Filipino-American Hostilities The American insistence on the evacuation by Aguinaldos army of the strategic points along the manila

bay area, the refusal of the American military authorities to allow the Filipino solders to enter the city after its surrender, and the American limitation of the areas to be occupied by the Filipino troops after the Mock battle of manila, led progressively to the deterioration of FilipinoAmerican relations. The misunderstanding of treaty of Paris without consultation with the Filipinos. Attempts, however, were made by a mixed commission of Filipinos and Americans to relax the tension between the two peoples, but the American members of commission tried to prolong the sessions without trying to improve the situation because they were waiting for the American reinforcement which were then on their way to manila, finally, on February 4, 1899, an American sentry shot a Filipino solder, resulting in the outbreak of the FilipinoAmerican hostilities. The Filipinos fought at a disadvantage, for they had no sufficient arms with which to fight the enemy. But it took the American almost three years to conquer the Filipinos. American apostasy- it must be remembered that it was the Americans who first approached Aguinaldo in Hongkong and in Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with commodore Dewey in wresting the power from the Spaniards. While it mat not true that Dewey promised Aguinaldo American recognition of Philippine independence, yet it is nevertheless true that there was an informal alliance between Dewey and Aguinaldo an alliance to fight a common enemy, the Spaniards. There was, therefore, a moral as well a legal basis for the American authorities to treat Aguinaldo as an ally, And yet when they finally succeeded in increasing their number in the Philippines and in agreeing secretly to the surrender of manila, they treated Aguinaldo as if he were an escaped convict. There was absolutely no reason why the Americans should not have allowed their Filipino allies to share the hour of glory in the surrender of manila; there was much less reason why the Americans should have ordered Aguinaldo to with draw from the suburbs of manila after the surrender of the city. Such American actuation showed that they used Aguinaldo merely as a tool for their own selfish purpose. More significantly, their attitude towards Aguinaldo showed that they came to the Philippines not as a friend but as a enemy masking as a friend.

It was, therefore, not strange that Aguinaldo and his men-looked upon the Americans with suspension. In such an atmosphere all that could be expected was friction without even consulting the Filipino people and their representatives the Filipino-American alliance that was forged under the pressure of necessity gave way to mutual hostility. McKinleys benevolent assimilation proclamation before the conclusion of the treaty of Paris, President McKinley pretended not to know what to do with the Philippines. Actually, there were American vested interests who pressured him into taking the Philippines from Span: the American economic interests who were thinking of expanding American business in the orient; the naval and military interests who wanted the Philippines as the first line of American defense; and the religious interests who wanted the Philippines as a base of operations for American protestant missionaries. McKinley could not ignore these vested interests and so he finally instructed the American peace commissioners in Paris to demand the cession of the Philippines to the United States. It is evident that from the outset the Americans never really intended to help the Filipino win their independence from Spain, for had it been otherwise they would not have sent successive reinforcements to the Philippines. With the treaty of Paris concluded to the satisfaction of the American vested interests, McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent assimilation Proclamation on December 21, 1898. This proclamation was the first official indication of American policy regarding the Philippines. It expressly indicated the intention of the United States to stay in the Philippines by exercising; the United States would assume control and disposition of the government of the Philippines. At the same time president McKinley instructed his military commanders in the Philippines to extend American sovereignty over the entire country by force. General Elwell Otis, who receive the proclamation, sat on it for a time in order not to antagonize the Filipinos further that they were in a bad mood. Thus he reasoned out. After fully considering the presidents proclamation and the temper of the tagalong with whom I was daily discussing political problems and the friendly

intentions of the united government towards them, I concluded that there were certain words and expressions therein such as sovereignty, protection, etc., had a peculiar meaning disastrous to their welfare and significant of future political domination, like that from which they recently been freed. In order to comply with the presidents order and at the same time not to antagonize unduly the Filipinos, Otis published McKinley s proclamation on January 4, 1899 with same amendments inserted in such a way as not to convey the meanings of the original sovereignty, protection, and right of cession. Filipino Reaction Unfortunately for the Americans, however General Miller, then in Iloilo, published the original text of the proclamation. A copy fell into the hands of the officials of the revolutionary government. The proclamation was immediately subjected to serve attacks. Antonio Luna, editor of la independenceia, led the attack on the proclamation and the pointed out that it was merely a subterfuge to quiet the people temporarily until measures could be inaugurated and applied to put in the practice all the odious features of government which Spain had employed in the Philippines. On January 5, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation in which he said partly: My government cannot remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to its self the title of champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallible verdict as to who are the true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of mankind. In a revised proclamation issued the same day, Aguinaldo protested most solemnly against this intrusion of the united states government on the sovereignty of these island. Otis regarded the two Aguinaldo proclamations as tantamount to war. He quietly strengthened the American observation posts and alerted his troops. The tense atmosphere of the period was reflected in the evacuation of the Filipinos in and around manila to safer places. On the other hand, Aguinaldos proclamations

drew the masses together with a vigorous determination to fight the ally turned enemy. Attempts to Relax the Tension- Aguinaldo, however, tried his best to relax the Filipino American tension. He knew that an armed conflict with the Americans would necessitate more and bitter sacrifices on the part of the people and that not having sufficient arms and ammunition the Filipino troop would be at a terrible disadvantage. Consequently, he wrote Otis on January 9 notifying him of the appointment of Florentino Torres, Ambrosio Flores, And Manuel Arguelles to meet with the same number of American commissioners, the purpose of the meeting of the commissioners was to work out a pain for the adjustment of the conflicting political interests of both parties. On the same day, Otis appointed General R. P. Hughes. Colonel James F. Smith, And Lieutenant-Colonel E. H. Crowder to meet with the Filipino commission. The conference began on January 9 and continued intermittently up to January 29. All through the series of conferences, that American panel tried to fool the Filipino panel to believing that they (the Americans) were ready to hear and to consider Filipino aspirations. In reality, however, they wanted the conference to continue indefinitely pending the arrival of American reinforcements from the United States. The situation, therefore, was this: since American volunteers in manila were not enough to flight the Filipinos, it was necessary for the American commissioners to prolong the conference with Filipino commissioners in order to give the American reinforcement time to arrive in the Philippines before hostilities could start. The conference did not yield any tangible result. Nor did it succeed in relaxing the Filipino-American tension. On the contrary, the Filipino military officer suspected that the Americans were merely fighting for time. Another meeting the Filipino an American commissioner was scheduled for January 31, but owing to the increasing restlessness and hostility of the Filipinos it was not held. Otis pleaded with Florentino Torres, a well-known American sympathizer, to exert his best effort in influencing the Malolos Government to stop the hostile demonstrations against the United States. But Torres was only a minor official whose voice in the government was negligible. And so that tension increasing with no hope of relaxation.

The san Juan bridge incident incident followed incident which inevitably led to the outbreak of hostilities. On February 1, a group of American engineers was arrest by the Filipino troops. The following day, Otis filed a protest with Aguinaldo. The latter replied that the five Americans were not arrested but merely detained. Aguinaldo further Pointed out that the Americans were found well within the decree of October 20, 1898 prohibiting foreigners from approaching the Filipino defensive works. On the same day, February 2, general Arthur MacArthur protested the presence of colonel Luciano san Miguels solders within his territory. San Maguel, wanting to avoid any conflict American side. The tension seemed to have been relaxed a title when on the night of February 4, an incident occurred which led to the outbreak of the Filipino-American hostilities. At about eight in the evening of February 4, private Willie W. Grayson, with village in San Juan to ascertain whether there were Filipino solders in the vicinity. Suddenly four armed men appeared before Grayson. He said later, recounting the event: I yield Halt!...the man moved. I can challenge with other Halt! Then he immediately shouted halto! to me. Well I thought the best thing to do was to shoot him. He dropped. * * * We retreated to where our six other fellows were and I said, line up fellows; the enemy are in here all though these yards. We then retread are to the pipe line and got behind the water work main and stayed there all night. It was some minutes after our second shots before Filipinos began firing. The following day, MacArthur, without attempting to find out the case of the firing, issued his order to advance against the Filipino troops. The FilipinoAmerican armed clash was on. Investigation of the incident That same night, Captain Fernando Grey wired Malolos saying that the Americans had started the hostilities. Aguinaldo could not do anything at the moment, but the next day he sent an emissary to Otis to convey to the American co mmander that the firing on our side the night before had been against my order. Furthermore, he expressed his wish to stop furthered that the fighting, having begun, must go on the grim end. Aguinaldo then sent a telegram to all local chiefs informing them of the start of the Filipino-

American hostilities and ordering them to prepare the people for any emergency. To determine the origin of the hostilities he ordered Felipe Buencamino, Sr. to start an investigation. On February 7, Buencamino asked Secretary of War Baldomero Aguinaldo for information regarding the incident. Investigations were conducted and witnesses called to testify on what they knew about the event. It appeared from the investigations that the senior military officers were not at their posts. It was also learned that on February 2, but were in Malolos with Aguinaldo. It was learned that on February 2 and 3,Filipino employees in American ships were dismissed from the service for no reason at all, and that in the morning of February 4 some 200 to 300 Americans solders boarded two cascos in manila and were towed to Cavite. Upon their arrival here they were not disembarked but sent back to manila where they joined the other American contingents. The fact, too, that the American attack on the Filipino troops was sudden showed that the Americans had planned the incident to force the issue against the Filipinos. On the other hand, the American military authorities made no attempt to investigate the incident. Instead, they ordered an all-out attack against their former allies. American Victories.- with swift strokes, the American army knifed through Pasig and other towns south of manila. In the north, general MacArthur pushed ahead with his columns bombarding the Filipino positions with accuracy. In the battle of La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery, Major Jose Torres Bugallon, one of the bravest officers, fell mortally wounded. With La Loma secure in his hands, MacArthur proceeded towards Kalookan, where General Antonio Luna was waiting for him. In the fierce battle that followed, American superiority in arms once more proved victorious. Undaunted by his defeat, Luna prepared a plan for the recapture of manila. On February 22, he marched against the Two days later, Lunas force reached Azcarrga, but the Americans fought back and repulse him with heavy losses. Luna then retreated to Polo where he established his headquarters. The Drive to the North. In late February and early March American reinforcements arrived from the united states. General Otis then began his intensive drive to the north and ordered General Henry W. Lawton to take the offensive in the south. Polo was taken, followed by the towns along the Manila-Dagupan Railway, until on March 30 the American army was

knocking at the gates of Malolos. Meanwhile, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos and established its headquarters in San, Nueva Ecija. MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo, but Otis ordered him to take a rest in Malolos. Meantime, General Lawton moved swiftly to the south, capturing Zapote, Bcoor, and Dasmarinas, all Cavite. On the other hand, General Wheaton, aided by gunboats, successively captured Las Pinas and Paranaque, in Morong and Santa Cruz, paete, and other towns of Laguna. But the American were not always victorious. Om March 25, Filipinos made a good account of themselves when they repulsed General Wheaton at polo and killed colonel Egbert. In Quingua (Plaridel) , on April 23, the American cavary under Major Bell suffered a defeat in the hands of General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, the Americans suffered heavy casualties, including Colonel Stotsemberg who was killed in battle. On December 18, 1899, the Filipinos under General Licerio Geronimo routed the Americans under General Lawton, who was killed in the battle of San Mateo. But these Filipino victories, however, were not sufficient to turn the tide against the Americans. The Filipino troops were poorly trained, poorly armed, poorly fed, and had no discipline. After resting his men in Malolos, MacArthur now decided to March against Kalumpit. Ilipinos, The Filipinos, under General Luna, were in a good position to give battle to the enemy, for the Americans had to cross creeks and rivers to dislodge the Filipino defenders. Important to the Filipinos was the Bagbag River which afforded them good protection against the enemy. MacArthur decided to encircle the Filipino defenders of kalumpit by sending his subordinate officer to Quingua and Pulilan, while he confronted Luna directly. At the precise moment when the enemy was about insubordination of general Tomas Mascardo, left Kalumpit with his artillery, cavalry, and foot solders to punish Mascardo who was then in Pampanga. General Gregorio del Pilar was left to defend the Filipino lines, but American superiority in strategy and arms proved too much for the boy general. When Luna returned to kalumpit before nightfall, the Americans had already succeeded penetrating the Filipino defensive lines. Thus, the battle of bagbab was lost and with it the other battles that followed. The fall of Mabini.Mabini, as President of the cabinet, was the most powerful man behind Aguinaldo. When the Unites States, through the Schurman Commission, announced the policy of the American government of extending its sovereignty over the Philippines, Mabini urged the Filipinos to

continue the better struggle for independence. In a manifesto dated at san Isidro, April 15, 1899, he said: And since war is the last resource that is left to us for the salvation of our country and our own national honor, let us fight while a grain of strength is left us; let us acquit ourselves like men, even through the lot of the present generation is conflict and sacrifice. It matters not whether we die in the midst or the end of our most painful days work; the generations to come, praying over our tombs, will shed for us tears of love and gratitude, and not of bitter reproach. On May 5, Secretary of State John Hay cabled the Schurman commission authorizing it to offer autonomy to the Filipinos. Mabini stood for independence under the protection of the United States, but the prominent members of the Malolos Government, like Paterno and Buencamino, wavered and wanted to accept the American offer of autonomy. Believing more in autonomy than in independence under the circumstances, the influential members of the Filipino assembly (formerly congress) passed a resolution asking Aguinaldo to repudiate Mabinis independence stand and to relieve him as President of the cabinet. Under this pressure, Aguinaldo, on May 7, 1899, wrote Mabini notifying him of the formation of a new cabinet under Paterno. The following day, Mabini answered Aguinaldo congratulating him on his wise political measure. With Mabinis resignation, the executive arm of the government was recognized. Seven departments were created: foreign affairs, treasury, interior, war and navy, communications and public works, public instruction, and agriculture, industry and commerce. The new cabinet under Paterno was composed of: Pedro A. Paterno . President of the cabinet Felipe Buencamino.. Secretary of Foreign affair Severino de les alas.. Secretary of interior Mariano Trias. Secretary o f War and Navy Aguedo Velarde Secretary of public Instruction Maximo Molo.. Secretary of Communication and Public Works Leon Ma. Guerrero.. Secretary of Industry, Agriculture and Commerce Assassination of Luna.Of all the Filipino soldiers of the period, Antonio Luna was the best prepared to fight the American enemy. He was educated in Europe and studied a little of military science and tactics. But

nature endowed him with an unruly temper that made men fear and hate him. When the Filipino- American armed clash broke out, he saw the necessity of instilling discipline into the minds of the men, most of whom were peasants or men of no training at all. his plan to recapture manila was brilliantly conceived, but lack of cooperation from the Kawit Company, who insisted that they took orders only from General Aguinaldo, led to disastrous results. He recommended to Aguinaldo that the Kawit Company be disarmed for military insubordination, but Aguinaldo did not followed his advice. Luna, of course, disciplinarian that he was, resented Aguinaldos partiality. In several instances during the hostilities, Luna sho ;kj.,mnb.,mb mnbbjnbytrewn bnbwed his terrible temper. He ordered that houses occupied by the Americans be burned. At another time, he ordered the shooting of civilians who violated military rules. More serious, however was his order to arrest the members of the cabinet who disagree with him in political matters. He slapped Felipe Buencamino, Sr. and accused his son, Joaquin, of cowardice. Even Mabini, peaceful man that he was, complained against Luna and even suggested to Aguinaldo that the tempestuous general be replaced. Luna, then, won many enemies who may or may not have sound reasons to hate him. Early in June 1899 when Luna was at Bayambang, Pangasinan, preparing the defenses for the expected battle with the enemy, he received a telegram asking him to see Aguinaldo at his headquarters in Kabanatuan. Leaving Bayambang with his aids, Colonel Francisco Roman, and some soldiers, he arrived at the convent of Kabanatuan, which served as Aguinaldos headquarters, early in the afternoon of June 5. One of the guards was a member of Kawit Company whom Luna had earlier recommended for punishment. He slapped the sentry and went directly upstairs. There he found Buencamino, whom he hated, and heated words were exchanged between the two. Luna was reported to have insulted not only Buencamino but also Aguinaldo, who earlier in the day had gone to San Isidro to inspect the troops. A rifle report was heard and to Luna rushed downstairs to upbraid the soldier who fired the shot. Near the stairs, a group of men belonging to the Kawit Company ganged up on him. Some stabbed him with dangers, while others fired up on him. Luna retreated to the street, whipped his pistol and fired, but missed his target. Colonel Roman came to his succor, but he too, was mowed down. Luna fell on the convent yard, muttering: Cowards! Assassins! He received no less than forty wounds. He was buried the next day with

honors due his rank. But his assassins were never investigated; nor were they punished for their high crime. American Conquest of the Visaya.Meanwhile, Otis instructed General Miller to attack Iloilo. Miller demanded the surrender of the city, but the Filipino patriots, headed by General Martin Delgado, refused and instead decided to fifth. Fighting against heavy odds, Delgado ordered the burning of the city to prevent the enemy from using it as a base of operations. On February 20 Jaro fell into the hands of the Americans; Sta. Barbara fell on the 14th, Oton on the 19th, and Mandurriao the 20th. Having subdued Iloilo, Miller sent an American warship to Cebu to demand its surrender. On February 22, Cebu surrendered to the Americans, and Lt. Col. Thomas H. Hamer was designated military governor of the province. The occupation of Cebu was, however, not as peaceful as it seemed. The dissatisfied guerrillas murdered the Filipinos who surrendered Cebu without a fight and harassed the American soldiers by guerrilla tactics. The guerrilla leaders, Arcadio Maxilom and leandro Fullon, threatened with death all those who collaborated and would collaborate with the enemy. Thus, the Americans had a hard time administering Cebu. The Negros constitution.---The American occupation of Negros was easy, for the Negrenses sympathized with the Americans and consequently raised the American flag when Iloilo was taken. A committee composed of prominent Negrenses arrived in manila on February 21 to ask Otis to allow them to arm a battalion for the maintenance of peace and order in the island. Otis, taking advantage of this unusual act of collaboration, granted them their request, but informed them that the island would be placed under an American military governor. On March 1, Otis issued an order providing for the creation of a military district composed of Panay, Cebu, and Negros to be known as the Visayan Military District. The Negrenses were allowed to meet in convention to frame their own constitution. This the Negrenses obediently followed, and the so-called Negros Constitution was submitted to the president of the United States on January 20. Naturally, President McKinley did not take it seriously. Nevertheless, the constitution become the basis to administer its civil matters under which the people may enjoy the largest measure of civil liberty compatible with prevailing conditions and which shall conform to their desire.. The bates treaty.The Americans were very diplomatic and cheerful in dealing with the Muslims. In an attempt to win them over, the Americans

appointed General John C. Bates to negotiate a treaty with the Sultan by which the Muslims and the Americans could co-exist peacefully. There was, therefore, no attempt on the part of the Americans to conquer the Muslims, for they knew that they would have a big fight on their hands if they made such an attempt. With consummate skill, General Bates patiently negotiated with the Sultan of Jolo. The Sultan, knowing his traditional rights and powers, claimed, through Raja Muda, his elder brother, and Habib Mura, his secretary, that the Americans should not be allowed to occupy any point in Jolo except the town of Jolo and that the Sultan should continue to collect duties at points not occupied by the Americans. After a protracted negotiation, General Bates, representing the United States, and the Sultan, Raja Muda. Datu Attik, Datu Cakbi, and Datu Joakanain, representing Jolo, signed a treaty on august 20. The treaty, which has been called the Bates Treaty, provided that The sovereignty of the United States over the whole archipelago of Jolo and its dependencies is declared and acknowledged, that the rights and dignities of his Highness the Sultan and his Datus shall be fully respected, that Muslims shall not be interfered with on account of their religion, and that no one shall be persecuted on account of his religious beliefs. On the other hand, the domestic products of the archipelago of Jolo, when carried on by the Sultan and his people within any part of the P, and when conducted under the Philippine Islands, and when conducted under the American flag, shall be free, unlimited, and updateable. Moreover, the American Government agree to pay the sultan and his leading men monthly salaries in Mexican dollars. With the conclusion of this treaty, the Americans succeeded in neutralizing the Muslims in their drive to pacify the Christians Filipinos. Aguinaldo Flees to the Mountains.With the assassination of Luna, the bulk of the Filipino troops became demoralized, for Luna had some followers in the revolutionary camp. Not long after the bloody incident, may army officers surrendered to the enemy, thus making it difficult for Aguinaldo to maintain his army intact. General Otis, taking advantage of the confusion in the Filipino ranks, decided to trap Aguinaldo in Angeles, Pampang. He sent battle-seasoned troops to Lingayen Gulf to cut off Aguinaldos retreat. At the same time, he ordered MacArthur to force Aguinaldo to move north into the waiting arms of the American forces. The American offensive began on October 12. Aguinaldo, finding himself in a precarious situation, move his capital to Tarlac. When the enemy

advanced he moved his capital to Badark as to the whereabouts of Aguinaldo, who had in the meantime transferred to Bayambang, Pangasinan. With the American forces fanning out in all directions to trap him, Aguinaldo decided to flee to the north. With his wife, son, mother, sister, and some members of the cabinet, he boarded the train on the night of November 13 bound for Calasiano. The Americans followed him in hot pursuit, but Aguinaldo was determined not to be capture and marched through valleys, fields, rivers, and hillsides day and night, stopping only here and there for brief moments of rest. Once out of reach of the enemy, Aguinaldo, realizing the disadvantage of having women with them, decided to surrender them. On Christmas day, 1899, the women, escorted by some army officers, were surrendered to the American army. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, finally rid of the women, continued his march to Tierra Virgen, Cagayan, and, on September 6, 1900, reached Palanan, Isabela. It was a place difficult to approach, for the terrain was mountainous and all points leading to the town were guarded by Aguinaldos local men. The battle of Pasong Tirad.In Aguinaldos flight to the north, his rear guard commander, General Gregorio del Pilar, noted the advantageous terrain of Pasong Tirad. He, therefore, suggested that in order to halt the Americans temporarily he would stay behind and make a last stand at Pass. He thought that such a battle would necessarily delay the Americans and give Aguinaldo, on the other hand, sufficient time to widen the distance between him and the pursing enemy. Aguinaldo approved Del Pilars suggestion with much regret, for the young Del Pilar, the boy general of the armed forces had been loyal to him. Pasong Tirad was 4,500 feet high and commanded a good view for miles around. The trail leading to it was so was so narrow that only one man at a time could clamber up the hill, Del Pilar ordered his sixty men to build trenches on both shoulders of the Pass where they could see the movement of the enemy below. At ten oclock on the night of December 1, 1899, Aguinaldo received Del Pilars report that the Americans had arrived at the town of Concepcion. The Americans under Major March pursued Aguinaldo relentlessly, for only the capture of the wily Filipino leader could end Filipino resistance to American rule. In the morning of December 2, March proceeded with his men, about 300 strong, against Pasong Tirad. From atop the Pass, the Filipino defenders fired at the advancing enemy, who had not so far pinpointed the exact position of the Filipinos. Through Januario Galut, a Christian Igorot, the Americans found a secret trail to the top and using it to advantage surprised

Del Pilar and his men. It was about 11:30 in the morning and the sun was mercilessly beating down upon the bodies of the dead and the wounded. In a matter of minutes, the Filipino defenders were overcome by the enemy. Del Pilar, wounded in the shoulder, ordered his remaining men to escape. Then he strove to strove to escape by a narrow trail, but as he mounted his white horse a Krag rifle rang out through the mid-way and felled him with a bullet that passed through the neck. The Americans rushed headlong and captured the soldier holding the rein of Del Pilars horse. Then they looted the dead body for souvenirs. Del Pilars body was left by the roadside for two days until its odor force some Igorots to cover it with dirt. On his diary, which Major March found, Del Pilar had written. The general [Aguinaldo] has given me the pick of all the men that can be spared and ordered me to defend the pass. I realize what a terrible task has been given me. And yet I feel that this is the most glorious moment of my life. What I do is done for my beloved country. No sacrifice can be too great. The afternoon of the battle, Aguinaldo received the fatal news. All the members of the Aguinaldo parry, said one of the soldiers in his diary, said bitter tears and all wanted to fight the Americans. The capture o Aguinaldo.With the Philippines army bereft of its leader and symbol, many Filipino soldiers and officers found it convenient to surrender to the enemy. At the same time, the Americans conducted an intensive campaign of propaganda to win over the Filipinos to their side. They used the members of the Filipino middle and upper classesCayetano Arallano, Pedro A. Paterno, Felipe Buencamino, Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, Gregorio Araneta, and othersto campaign for peaceful existence under the Americans. Dutifully, the Filipino collaborators, tired of carnage and disturbance and wanting to continue their exalted position under the American regime, appealed to the guerrillas to give up their arms and live peacefully under the guerrillas to give up their arms and live peacefully under the blessings of America. Pardo de Tavera, in particular, founded the newspaper La Democracia whose policy was based on what he termed the fraternal feelings which the president of the United States and the American people have toward them [the Filipinos].

While the American peace offensives were going on, Colonel Frederick Funston, stationed in Nueva Ecija, was planning the capture of Aguinaldo. His men had earlier accepted the surrender of Cecilio Segismundo, Aguinaldos messenger, and knowing that the road to Palawan was fraught with danger, Funston employed some Macabebes and two former officers in the Filipino army, Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Talplacido, to help put his plan into execution. With the reluctant blessing of General MacArthur, Funston and his co-conspirators sailed to Palanan on the American warship Vicksburg. Funston ordered the forging of the signature of General Urbano Lacuna, to whom Aguinaldo wrote an order to send reinforcement to Palanan, and made it appear that Lacuna was sending the needed reinforcements to Aguinaldo. After days of hardships, Funston and his American companions, pretending, to be captives of the Macabebes, arrived at Palanan on March 23, 1901. Aguinaldo and his men meet the Filipinos joyfully and even gave them food and shelter. Without any warning, the Macabebes turned against their countrymen, and Tal Placido, grabbed Aguinaldo from behind. The firing, however unnerved Tal Placido, who promptly fell on his stomach. Segovia began firing like a mad man, and Colonel Simeon villa, fearing for Aguinaldos life, shielded him from the bullets. Aguinaldo who had by now whipped his pistod, wanted to fight back, but Dr. Santiago Barcelona held him by the arms, saying: my general, you owe it to our people to live and continue fighting for freedom. Funston and his American companions entered the room and arrested Aguinaldo in the name of the United States Government. He was brought to manila and on April 1, he took his oath of allegiance to the United States. In a proclamation he issued on April 19, he appealed to all Filipinos to accept the sovereignty of the United States Barbarous Acts.War has always been uncivilized, and although its weapons have vastly improved with the advance of science, its techniques have not changed radically from those of less civilized ages. In most all cases, brutality as an instrument to weaken an enemys resistance is practiced on both sides of the fence. The Filipino-American war was not exception, particularly because combatants belonged to two different races and civilizations. In judging Filipino brutality, however, one must remember that the Filipinos, having been the victims of American apostasy and imperialistic designs disguised as benevolent and altruistic, having little to answer for their behavior towards the Americans, for they considered the latter not only as traitors to their cause, but also as interlopers and an obstacle to their legitimate desire for freedom and independence. This is not to justify Filipino brutality committed as a defensive measure but simply to explain why the Filipinos had

to be brutal to the Americans who came to the Philippines purportedly to help them win their independence from Spain, but who actually had imperialistic designs on their country. The sources of a knowledge of these brutalities came from Filipino participants and eye-witnesses and from the Americans themselves who, in a moment of moral agony, divulged the details and particulars of American brutalities in letters to their parents and friends and in testimonies before American investigating bodies. When the American military found to their discomfiture the Filipinos were a stubborn people, they resorted to extreme measures to soften the Filipinos will to fight. Said an author: Some of them [Americans] resorted to tortured the likes of which had not been witnessed in the Philippines before. The cruelty of some Americans came to the knowledge of the American public through articles and letters written by soldiers who had seen such brutalities perpetrated upon the Filipinos. One such article appeared in Philadelphia, January 2, 1902, alleging that the American soldiers and their stooges, the Macabebe scouts, used the water cure consisted in forcing a man to lie flat on his back, his mout h forced open by a stick or bayonet and, in some instances, a cartridge case. Then water, usually salty or dirty, was poured into his mouth until his stomach was distended. The water was then disgorged from the stomach by making a chair of it for the soldiers to sit on. The process was repeated until the victim shouted, Hold, enough! There was variety in the mode of torture. Less common was the rope cure in which a long piece of rope was wrapped around the neck and torso of the victim. A stick was placed between the coils of rope and slowly twisted to give the effect of a garrote. Sometimes, beating up a victim was resorted to until he become blue in the face. Two American officers, Lt. Alva Perkins and Capt. George Brandle, were charged with and tried for willfully and cruelly causing six Filipinos to be hung by the neck for a period of ten seconds, causing them to suffer bodily pains. They were found guilty and reprimanded for their sadistic efforts. In their desperation, the American soldiers turned arsonistsburning whole towns in order to force the guerrillas to the open. One such infamous case of extreme barbarity occurred in the town of Balangiga, Samar, in 19011902. Balangiga was a peaceful little port off the southern tip of Samar, but it

was garrisoned by Americans who could not pinpoint the nerve-center of guerrilla activities in the town. Many American soldiers who garrisoned the town were veterans of the Boxer Rebellion and had participated in the capture of Peking. The American soldiers were busy one morning taking their breakfast when suddenly they were attacked by Filipinos in their employ. The church bells rang, and soon about 180 Filipinos fell upon the Americans many of whom were killed instantly. The order Americans who tried to escape were boloed to death, while others were hacked from the nose to the throat. The news of the guerrilla attack gave rise to pain cries throughout the United States and so president Theodore Roosevelt gave orders to pacify Samar. Assigned to the task was General Jake Smith. I want no prisoners, he said firmly. I wish you to kill and burn ; the more you burn and kill the better it will please me. Forthwith he ordered that Samar be transformed into a howling wilderness. Orders were also issue to shoot down anybody capable of carrying arms. By capable of carrying arms, General Smith meant to include even boys ten years old, for the latter could carry rifles and swing bolos. In six months, Balangiga became a howling wilderness. Barbarity with whic h General Smith subdued the people of Samar touched the conscience of the American people. After the end of the bloody campaign, Smith was courtmartialed and retired from the service. Lieutenant Bissell Thomas of the 35th Infantry was convicted of striking prisoners, one of whom was lying on the ground and bleeding from the mouth. The officer was reprimanded and fined three hundred dollars. Just before Mr. Root took office, Robert Collins of the associated Press was permitted to cable: There has been, according to Otis himself and the personal knowledge of everyone here, a perfect orgy of looting and wanton destruction of property. Private Jones of the 11th Cavalry wrote that his troop, upon encountering a wedding party, fired into the throng, killing the bride and two children. A captain and lieutenant of the 27 th Regiment were tried for hanging six Filipinos by their necks for ten seconds, causing them to suffer great bodily pain. After the words were changed to mental anguish, the officers were found guilty and sentenced to reprimands. In April the majors of San Miguel and San Nicolas were beaten to death by rattan rods. The episode leaked out when two officers of the American regiment reported it to the governor and to General

Young. And in its July 26 issue the New York World carried the story: our soldiers here and there resort to horrible measures with the natives. Captains and lieutenants are sometimes judges, sheriffs and executioners.. I dont want any more prisoners sent to Manila, was the verbal order from the Governor-General three months ago.. It is now the custom to avenge the death of an American soldier by burning to the ground all the houses, and killing right and left the natives who are suspects. Brutality, however, was not an American monopoly. The Filipinos, too, fighting with their back to the wall to preserve what was legitimately their own, equaled and, in some cases, exceeded the American sergeants penchant for blood. Said the Filipino author already mentioned: The guerrillas, in violation of Aguinaldos orders and circulars, treated captured Americans with the barbaric cruelty. Noses and ears were lopped off and the bleeding wounds seasoned with salt. In some cases, American prisoners were buried alive. Kicking, slapping, spitting at the faces of American prisoners were common, the hatred of the Americans being such that the guerrillas forgot or conveniently forgot Aguinaldos injunctions regarding the good treatment to be accorded the prisoners. Thus the brutality of the conqueror or, as an old veteran of the Revolution called, the interloper, was matched by Filipino brutality. End of the Resistance.through thousands of Filipino soldiers surrendered as a result of the American peace propaganda and their brutal treatment of captured guerrillas, some military commanders refused to lay down their arms. General Miguel Malvar took over the leadership of the Filipino Government or what remained of it and harassed the Americans by his guerrilla tactics. In Samar, General Vicente Lukban resorted to ambushing American soldiers and withdrawing after killing or wounding them. Angered at this tactic, General Jacob Smith ordered the massacre of all men and children bellow ten years, with the result that the province become a howling wilderness. But the relentless campaign of the Americans led to the capture of Lucban on February 27, 1902. With his capture the resistance in Samar collapsed. Two months later, on April 16, General Malvar of Batangas surrendered to the enemy. The resistance movement now completely

collapsed. It is true that some patriotic Filipinos, led by Macario Sacay, continued the resistance and even established a Tagalog Republic with headquarter in the Sierra Madre near Manila, but his resistance was not serious enough to endanger the American rule. The capture of Aguinaldo ended an era and, at the same time, opened another. Behind him, Aguinaldo left the ashes of a past that became embedded in the memory as the fanatical struggle of an enslaved people to win freedom and independence through blood and tears.