heating systems. It is the amount of heat lost
from the water heating tank and the recirculation system, if one is used. (A recirculation system is
used in large buildings to ensure that hot water is present continuously at all hot water outlets.)
This parasitic heat loss can consume 20 to 25 percent of the fuel used in a hot water installation
over the course of a year. The tank and piping loss is given by the thermal conductance of the
insulation Uhw multiplied by its surface area Ahw and by the temperature difference the water and
the surroundings. In simplified form, it can be expressed by

Qstandby = Uhw Ahw (Tset – Ta) Nh  (2)

in which Ta is the ambient temperature in the vicinity of the water heating and delivery piping if a
recirculation loop is used and Nh is the number of hours of use per day, usually 24. It may be
necessary to express the right hand side of eq. 2 as two terms, one accounting for tank losses
and the second for recirculation loop losses, if their ambient temperatures Ta are different. If the
ambient temperatures are the same, the UA product in eq. 2 can be calculated to include both
tank and pipe heat loss area and thermal conductance. The total water heating demand is
expressed by the sum of eq. 1 and eq. 2.

SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM SIZING

The size of the water heating systems is an economical question based on a trade-off of solar
energy cost versus backup energy cost. The system size is optimized in most cases, to provide
something less than 100 percentage of the annual heating requirement. It has been found that
size of all components in the solar system can be related to the collector area.

Sizing rules for Domestic Water Heating Systems

The following rules have been developed from the component tests in situ as well as detailed
computer simulations. Conclusions of both types of studies agree with the following results.

• Collector area: determined by economic analysis [approx. 1 ft2 / (gal day)]

• Storage: 1.5 to 2 gal / ft2c
• Water equivalent collector flow rate: 0.025 gal / (min ft2c)
• Storage flow rate: 0.03 to 0.04 gal / (min ft2c) (indirect systems)
• Heat exchanger: 0.05 to 0.1 ft2hx / ft2c (indirect systems)
• Collector tilt: latitude 5°
• Expansion tank volume: 12 % of collector fluid loop (indirect systems)
• Heat rejecter capacity: equivalent to peak collection rate possible under clear sky
conditions at heat rejection specified temperature.
• Collector turn-on t: 15 to 20 °F
• Controller turn-off t: 3 to 5 °F
• System operating pressure: to provide 3 lb / in2 gauge at topmost collector manifold.
• Storage tank insulation: R-25 to R-30
• Mixing valve set point: 120 to 140 °F
• Pipe diameter: to maintain fluid velocity below 6 ft/s and above 2 ft/s.
DESIGN OF A SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

Solar water heating systems should be designed to minimize life-cycle cost. It is never cost-
effective to design a system to provide 100% of the load with solar because of the excessive
investment in collector area and storage volume. Minimize life-cycle cost by designing a system
that meets 100% of the load on the sunniest day of the year. Such a system will usually produce
about 70% of the annual load. Other design consideration includes maintenance, freeze
protection, overheating protection, aesthetics of the collector mount, and orientation. Also, utility
rebate programs may impose additional design requirements. For example, a solar water heating
system must meet 90% of the load in order to qualify for Hawaiian Electric Company rebates.

Steps in designing a solar water heating system include:

1. Proper location of the solar collectors.

2. Protect against freezing.
3. Provide a tempering valve and bypass capability.
4. Provide periodic maintenance for all systems.

SOLAR WATER HEATER VS STANDARD WATER HEATER

SOLAR WATER HEATER STANDARD WATER HEATER

FREE energy from sun
Annual operating cost: $50
Storage Capacity: 80-120 gal
Life expectancy: 15-30 years
Lifetime operating cost: $1,000
Does NOT pollute environment
Increases equity in your home
25% return on your investment
Protection from future increases
BONUS: Hot water during blackout!
COSTLY gas or electric
Annual operating cost: $500+
Storage Capacity: 40-50 gal
Life expectancy: 8-12 years
Lifetime operating cost: $10,000
Depletes fossil fuels
No added value to your home
No return on utility payments
At mercy of utilities/government
COLD showers, laundry, dishes?

Ultimately, the above tabular column shows Solar Water Heating System is better than the
Standard Water Heating System. Over all, only one criterion should be noted, solar water heater
is expensive during installation.

CONCLUSION

This report gives enough required information about the Solar Water Heating techniques and
explains its types and its mechanism of heating water. And also provides the information about
its specifications, requirements, pros and cons, there by it is easy to find the suitable Solar
Water Heater for suitable location. As per the project, our college uses Thermosiphon Water
Heating System, because of its high efficiency, less expensive, no requirement of electrical
power and other advantages; it is very much suitable for large populated areas like hostels,
prisons, hotels, hospitals etc.
REFERENCES

• Solar Energy – Fundamentals, Design, Modeling and Applications – 2002, by G. N

Tiwari
• Solar Heating and Cooling - Active and Passive design – Second Edition - 1982, by
Jan F. Kreider, Frank Kreith