The Ottoman Origins of English Modernity, on the Hoof Professor Donna Landry, FRAS University of ent These days

it is becoming fashionable to ask, What did Islam, or the Ottomans, do for us? A better question, given the vagaries of ritish history, might be, What did their horses do? et!een "#$% and "&$%, more than '%% stallions and mares !ere im(orted into the ritish Isles from the )iddle *ast and +orth Africa, most of them from (orts in the Ottoman *m(ire or its regency s(heres of influence on the +orth African coast, They came from Ale((o via Iskenderun, from Istanbul, and from Tunis and Algiers, These horses !ere usually described by their (oints of embarkationArabians, from the .yrian and Arabian deserts/ Turks, from Anatolia or further *ast in Asia/ and arbs, from the arbary states of +orth Africa, .ometimes observers !ere able to distinguish a horses breeding from its ty(e, sometimes only from its (lace of (urchase or shi((ing, 0et all these horses !ere so remarkably different from the northern *uro(ean ty(es !ith !hich ritish (eo(le !ere familiar, that a cultural shift occurred, beginning !ith horsemanshi( and equestrian culture and ri((ling through the culture at large, With the arrival of these *astern im(orts, a ne! breed, the Thoroughbred, !as develo(ed by cross1breeding on *nglish soil these formerly se(arate strains or races, In addition, the horse (ortrait !as invented, s(orting art changed dramatically, ne! ideas about horses mental ca(acities entered *nglish literature, and riding styles altered as the 2ockey seat !ith short stirru( leathers became all the rage, What ha((ened to make these changes come about? et!een "$3%, !hen the first ca(itulations or trading agreements !ere dra!n u( bet!een *ngland and the Ottomans, and "#'%, *ngland became the chief trading (artner of the Ottoman *m(ire, 4uring these years the rustic, un(olished *nglish nation began to cut a more dashing figure on the high seas and in the s(lendid courts of foreign (otentates, The merchants of 5ondon became !ealthy and (o!erful and began to assert their im(ortance (olitically and culturally at home, This shift in the balance of class (o!er eventually led to conflict bet!een the 6ro!n and 7arliament, The (rotracted consequences of this struggle !ere the civil !ars of the "#8%s, the e9ecution of 6harles I in "#8:, the Interregnum rule of Oliver 6rom!ell during the "#$%s, the ;estoration of 6harles II in "##%, and the abdication of his brother <ames II in "#33 to make !ay for a constitutional, and militantly 7rotestant,

monarchy in "#33, y the "&3%s, a united =reat ritain had founded and lost many of its +orth American colonies, embarked u(on a second ritish em(ire in India, and !as engaged in .outh .eas e9(loration, .o far, the story is a !ell1kno!n and entirely *urocentric tale of the ine9orable gro!th of the (ink bits on the global ma(, ut there is another story here as !ell, As !e !ill see, the (o!erful Ottoman *m(ire ruled by the .ultans of Istanbul had a much greater influence on events in =reat ritain than sim(ly enabling merchants to acquire large fortunes that hel(ed to ti( the traditional (olitical balance of (o!er during the revolution of the seventeenth century, Along !ith ne! !ealth and !orldliness, along !ith the 5evant 6om(anys economic trium(hs, came crucial social changes at home, >oreign customs and institutions see(ed into *nglish society from the land of the =rand Turk, forever changing the cultural landsca(e of !hat it meant to be *nglish, As trading (artners, yet also im(erial rivals in !hose !ars the other !as sometimes im(licated, the long1established Ottoman and emergent ritish em(ires !ere sometimes emulative, sometimes admiring, sometimes dismissive of one another, What =erald )ac5ean has characteri?ed as im(erial envy succinctly describes relations obtaining bet!een *uro(e and the Ottoman *m(ire before the fully fledged discursive system of Orientalism, described by *d!ard .aid, emerged during the later eighteenth century,@"A In (revious centuries Western commercial and cultural e9changes !ith the *ast !ere on a less unequal basis than develo(ed subsequently, What is all too often forgotten is that, bet!een the si9teenth and eighteenth centuries, the Ottomans remained in a (osition of relative su(eriority in !ealth, the arts, and military strength, The (urebred *astern horse native to the Ottoman domains embodied in the flesh this cultural su(eriority, oth in the flesh and in artistic re(resentation, *astern blood horses belonged to that common currency of ob2ects and (ractices held in common bet!een the *astern and Western em(ires, that re(ertoire of images recogni?able to both 6hristendom and the Islamic !orld, as 5isa <ardine and <erry rotton have argued,@'A These living, breathing lu9ury items, in <ardine and rottons (hrase,@BA !ere ideal ob2ects of !hat )ac5ean has called im(erial envy, Cntil !ell into the eighteenth century, it !ould have been the visiting *nglishman or .cotsman or Irishman !ho !as consumed !ith envy of Ottoman (o!er, s(lendour, or horseflesh, and hardly ever the other !ay round, y the time of <ohn uchans re(resentation of the battlefield of the >irst World War in Greenmantle D":"#E, ho!ever, the ritish and their allies had come to hold the !hi( hand over the Ottomans, allied !ith the =ermans,

so that such a (ast relation has receded into ghostly obscurity, What is most ironic is that uchans character .andy Arbuthnot, a .cotsman good at getting inside the skin of remote (eo(les and so a most effective s(y, comes riding into *r?urum !ith his firm *nglish hunting seat Deven the .cots ride like the *nglish !hen they ride !ellE, !earing not (ro(er clothes, but the green mantle of the (ro(het of Islam he had been sent to find and had ended u( (retending to beFe !as turbaned and rode like one (ossessed, and against the sno! I caught the dark sheen of emerald, As he rode it seemed that the fleeing Turks !ere stricken still, and sank by the roadside !ith eyes strained after his unheeding figure, , , , Then I kne! that the (ro(hecy had been true, and that their (ro(het had not failed them, The long1looked for revelation had come, =reenmantle had a((eared at last to an a!aiting (eo(le,@8A eneath the turban and flying robes of the for!ard1going Islamic horseman lurks a .cotsman G himself an e(itome of *nglish cultural im(erialism, The e9quisiteness of this Orientalist fantasy lies in its reversal of a history in !hich the hunting field could be said to have been haunted by the s(ectres of *astern horsemen, as if inside every to( hat or hunt ca( and (ink coat there lurked an Arab or a Turk, The ne! horses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a((eared to have ideas of their o!n, about going freely for!ard !ith a minimum of collection and about being kindly treated, something else that !as unusual in *uro(e, <onathan .!ift !as moved to create a nation of rational animals, the Fouyhnhmns, in 7art IH of Gullivers Travels D"&'#E, an equine s(ecies so su(erior to humans that =ulliver fervently !ished to become one, and not to have to claim kinshi( !ith the debased hominid 0ahoos, Im(orted along !ith the ne! *astern horses themselves, !ho demanded to be treated differently, !ere ne! ideas about equine intelligence and human1animal relations, 7ortraits of horses as sub2ects in themselves, as o((osed to equestrian (ortraits of horse and rider, !ere kno!n in the si9teenth century in 7ersia, the Ottoman *m(ire, and )ughal India, and had come into Italy !ith the arbary race horses im(orted by the =on?aga family of )antua Dc,"$'&1B%E, In *ngland, the horse (ortrait !as invented at +e!market in the second decade of the eighteenth century, by <ohn Wootton and his contem(oraries, a((arently as a tribute to the ne! *astern bloodstock and their (rogeny, The ritish (ublic !ere astonished by the im(orted horses quality G not only their beauty and chiselled fineness of limb, but also their (o!er and s(eed, They !ere mounts fit for kings, and coveted by country gentlemen,

<ames I, Oliver 6rom!ell, 6harles II, <ames II, William III, Iueen Anne, and the three =eorges all had im(orted Arabians, Turks, or arbs in their studs, 6harles II and <ames II (romoted +e!market racing to such an e9tent that both kings could often only be found at the races, y the late "&B%s, !hen the =odol(hin Arabian Dor arb, since he had been im(orted from +orth AfricaE, !ho stood at stud outside +e!market, !as emerging as a most fashionable sire, +e!market !as beginning to sur(ass 0orkshire as the home of *nglish racing and equestrian culture, Arguably, this shift from northern to southern domination of racing !as linked !ith a shift from a regional to a national identity !ithin the racing establishment, !ith the rise of Whig aristocrats such as =odol(hin at the e9(ense of their Tory Dand sometimes 6atholicE 0orkshire rivals, and the connection of these changes !ith a (reference for im(orted *astern stallions over *nglish ones, even !hen the 0orkshire bloodstock had included yerley Turk and 4arley Arabian genes for several generations,@$A y mid1century, his lordshi(s Arabian 1 and sometimes his lordshi(s Turk 1 had become familiar as !ell as desirable racing sires and aristocratic (ossessions,, Above all, !hat struck *nglish (eo(le !as these horses e9traordinary intelligence and sensitivity to human demands, <ohn *velyn re(orted in "#38 that an Ottoman charger ca(tured at the siege of Hienna !as the most (erfect horse he had ever seenand !ith my eyes never did I behold so delicate a creature , , , such a head, eye, ears, neck, breast, belly, buttock, gaskins, legs, (asterns, and feet, in all regards beautiful and (ro(ortioned to admiration, s(irituous and (roud, nimble, making halt, turning !ith that s!iftness and in so small a com(ass as !as incom(arable, !ith all this so gentle and tractable , , , to the re(roach of our grooms in *uro(e !ho bring them u( so churlishly,@#A *velyn recalled ho! the Fabsburg ambassador to the court of .Jleyman the )agnificent Dr, "$'%1"$##E, Ogier de usbecq, had said that There !as no creature so gentle as a Turkish horse, nor more res(ectful to his )aster, or the =room that dresses him, The reason is, because they treat their horses !ith great lenity,@&A .ho!ing kindness to!ard horses !as not normal in seventeenth1 century ritain or else!here in *uro(e, Forsemen (unished and coerced their mounts !ith im(unity, ut in the Ottoman *m(ire, and more generally !here Islam advised kindness and sym(athy to!ards all animals as Allahs creatures, a different ethos of horsemanshi( !as (racticed, based on !hat usbecq called lenity or kindly usage, After living in Istanbul for many

years, usbecq re(orted that, !hile our 6hristian grooms never think their horses rightly curried till they thunder at them !ith their voice, and let their club or horse1!hi( d!ell, as it !ere, on their sides, the Turks love to have their horses so very gentle that, at a !ord of command, they may fall do!n on their knees, and in this (osture receive their riders,@3A .uch a (artnershi(, and such loyalty, bet!een man and beast had been among the determining factors in the trium(hs of the Ottoman cavalry over *uro(ean forces, And as a result the ne! Oriental horses both demanded to be treated differently from other horses and ins(ired ne! forms of horse1kee(ing (hiloso(hy, ne! riding styles that allo!ed horses more freedom of movement, !ith riders taking u( their stirru(s a notch or t!o to lighten their seats, and (referring a for!ard going snaffle1mouthed horse to the curb1 bitted e9treme collection of the riding school, In the "$3%s, riding short !as kno!n as riding in the Turkey fashion, according to Thomas lundeville and others,@:A y the mid1eighteenth century, turning the to(s of the boots do!n in order to bend the knees, making standing in the stirru(s, rising to the trot, and 2um(ing obstacles at s(eed much easier, all im(orted (ractices, had become standard *nglish (ractice, +o!, in (aintings by <ohn Wootton, <ames .eymour, .a!rey =il(in, and, most famously, =eorge .tubbs, horses !ere (ortrayed as intelligent beings as !ell as athletic racing machines, and as beautiful creatures as !ell as useful ones, .!ifts Fouyhnhnmland may not have been so very far from *ngland, Aristocrats and gentlemen, as !ell as kings and queens, im(orted significant numbers of the finest foreign horses they could find, often stealing them from under the very noses of the Ottoman authorities, !ho 2ealously guarded the breeding grounds of the *m(ire in search of the best horses for the im(erial stables in Istanbul, and (eriodically banned their e9(ort, Ale((o merchants like +athaniel Farley managed to shi( home horses from .canderoon G Iskenderun G to their families in *ngland, And so along !ith rare and valuable manuscri(ts, miniatures, medals, and books, +athaniels ne(he!, *d!ard, 5ord Farley, son of Iueen Annes chief minister, !as able to collect rare and valuable horses, 7ortraits of the father, the lord treasurer ;obert Farley, first earl of O9ford, and son, *d!ard Farley, the second earl, no! grace the entrance to the )anuscri(ts ;oom of the ne! ritish 5ibrary at .t 7ancras, <ust as the Farleian manuscri(ts became the basis for the ritish 5ibrarys famous collections, t!o Farley im(orts hel(ed form the gene (ool of the *nglish Thoroughbred, Although not traceable through the male line, unlike the most famous three foundation

sires, the yerley Turk, the 4arley Arabian, and the =odol(hin arb Dor ArabianE, the Farley 4un and the loody .houldered Arabian made their mark on Thoroughbred (edigrees, The loody .houldered Arabian, (ainted more than nine times by <ohn Wootton 1 more times than he (ainted any other horse 1 became a (rogenitor of Whistle2acket, the sub2ect of .tubbss great (ortrait in the +ational =allery, The noble and boldly rearing Whistle2acket, a((arently free from human interference, may be an icon of *nglishness, but his (edigree attests that he !as entirely of *astern G Arabian, Turkish, and arb G breeding, Of more interest to TA.= readers, (erha(s, are the slightly mysterious origins of the Farley 4un, The horse !as s(irited out of .yria by +athaniel Farley in s(ite of an Ottoman (rohibition on his e9(ort, +athaniel !rote to his brother *d!ard DAuditor of the Im(restE Farley in *nglandWanting fresh 5etters from .canderone I kno! not !hether there !ill go more then one Forse , , , I ho(e to get off the 4unn or 6ream 6olt, !hich is a Forse that has made more +oise and been more taken +otice of here then I desired, And has had the honour of being Hisited by the Turke Fimself incognito111!ho !ould have had him for the =rd, .ig,s o!n .table, .o that t!as no longer in my 7o!er to kee( him, and I believe t!ould not have been in the 7o!er of any body else to have sent him a!ay, for u(on the first notice of it Three *9(resses have been sent after him, and all the (asses of the )ountains bet!een this and .canderone Ordered to be !atched, and ye )arine .trictly guarded to (revent his being .hi(d off I have heard of his being got .afe to the (lace !here I ordered him, ut .hant be easy till I hear Fe is got a board the .hi(, for till then I cant think him .afe, +ot!ithstanding he has many >aults !hich I could !ish !ere mended, 0et if he has the good fortune to come to you safe I believe fe! such Forses have ever come to *ngland, T!ould be too tedious at this time to give you the !hole Fistory of him and his ;ace, !hich I shall reserve till I am so ha((y as to .ee you,@"%A >aults or no, the 4un !as a smash1hit in *ngland, +athaniels ne(he! 5ord Farley re(orted gleefully that the horse !as thought by all that have seen him to be the finest Forse that ever came over,@""A The !hole Fistory of him and his ;aceK is never related in the Farley corres(ondence, 5ike other im(orts from Ale((o, he is often referred to by contem(oraries and, later, by historians of the Thoroughbred as the

Farley 4un Arabian, Fo!ever, dun or cream is an unusual color among (urebred Arabians, The artist ridget Tem(est, !ho s(eciali?es in (ortraying Akhal1Tekes, todays chief Turkmen breed, s(eculates that, based on the evidence of <ohn Woottons (ortrait and +athaniel Farleys letter, !ith its mysterious omission of the horses ;ace, the Farley 4un might !ell have been a Turcoman or Turkmen, Tem(est observes of the Turkmen that they sometimes have a distinctive shimmering golden coat, 2ust like that of the horse in Woottons s(lendid (ortrait,@"'A 5ord Farleys 4un sired the Farley or O9ford 4un )are, from !hom many good racehorses, including West Australian, Wisdom, >lying >o9, and 7ersimmon descended, @"BA In the Farley 4un, then, !e might find further evidence, to add to the e9am(le of the yerley Turk, that the Ottoman *m(ire contributed Turanian or Turkic as !ell as Arabian bloodlines to the richly hybrid mi9ture kno!n as the Thoroughbred, The Ottoman origins of modernity may sound like an unlikely, or at least highly controversial idea, but there is increasing reason to think that the *uro(ean *nlightenment o!es a great debt to the Ottoman *ast, 6ertainly both the rise of the *nglish Thoroughbred horse, u(on !hom *nglish aristocrats and gentlemen rode in a distinctive fashion, (roclaiming their mercantile and cultural su(eriority to the rest of the !orld, and the rise of democratising sociability and (olitical debate in the *nglish coffee house have Ottoman origins, There is a famous argument mounted by the =erman sociologist <Jrgen Fabermas that the *nglish coffee house re(resented the beginnings of the modern (ublic s(here, The freedom to e9(ress (olitical o(inions regardless of ones social rank !as the single most necessary freedom, according to Fabermas, in the establishing of the modern (olitical state, 6oncerning the emergent *uro(ean institutions of Tischgesellschaften, salons, and coffee houses, Fabermas argues that des(ite demogra(hic differences, all these ne! gathering (laces had a number of levelling features in commonFirst, they (reserved a kind of social intercourse that, far from (resu((osing the equality of status, disregarded status altogether, The tendency re(laced the celebration of rank !ith a tact befitting equals, The (arity on !hose basis alone the authority of the better argument could assert itself against that of social hierarchy and in the end can carry the day meant, in the thought of the day, the (arity of common humanity Dbloss MenschlicheE, Les hommes, (rivate gentlemen, or die Privatleute made u( the (ublic not 2ust in the sense that (o!er and (restige of (ublic office !ere held in sus(ense/ economic

de(endencies also in (rinci(le had no influence, 5a!s of the market !ere sus(ended as !ere la!s of the state, +ot that this idea of the (ublic !as actually reali?ed in earnest in the coffee houses, the salons, and the societies/ but as an idea it had become institutionali?ed and thereby stated as an ob2ective claim, If not reali?ed, it !as at least consequential,@"8A As Fabermas !ould have it, the coffee house became the site of an e9(erience of common humanity, The celebration of rank, !ith its dis(lays of (o!er and codes of deference, !as re(laced, Fabermas insists, by a tact befitting equals, The (o!er of the better argument, rather than the social or economic (o!er of the gentleman !ho e9(ressed it, became institutionali?ed and thereby stated as an ob2ective claim, If not actually reali?ed in the coffee houses, es(ecially not al!ays in earnest, the idea of a rational debate, based u(on a (arity of o(inions rather than (artici(ants, became, according to Fabermas, at least consequential, It !ill not be long before the all1male and u((er1ranks ethos of the coffee house !ill be challenged because of that very consequential idea of a contest of arguments not hemmed round by the social characteristics of their makers, The levelling mi9ing of the coffee house !as not natively *nglish, !hatever Fabermas might think, As the historian of science .teven .ha(in has recently suggested, along !ith coffee and the coffee house, *uro(eans im(orted ne! forms of sociability from the Ottoman *ast5ate "&th1century 5ondoners bought a dark, hot, bitter bre! called coffee !hen they s(ent their (enny at a coffee house, but they also bought forms of sociability that !ere e9(licitly, if eclectically, modelled on those of the coffee houses of .myrna, Ale((o, 6airo and 6onstantino(le, The Ottoman Origins of )odernity might make Fabermas s!allo! hard, but, follo! his arguments about the 5ondon coffee house, and thats one (lace they lead,@"$A What these Ottoman forms of sociability !ere like is !ell described by )arkman *llis in his book on the coffee house, based u(on *nglish travellers accounts, T!o of those travellers, William iddul(h and Fenry lount, feature in =erald )ac5eans The Rise of Oriental Travel and Looking East,@"#A Indeed, it !as the fear of the mi9ing of ranks, and the transgressing of boundaries of (oliteness, that caused coffee houses sometimes to be shut do!n in the name of (reventing sedition, as ha((ened in ritain during 6harless IIs reign, or during moments of (ious reform in the Ottoman *m(ire, 6harles II tried briefly in 4ecember "#&$ to shut do!n the coffee houses because they had become (laces in !hich the kings scandalous se9 life and his failure to (roduce a legitimate heir !ere too

freely discussed, As <ames =rantham Turner !ryly observes, 6harles !as concerned that his (rivate (arts had been in everybodys mouth,@"&A The effort failed, so committed !ere 5ondoners to their coffee and to the association bet!een coffee houses and free s(eech that obtained by the "#&%s, .o !hen !e look to discover ho! it !as that the insular *nglish nation of the seventeenth century became the mighty im(erial ritons of the eighteenth, !e might be sur(rised to find 2ust ho! many fundamental as(ects of their everyday lives and beliefs had their origins in the deserts of .yria and +orth Africa and the cities of Istanbul and 6airo,

!otes @"A *d!ard W, .aid, Orientalism D":&3/ 5ondon and +e! 0ork- 7enguin, "::$E/ =erald )ac5ean, Looking East English !riting and the Ottoman Em"ire before #$%% DFoundmills, asingstoke and +e! 0ork- 7algrave )acmillan, '%%&E, '%1'B, "3:1:3, @'A 5isa <ardine and <erry rotton, Global &nterests Renaissance 'rt bet(een East and !est D5ondon- ;eaktion and Ithaca, +0- 6ornell Cniversity 7ress, '%%%E, "":, "BB, @BA <ardine and rotton, Global &nterests, "BB, @8A <ohn uchan, Greenmantle D":"#/ Farmonds!orth- 7enguin, ":$3E, '83, '&", @$A .ee ;ichard +ash, LFonest *nglish reedK- The Thoroughbred as 6ultural )eta(hor, in Maren ;aber and Treva <, Tucker, eds,, The )ulture of the *orse +tatus, ,isci"line, and &dentit- in the Earl- Modern !orld DFoundmills, asingstoke and +e! 0ork- 7algrave )acmillan, '%%$E, '8$1 &', @#A <ohn *velyn, .alendarium #/012#/$3 The ,iar- of 4ohn Evel-n, *, ., de eer, ed,, # vols, DO9ford- 6larendon 7ress, ":$$E, 8- B:31::,

@&A Ogier =hiselin de usbecq, Travels into Turke- )ontaining the most accurate 'ccount of the Turks, and 5eighbouring 5ations, Their Manners, )ustoms, Religion, 'ccount of the Turks, and 5eighbouring 5ations, Their Manners, )ustoms, Religion, +u"erstition, Polic-, Riches, )oins, 6c7 The (hole being a series of remarkable observations and events, inters"ersd (ith great variet- of entertaining incidents, never before "rinted, Translated from the Original Latin of the Learned '7 G7 8usbe9uius, !ith Memoirs of the Life of the &llustrious 'uthor D5ondon- 7rinted for <, ;obinson/ and W, 7ayne, "&88E, "B"1B'/ see also *d!ard .eymour >orster, ed,, The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de 8usbec9, &m"erial 'mbassador at )onstantino"le #::;2#:/<, 5e(l- Translated from the Latin of the El=evir Edition of #/11 DO9ford6larendon 7ress, ":'&E, @3A usbecq, Travels, "B"1B', @:A @Thomas lundevilleA, ' ne(e booke containing the arte of r-ding, and breakinge greate *orses, together (ith the sha"es and Figures, of man- and divers k-ndes of 8-ttes, mete to serve divers mouthes7 >er- necessar- for all Gentlemen, +ould-ours, +eruingmen, and for an- man that delighteth in a horse D5ondon- Willyam .eres, n, d, @"$#%AE, book ', cha(ter '3, second (age/ fifth (age, @"%A +athaniel Farley, 5etter to *d!ard LAuditorK Farley, *sq,, in 5ondon, under cover to )r, Mingston, Ale((o, "$ >ebruary "&"8N"$, , 5, Add, )ss, &%"8B, ''$r1''$v, @""A *d!ard, 5ord Farley, 5etter to +athaniel Farley, 8 4ecember "&"#, quoted in 6, ), 7rior, Earl- Records of the Thoroughbred *orse )ontaining Re"roductions of +ome Original +tud2books, and Other Pa"ers, of the Eighteenth )entur- D5ondon- The .(ortsman Office, ":'8E, "8', @"'A ridget Tem(est, Turkmen 't !im"ole 'rtists from Turkmenistan DAshgabat- Hisiting Artists, n,d, @'%%"AE, '%, @"BA 7rior, Earl- Records, "8", @"8A <Jrgen Fabermas, The +tructural Transformation of the Public +"here 'n &n9uir- into a )ategor- of 8ourgeois +ociet-, Thomas urger, trans,,

!ith the assistance of >rederick 5a!rence D":#'/ 6ambridge- 7olity, ":3:/ r(t, '%%$E, B#, @"$A .teven .ha(in, At the Amsterdam, London Revie( of 8ooks D'3-3E, '% A(ril '%%#, "'1"8/ this (assage "8, @"#A )arkman *llis, The )offee *ouse ' )ultural *istor- D5ondonWeidenfeld O +icolson, '%%8E/ )ac5ean, Rise of Oriental Travel/ rian 6o!an, The +ocial Life of )offee The Emergence of the 8ritish )offeehouse D+e! Faven and 5ondon- 0ale Cniversity 7ress, '%%$E/ ;al(h ., Fatto9, )offee and )offeehouses The Origins of a +ocial 8everage in the Medieval 5ear East, Brd (rinting D":3$/ .eattle and 5ondon- Cniversity of Washington 7ress, "::#E/ *d!ard ;obinson, The Earl- English )offee *ouse D"3:B/ 6hristchurch, Fants- The 4ol(hin 7ress, ":&'E/ 6aroline >inkel, Osmans ,ream The +tor- of the Ottoman Em"ire D5ondon- <ohn )urray, '%%$E/ .hirine Famadeh, The )it-s Pleasures &stanbul in the eighteenth )entur- D.eattle and 5ondon- Cniversity of Washington 7ress, '%%&E/ 4ana .a2di, ed,, Ottoman Tuli"s, Ottoman )offee Leisure and Lifest-le in the Eighteenth )entur- D5ondon and +e! 0ork- Tauris Academic .tudies, '%%&E, @"&A <ames =rantham Turner, 7e(ys and the 7rivate 7arts of )onarchy, in =erald )ac5ean, ed,, )ulture and +ociet- in the +tuart Restoration Literature, ,rama, *istor- D6ambridge and +e! 0ork- 6ambridge Cniversity 7ress, "::$E, :$1""%/ this (assage "%8, >or details of the "#&$ attem(t to shut the coffee houses, see *llis, )offee *ouse, 3#1"%$,