Endangered Ecosystem

Name : Siti Farahnasihah binti Abdullah Class : 408

1.0
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT ENDANGER AN ECOSYSTEM

1.1 THE IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE ECOSYSTEM

Deforestation

Trees are one of the most important aspects of the planet we live in. Trees are vitally important to the environment, animals, and of course for us humans. They are important for the climate of the Earth, they act as filters of carbon dioxide, they are habitats and shelters to millions of species, and they are also important for their aesthetic appeal. However, the trees on our planet are being depleted at a very fast rate. According to some estimates, more than 50 percent of the tree cover has disappeared due to human activity. Although humans have been practicing deforestation since ages, it was in the mid-1800s that forests began to be destroyed at an unprecedented rate. As a matter of fact, throughout the earlier part of the medieval age, Europeans used to live amongst vast areas of forested land. But later, they began deforestation at such a high rate that they started to run out of wood for cooking and heating. Also, due to the depletion of their natural habitat, wild game too began disappearing, which the Europeans largely depended upon for their nutritional requirements. Today, parallels can clearly be observed in the deforestation that is occurring in most developing countries. One of the most worrying factors today is the massive destruction of the rainforests of the world, which is affecting the biodiversity adversely, as well as being one of th e major contributory factors of the Holocene mass extinction that is on going.

What are the Causes of Deforestation?

1) Used for Urban and Construction Purposes: The cutting down of trees for lumber that is used for building materials, furniture, and paper products. Forests are also cleared in order to accommodate expanding urban areas. 2) To Grow Crops:Forests are also cut down in order to clear land for growing crops. 3) To Create Grazing Land: Forests are cut down in order create land for grazing cattle. 4) Used for Fuel: Trees are cut down in developing countries to be used as firewood or turned into charcoal, which are used for cooking and heating purposes.

What are the Effects of Deforestation?

1) Erosion of Soil: When forest areas are cleared, it results in exposing the soil to the sun, making it very dry and eventually, infertile, due to volatile nutrients such as nitrogen being lost. In addition, when there is rainfall, it washes away the rest of the nutrients, which flow with the rainwater into waterways. Because of this, merely replanting trees may not help in solving the problems caused by deforestation, for by the time the trees mature, the soil will be totally devoid of essential nutrients. Ultimately, cultivation in this land will also become impossible, resulting in the land becoming useless. Large tracts of land will be rendered permanently impoverished due to soil erosion. 2) Disruption of the Water Cycle: Trees contribute in a large way in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots, which is then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for instance, remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. 3) Loss of Biodiversity: The unique biodiversity of various geographical areas is being lost on a scale that is quite unprecedented. Even though tropical rainforests make up just 6 percent of the surface area of the Earth, about 80-90 percent of the entire species of the world exist here. Due to massive deforestation, about 50 to 100 species of animals are being lost each day. The outcome of which is the extinction of animals and plants on a massive scale. 4) Flooding and Drought: One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood and then drought in the affected area. Climate Change: It is well known that global warming is being caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, what is not known quite as well is that deforestation has a direction association with carbon

dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Trees act as a major storage depot for carbon, since they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is then used to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that make up trees. When deforestation occurs, many of the trees are burnt or they are allowed to rot, which results in releasing the carbon that is stored in them as carbon dioxide. This, in turn, leads to greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The effects of these pollutants are: 1) They are usually greenhouse gases, and contribute towards Greenhouse Effect. Greenhouse Effect is necessary for life, but because the quantity of greenhouse gases has increased significantly, it is causing a rise in temperature on the Earth's surface (Global Warming), which again has many other effects. 2) Many of these gases have adverse effects on human health and may cause pulmonary or non-pulmonary diseases. A very common one is asthma, and many people have been fighting this all over the world, including me. Lead, which used to be a component of petrol quite some time back inhibits mental development. Thankfully, almost all the countries have banned petrol with lead and unleaded petrol and diesel have taken it's place. 3) Sometimes, the gases alone are not very harmful but when they are mixed, their potency increases significantly. This effect is known as 'Cocktail Effect'. Like a cocktail is more appealing than just simple beverage (although, some may disagree) these gases in combination are much more harmful than they are alone. Sulphur dioxide exhibits this property, although it is still harmful when not in a 'cocktail'. These are only a few of the effects of burning fossil fuels, actually there are so many reasons that one could come up with, but these three are the main effects of burning of fossil fuels.

Overuse of Fertilizers in Intensive Farming

1) Root Burn : Root burn is a condition in which the roots of plants suffer damage from the overuse of fertilizers. According to Optimara/Holtkamp Greenhouses, low-quality fertilizers often contain Urea, which is a source of nitrogen. It is not organic and some plant roots are sensitive to it. But over fertilizing with high-quality fertilizers can also lead to root burn due to an overabundance of soluble salts in the soil. The salts essentially burn the roots, and even sometimes the foliage. Plants that suffer from root burn become stunted, wilted and are often unable to flower. In severe cases of root burn, the roots may not be able to carry any water to the plant. 2) Environmental Issues: Excessive fertilizer that washes into storm drains eventually makes its way into bodies of water, such as rivers and lakes, causing pollution. Although the environmental impact is considerably larger from the overuse of fertilizers on farms -- simply due to the amount they use -- it's also a problem from fertilizer use in home gardens. The misuse of fertilizer often has negative effects on fish and other aquatic animals. Algae feed off of the nutrients in fertilizers, using up oxygen that fish and other animals need. Additionally, ammonia released by fertilizer is harmful to fish. 3) Diminished Plant Health: While the addition of nutrients found in fertilizer increases plant growth, too much fertilizer can negatively affect their health. For example, according to the University of Georgia Extension, over fertilizing rabbiteye blueberries results in lower quality fruit. While Washington State University reports that over fertilizing sunflowers can cause weak stems and fewer flowers. 4) Pests and Diseases: Plants that produce greener, more lush leaves because of over fertilization may attract more pests, according to licensed arborist Dennis Panu. The increased vigor of the foliage can attract unwanted insects, such as aphids, which feed on the leaves. The University of Georgia reports that too much fertilizer on turfgrass can increase the likelihood that the grass will develop brown patch, a type of fungus

Dumping of Domestic Waste and Industrial Waste

1) Wildlife: Perhaps one of the greatest concerns to environmentalists today is that of
our wildlife. Improper dumping pollutes their natural habitats and can lead to the death of fish, birds and small animals. Some of the trash we dispose of is toxic if consumed by animals, and if these toxic wastes end up in water bodies, it becomes dangerous to aquatic life.

2) Human Injury: Broken glass on sidewalks and roads has long been a significant
hazard for children. A study in Philadelphia revealed that 15% of children under the age of 18 treated in a hospital emergency room for lacerations were injured by broken glass. Other ways people can be injured from trash include stepping on nails and cutting yourself on sharp, rusty metal.

3) Diseases: Certain types of solid waste like broken bottles, cups and plastic bags do
a good job attracting mosquitoes. They give mosquitoes the perfect breeding ground whenever it rains. Did you know that mosquitoes are the most dangerous creature on earth? They are responsible for more than 300 million cases of malaria each year, and between 1 and 3 million deaths due to malaria.

4) Drainage: When you get the chance, ask a civil engineer about the importance of
proper drainage and flood management in populated areas. Theyd probably have some interesting stories to tell. When solid wastes are dumped into gutters, ditches or sewers, it can cause blockages to the citys drainage and sewage system.

5) Ugly Scenario: Improper domestic waste management is evident in most areas

because of the unsightly appearance of trash. In places where this is a major problem there is little to no tourism because of the ugliness.

6) Wastage of Land Space: Large scale illegal dumping can create a space where
nobody wants to live or use for a constructive purpose like farming.

2.0 Pollution

2.1 Air Pollution

The Pollutants, Sources and Effects

Pollutant Particles (API) - Air Particle Index Source

Internal combustion engines (eg, cars and trucks); Industry (eg, factories); Burning wood; Cigarette smoke; and Bushfires.

Human Health Effects Long term exposure is linked to:

Lung Cancer; Heart Disease; Lung Disease; Asthma Attacks; and Other health problems.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Motor Vehicles are the biggest contributors; Other combustion processes;

Exposure to high levels of NO2 may lead to:

Lung damage; or Respiratory Disease.

It has also been linked to:

Ozone (O3) Formed by various complex chemical reactions involving the exposure of the oxides of nitrogen and some hydro-carbons. Ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog in summer and early autumn.

Increased hospital admissions for asthma and respiratory problems; Increased mortality.

Ozone effects the

lining of the lungs; lining of the respiratory tract; and causes eye irritation.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Motor vehicle exhaust and burning of materials such as coal, oil and wood. It is also released from industrial processes and waste incineration

Ozone also damages plants, buildings and other materials. When inhaled Carbon Monoxide enters the bloodstream and disrupts the supply of oxygen to the bodys tissues. A range of health effects may result depending on the extent of exposure. Lead retards learning in children and the development of their nervous system; Lead effects almost every organ in the body, whether it is inhaled or ingested. Young children are particularly susceptible;

Lead (Pb)

Is largely derived from the combustion of lead additives in motor fuels as well as lead smelting. Lead pollution from vehicle emissions is declining due to the introduction of unleaded fuels and reductions in lead levels in leaded fuel. Other atmospheric sources of lead include waste incineration and renovation of old houses (from leaded paint). Most fuel combustion processes result in the release of hydro carbons to the environment. The largest fuel sources are natural gas and petrol. Note that hydrocarbons can enter the environment both as evaporative emissions from vehicle fuel systems, or in exhaust emissions. They are also a component of the smoke from wood fires.

Hydro-carbons (HC) - chemical compounds composed of Hydrogen and Carbon atoms

Exposure can cause headaches or nausea, while some compounds may cause cancer. Some may also damage plants.

Solutions
On the road
1. Walk or ride a bike when possible. 2. Take public transportation. 3. Organize and condense errands into one trip. 4. When driving, accelerate gradually and obey the speed limit. 5. Drive less, particularly on days with unhealthy air. 6. Maintain your vehicle and keep your tires properly inflated. 7. Support the Smog Check Program. 8. Report smoking vehicles to 1-800-END-SMOG. 9. Travel lightly and remove any unnecessary items that may weigh down your vehicle. 10. Limit idling your vehicle to no more than 30 seconds. 11. When in the market for a new car, look for the most efficient, lowest-polluting vehicle or even a zero-emission electric car.

At home
12. Turn the lights off when you leave a room. 13. Replace energy-hungry incandescent lights with compact florescent light bulbs. 14. Ask your energy supplier for a home audit and inquire about alternative energy solutions like solar or wind. 15. Opt for a fan instead of air conditioning. 16. Use a programmable thermostat and set it to 78F in the summer and 68F in the winter. 17. Install low-flow shower heads. 18. Recycle paper, plastic, metals and organic materials. 19. Use an EPA-approved wood burning stove or fireplace insert. 20. Dont use your wood stove or fireplace on days with unhealthy air. 21. Dont heat your home with a gas stove. 22. Use a surge protector for multiple appliances and turn it off when products are not in use.23. Add insulation to your home. 24. Wash laundry in cold water and line dry. 25. When ready to replace, look for energy star appliances. 26. Use a propane or natural gas barbecue rather than a charcoal one. 27. Microwave or use a toaster oven for small meals. 28. Have your gas appliances and heater regularly inspected and maintained. 29. Use washable dishes, utensils and fabric napkins rather than disposable dinnerware.

30. Choose products that use recycled materials. 31. Eat locally, shop at farmers markets and buy organic products. 32. Buy products from sustainable sources such as bamboo and hemp. 33. Use durable reusable grocery bags and keep them in your car so youre never caught off guard. 34. Paint with a brush instead of a sprayer. 35. Store all solvents in airtight containers. 36. Use an electric or push lawn mower. 37. Use a rake or broom instead of a leaf blower. 38. Use water-based cleaning products that are labeled zero VOC. 39. Insulate your water heater and any accessible hot water pipes. 40. Eliminate use of toxic chemicals at home; opt for natural substitutes. 41. Plant a tree! They filter the air and provide shade. 42. Let your elected representatives know you support action for cleaner air.

At Work
43. Carpool. 44. Telecommute. 45. Start a recycling program. 46. Print and photocopy on both sides of paper. 47. Bring your lunch to work to avoid mid-day outings. 48. Turn off office equipment, computers, printers, and fax machines, after hours. 49. Harness the power of the sun: open the blinds and turn off the lights. 50. Dress for the weather and adjust layers before adjusting the thermostat.

The Formation of Acid Rain

The Sources Sulphur Dioxide: Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, prudent gas released as a by-product of combusted
fossil fuels containing sulfur. A variety of industrial processes, such as the production of iron and steel, utility factories, and crude oil processing produce this gas. In iron and steel production, the smelting of metal sulfate ore, produces pure metal. This causes the release of sulfur dioxide. Metals such as zinc, nickel, and copper are commonly obtained by this process. Sulfur dioxide can also be emitted into the atmosphere by natural disasters or means. This ten percent of all sulfur dioxide emission comes from volcanoes, sea spray, plankton, and rotting vegetation. Overall, 69.4 percent of sulfur dioxide is produced by industrial combustion. Only 3.7 percent is caused by transportation

Oxides of Nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen is a term used to describe any compound of nitrogen with
any amount of oxygen atoms. Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are all oxides of nitrogen. These gases are by-products of firing processes of extreme high temperatures (automobiles, utility plants), and in chemical industries (fertilizer production). Natural processes such as bacterial action in soil, forest fires, volcanic action, and lightning make up five percent of nitrogen oxide emission. Transportation makes up 43 percent, and 32 percent belongs to industrial combustion Nitrogen Oxide: Nitrogen oxide is a dangerous gas by itself. This gas attacks the membranes of the respiratory organs and increases the likelihood of respiratory illness. It also contributes to ozone damage, and forms smog. Nitrogen oxide can spread far from the location it was originated by acid rain.

Effects of Acid Rain

Soil
In soil, acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients needed by plants. It can also dissolve toxic substances, such as aluminum and mercury, which are naturally present in some soils, freeing these toxins to pollute water or to poison plants that absorb them. Some soils are quite alkaline and can neutralize acid deposition indefinitely; others, especially thin mountain soils derived from granite or gneiss, buffer acid only briefly.

Trees
By removing useful nutrients from the soil, acid rain slows the growth of plants, especially trees. It also attacks trees more directly by eating holes in the waxy coating of leaves and needles, causing brown dead spots. If many such spots form, a tree loses some of its ability to make food through photosynthesis. Also, organisms that cause disease can infect the tree through its injured leaves. Once weakened, trees are more vulnerable to other stresses, such as insect infestations, drought, and cold temperatures. Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations, where the trees literally touch the acid clouds, seem to be most at risk. Acid rain has been blamed for the decline of spruce forests on the highest ridges of theAppalachian Mountains in the eastern United States. In the Black Forest of southwestern Germany, half of the trees are damaged from acid rain and other forms of pollution.

Agriculture
Most farm crops are less affected by acid rain than are forests. The deep soils of many farm regions, such as those in the Midwestern United States, can absorb and neutralize large amounts of acid. Mountain farms are more at riskthe thin soils in these higher elevations cannot neutralize so much acid. Farmers can prevent acid rain damage by monitoring the condition of the soil and, when necessary, adding crushed limestone to the soil to neutralize acid. If excessive amounts of nutrients have been leached out of the soil, farmers can replace them by adding nutrient-rich fertilizer.

Surface of Water
Acid rain falls into and drains into streams, lakes, and marshes. Where there is snow cover in winter, local waters grow suddenly more acidic when the snow melts in the spring. Most natural waters are close to chemically neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline: their pH is between 6 and 8. In the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, the water in some lakes now has a pH value of less than 5 as a result of acid rain. This means they are at least ten times more acidic than they should be. In the Adirondack Mountains of New York State, a quarter of the lakes and ponds are acidic, and many have lost their brook trout and other fish. In the middle Appalachian Mountains, over 1,300 streams are afflicted. All of Norways major rivers have been damaged by acid rain, severely reducing salmon and trout populations.

Plants and Animals

The effects of acid rain on wildlife can be far-reaching. If a population of one plant or animal is adversely affected by acid rain, animals that feed on that organism may also suffer. Ultimately, an entire ecosystem may become endangered. Some species that live in water are very sensitive to acidity, some less so. Freshwater clams and mayfly young, for instance, begin dying when the water pH reaches 6.0. Frogs can generally survive more acidic water, but if their supply of mayflies is destroyed by acid rain, frog populations may also decline. Fish eggs of most species stop hatching at a pH of 5.0. Below a pH of 4.5, water is nearly sterile, unable to support any wildlife. Land animals dependent on aquatic organisms are also affected. Scientists have found that populations of snails living in or near water polluted by acid rain are declining in some regions. In The Netherlands songbirds are finding fewer snails to eat. The eggs these birds lay have weakened shells because the birds are receiving less calcium from snail shells.

Human Made Structures

Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles damage buildings, statues, automobiles, and other structures made of stone, metal, or any other material exposed to weather for long periods. The corrosive damage can be expensive and, in cities with very historic buildings, tragic. Both the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, and the Taj Mahal in Agra, India, are deteriorating due to acid pollution.

Human Health
The acidification of surface waters causes little direct harm to people. It is safe to swim in even the most acidified lakes. However, toxic substances leached from soil can pollute local water supplies. In Sweden, as many as 10,000 lakes have been polluted by mercury released from soils damaged by acid rain, and residents have been warned to avoid eating fish caught in these lakes. In the air, acids join with other chemicals to produce urban smog, which can irritate the lungs and make breathing difficult, especially for people who already have asthma, bronchitis, or other respiratory diseases. Solid particles of sulfates, a class of minerals derived from sulfur dioxide, are thought to be especially damaging to the lungs.

Acid Rain and Global Warming

Acid pollution has one surprising effect that may be beneficial. Sulfates in the upper atmosphere reflect some sunlight out into space, and thus tend to slow down global warming. Scientists believe that acid pollution may have delayed the onset of warming by several decades in the middle of the 20th century.

Solutions for Acid Rain

Progress in Controlling Emissions:
Some progress has already been made in slowing the emission of sulfur oxides. These decreases are the result of the 1975 Clean Air Act and and the 1990 Amendments. In the Northeast there has been a steady decrease in the sulfate content of the air and rain. The rate of acidifying lakes has also slowed as well. To actually reverse the trend, the amount of acid rain will have to be reduced much further. Some scientist think that at least of 50 % reduction is required.

Use Low Sulfur Coal:

The amount of sulfur oxides emitted by a power plant can be reduced by burning coal with a very low percentage of sulfur present. Low sulfur coal (0-1% sulfur) is surface mined in the Western states of Wyoming and Montana. Transportation costs are much higher. High sulfur coal (2-4% sulfur) is currently mined in the Midwestern states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky. If a complete switch to low sulfur coal is made, many coal miners will lose jobs.

Use Scrubbers:
Scrubbers remove 80-95 percent of the sulfur oxides. Certain types do not remove nitrogen oxides. They are costly to retrofit to existing power plants. They increase the electric generating costs by 10-15 %. Graphic on left. Scrubbers are like "liquid" filters for the gases resulting from combustion. The exhaust gases are forced through a spray of water containing lime (calcium hydroxide). The sulfur dioxide gas reacts with the lime to produce a solid of calcium sulfate. Graphic on lower left. The sulfur dioxide gas reacts with the lime to produce a solid of calcium sulfate. There are then problems in getting rid of the liquid sludge that is produced. Here it is pumped into a pond for temporary storage. Graphic below.

Fluidized Bed Combustion:

In the system known as atmospheric fluidized-bed combustion, a turbulent bed of pulverized coal and limestone is suspended by an upward blast of air. The combustion chamber has many boiler tubes which convert water into steam. The turbulent mixing of coal and air allows the combustion to occur at a lower temperature which reduces the formation of nitrogen oxides. The limestone captures the sulfur oxides by converting them to calcium sulfate which is a solid rather than a gas. This process also burns the coal more efficiently by about 5 %. This process removes 90 % of the sulfur oxides and 15-35 % of the nitrogen oxides.

Limestone Injection - Multistage Burner

Limestone injection multiple burning is still in the development and testing stages. Crushed limestone is injected into a boiler burning powdered coal at lower than normal temperatures. The limestone combines with sulfur dioxide to produce a solid ash (mostly gypsum, calcium sulfate). This process removes 70 % of both sulfur and nitrogen oxides.

2.2 Water Pollution

The Pollutants
Industrial waste Industries cause huge water pollution with their activities. These come mainly from:
1) Sulphur This is a non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.

2) Asbestos This pollutant has cancer-causing properties. When inhaled, it can cause illnesses

such as asbestosis and many types of cancer.

3) Lead and Mecury These are metallic elements and can cause environmental and health

problems for humans and animals. It is even more poisonous. It is usually very hard to clean it up from the environment once it get into it because it in non-biodegradable.
4) Nitrates & Phosphates These are found in fertilizers, are often washed from the soils to

nearby water bodies. They can cause eutrophication, which can be very problematic to marine environments.
5) Oils Oils forms a thick layer on the water surface because they do not dissolve in water. This

can stop marine plants receiving enough light for photosynthesis. It is also harmful for fish and marine birds. A classic example is the BP oil spill in 2012 with killed thousands of animal species.

6)Sewage and waste water Everyday, we cook, do laundry, flush the toilet, wash our cars, shower and do many things that use water. Think about how we use water in schools, hospitals and public places.

Sources of Water Pollution

1) Farming:

Farms often use large amounts of herbicides and pesticides, both of which are toxic pollutants. These substances are particularly dangerous to life in rivers, streams and lakes, where toxic substances can build up over a period of time. Farms also frequently use large amounts of chemical fertilizers that are washed into the waterways and damage the water supply and the life within it. Fertilizers can increase the amounts of nitrates and phosphates in the water, which can lead to the process of eutrophication. Allowing livestock to graze near water sources often results in organic waste products being washed into the waterways. This sudden introduction of organic material increaces the amount of nitrogen in the water, and can also lead to eutrophication. Four hundred million tons of soil are carried by the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico each year. A great deal of this siltation is due to runoff from the exposed soil of agricultural fields. Excessive amounts of sediment in waterways can block sunlight, preventing aquatic plants from photosynthesizing, and can suffocate fish by clogging their gills.

2) Business:

Clearing of land can lead to erosion of soil into the river. Waste and sewage generated by industry can get into the water supply, introducing large organic pollutants into the ecosystem. Many industrial and power plants use rivers, streams and lakes to despose of waste heat. The resulting hot water can cause thermal pollution. Thermal pollution can have a disasterous effect on life in an aquatic ecosystem as temperature increaces decreace the amount of oxygen in the water, thereby reducing the number of animals that can survive there. Water can become contaminated with toxic or radioactive materials from industry, mine sites and abandoned hazardous waste sites. Acid precipitation is caused when the burning of fossil fuels emits sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. The sulfur dioxide reacts with the water in the atmosphere, creating rainfall which contains sulfuric acid. As acid precipitation falls into lakes, streams and

ponds it can lower the overall pH of the waterway, killing vital plant life, thereby affecting the whole food chain. It can also leach heavy metals from the soil into the water, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. Because of this, air pollution is potentially one of the most threatening forms of pollution to aquatic ecosystems. 3) Homes:

Sewage generated by houses or runoff from septic tanks into nearby waterways, introduce organic pollutants that can cause eutrophication. Fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides used for lawn care can runoff and contaminate the waterway. As with agriculteral fertilizers, home fertilizers can lead to the eutrophication of lakes and rivers. Improper disposal of hazardous chemicals down the drain itroduce toxic materials into to the ecosystem, contaminating the water supplies in a way that can harm aquatic organisms. Leaks of oil and antifreeze from a car on a driveway can be washed off by the rain into nearby waterways, polluting it.

The Effects of Water Pollution

1) Death of aquatic (water) animals The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills life that depends on these water bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment). 2) Disruption of food-chains Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.

3) Diseases Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases such as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In many poor nations, there is always outbreak of cholera and diseases as a result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated waters. 4)Destruction of ecosystems Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on each other for life) can be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt humans in many ways.

The Solutions of Water Pollution

Enforce Existing Laws Our first solution to water pollution, therefore, is pretty simple tell your politicians to enforce existing laws.When a politician touts his new anti-pollution bill that he claims will clean up the environment, it means little if they continue to allow existing laws to go unenforced.Tell your politicians what you think. Encourage them to enforce existing laws such as the Clean Water Act.Beyond enforcing laws, there are some practical steps that we can take as individuals to limit the pollution in our neighborhoods and cities. Stop Nutrient and Pesticide Pollution If you are putting normal fertilizer, pesticides, and other chemicals on your lawn or in your gardens, you are contributing to the pollution problem.While you may find these products helpful, much of their volume is being washed off your lawn and into the nearest waterway. They also tend to degrade the quality of your soil, causing more and more reliance on the chemicals over time. Drive Less Nitrogen deposition from air pollution is a big part of the nutrient pollution problem. How much we drive, how large a vehicle we have, and many other factors contribute to how much pollution we are putting out individually.Be conscious of the emissions that your car spews out and keep your car well maintained. Think about leaning towards a hybrid or electric car if you drive a lot of miles every day.Use public transportation more often. Our government pays a lot of money to put these public systems in place.Driving less is something we can all do better at, and all of the relatively small differences each person makes will add up when summed across millions of drivers. Use Green Household and Personal Care Products As consumers and citizens we have an obligation to know what effect our consumer byproducts are having on the planet.Many of the chemicals found in our food, household cleaners, personal care products, and medications are all being dumped back into the waterways. These chemicals are NOT adequately filtered through municipal water treatment facilities.

Use Less Plastic and Dont Litter At the rate were going, the growing impact of plastic pollution on our oceans will be one of the big disaster stories of this century.Try to figure out ways you can use less plastic, especially plastic storage bags. This type of plastic is easy for wildlife to swallow and eventually causes death. Plastic factories also deliver much of the pollution that is not biodegradable.Simply say no to bottled water! I know it is convenient to drink bottled water, but the environmental impact of bottled water plastic is huge!Over 1.5 billion tons of plastic water bottles end up in U.S. landfills each year. It takes over 300 years for plastic to degrade.Up to 40 percent of all bottled waters are merely re-processed tap water.A much healthier and less expensive solution to bottled water is to invest in refillable glass water bottles or stainless steel water bottles and fill them with filtered drinking water.And last but not least, dont litter. Litter from land is carried into the oceans and beaches through wind and river. If you see someone elses litter, dont be shy or hesitant in picking it up either. Every little bit counts.

Process of Eutrophication
Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus in an ecosystem, and may occur on land or in water. However, the term is often used to mean the resultant increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Eutrophication is frequently a result of nutrient pollution such as the release of sewage effluent and run-off from fertilizers into natural waters although it may also occur naturally in situations where nutrients accumulate (e.g. depositional environments) or where they flow into systems on an ephemeral basis. Eutrophication generally promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favors certain weedy species over others, and is likely to cause severe reductions in water quality. In aquatic environments, enhanced growth of choking aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (that is, an algal bloom) disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen in the water, needed for fish and shellfish to survive. The water then becomes cloudy, coloured a shade of green, yellow, brown, or red. Human society is impacted as well: eutrophication decreases the resource value of rivers, lakes, and estuaries such that recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic enjoyment are hindered. Health-related problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking water treatment.

2.3 Thermal Pollution

Causes of Thermal Pollution

1) Industrial Effluents- Industries require cooling water for heat removal and cooling purposes. This heated water when discharged into the water system increases the temperature of water body. 2) Nuclear Power plants-Nuclear power plants emit large quantity of heat and traces of radioactive substances which increases the temperature of water bodies. 3) Coal- fired power plants- It is one of the major source of thermal pollution. 4) Domestic sewage-When the domestic sewage is disposed off into water bodies like river, lakes etc it increases the temperature of receiving water. 5) Radioactive waste- Dumping of radioactive waste in marine system increases the temperature when these substances radiate energy.

Effects of Thermal Pollution

The effects of thermal pollution include damage to larvae and eggs of fish in rivers where there is a limited tolerance for temperature change. The other effects are on the biodiversity of aquatic biomes due to killing off of some species that are not resistant to temperature change, which disrupts the balance of the food and light chains for plants, fish, bacteria, and microscopic life forms. Fish and macroinvertibrates are most susceptible to temperature changes, as they have the most limited tolerance for sudden excessive heat and cold. Heat affects the metabolic rate and enzymatic activity of aquatic animals, leading to more eating, which can upset the balance in food availability. Dissolved oxygen and other chemical changes to the structure of the water are another effect of heat thermal pollution. The heat tends to decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.Another effect is that living entities attempt to migrate when their environment is untenable. The increased migration of life forms to areas that had a perfect balance can create a fight for limited resources, once the population increases.

Ways to Prevent Thermal Pollution

1) Use Less Electricity
Generation of electric power uses the largest percentage of cooling water, thus reducing the amount of electricity that is used will reduce thermal pollution. Although there is an increasing number of power-generating plants, the amount of thermal pollution has not increased at the same rate because of improved efficiency of power plants and the increased use of hydropower. An increase in the use of nuclear power won't reduce the need for cooling waters since they also use cooling water.

2) Reduce Temperature and Volume of Discharge

Heated water can be cooled before releasing it, and less can be released to cause less damage. Unfortunately, the cheapest and easiest way to get cooling water is to withdraw it from a nearby body of water and then release it back into the body of water heated. The warmer temperature water lowers the oxygen content of the water, which increases the respiratory rates of aquatic organisms and weakens them so that they are more vulnerable to disease and death. Releasing the heated water near the shoreline doesn't lessen the problem since this may disrupt spawning and kill fish.

3) Store and Reuse Heated Water

It would reduce thermal pollution if those using cooling water were to empty the heated water into shallow ponds or canals, wait for it to cool and then reuse the water; land availability is a hindrance to this method, but this is the idea behind using cooling towers. A cooling tower is an efficient way to reduce thermal pollution because it transfers the heat from the water into the atmosphere. Cooling towers are wet or dry. The rejection of heat into a dry tower is evaporative and raises the relative humidity. According to the Cooling Technology Institute, the cooling potential of a wet surface is much better because there is less evaporative heat transferred into the atmosphere.

4) Discharge in Less Vulnerable Zones

Discharging in less vulnerable zones is not the best way to reduce thermal pollution. In the past scientists have called it thermal enrichment to release heated water, most scientist don't consider it enrichment at all and feel that addition to any zone causes thermal pollution. Certainly, however, there would be fewer fish and aquatic organisms killed by thermal shock if there were fewer fish and organisms in the area where the water is discharged.

2.4 Noise Pollution

Causes of Noise Pollution

Traffic noise is the main source of noise pollution caused in urban areas. With the ever-increasing number of vehicles on road, the sound caused by the cars and exhaust system of autos, trucks, buses and motorcycles is the chief reason for noise pollution. With the low flying military aircrafts soaring over the national parks, wasteland and other vacant areas, the level of noise pollution has drastically increased in these previously unaffected zones. People living beside railway stations put up with a lot of noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles and switching and shunting operation in rail yards. This is one of the major sources of noise pollution. To meet the demands of the basic necessity of living, the construction of buildings, highways and city streets causes a lot of noise. Pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks and pavement breakers are the major sources of noise pollution in construction sites. Though not a prime reason, industrial noise adds to the noise pollution. Machinery, motors and compressors used in the industries create a lot of noise which adds to the already detrimental state of noise pollution. Plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans create a lot of noise in the buildings and add to the prevailing noise pollution. Household equipments, such as vacuum cleaners, mixers and some kitchen appliances are noisemakers of the house. Though they do not cause too much of problem, their effect cannot be neglected.

Effects of Noise Pollution

Deafness, temporary or permanent, is one of the most prevalent effects of noise pollution. Mechanics, locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc all have their hearing impairment. The first and foremost effect of noise is a decrease in the efficiency in working. Research has proved the fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. Too much of noise disturbs the rhythms of working, thereby affecting the concentration required for doing a work. Noise of traffic or the loud speakers or different types of horns divert the attention, thus causing harm in the working standard. Fatigue caused is another effect of noise. Due to lack of concentration, people need to devote more time to complete their task, which leads to tiredness and fatigue. Noise pollution acts as a stress invigorator, increasing the stress levels among people. Sometimes, being surrounded by too much of noise, people can be victims of certain diseases like blood pressure, mental illness, etc. Noise pollution indirectly affects the vegetation. Plants require cool & peaceful environment to grow. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops. Animals are susceptible to noise pollution as well. It damages the nervous system of the animals. Noise indirectly weakens the edifice of buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves, which can be very dangerous and harmful and put the building in danger condition.

Ways to Prevent Noise Pollution

Do not use car horns unnecessarily. Areas like hospitals and campuses are silence zones and honking is prohibited there.

Avoid loud music, which hurts your ears and others' ears.

Firecrackers are extremely loud, so don't try and burn them unnecessarily.

Motors, machines and vehicles also produce loud noises when not maintained properly. Proper maintenance should be carried out for better performance.

If you are working in an area where there are loud noises, you must wear earplugs to prevent loss of hearing.

When going to theme parks and such, avoid riding on the rides which produce a lot of noise. One example is the ATV, which is like a huge motorbike.

Turn off the engine of your car or motorbike when you are not using it. It stops the annoying hum, and reduces air pollution!

Better off, walk or cycle to school! It does wonders to the environment, reduces the amount of air pollution and noise, and makes you fit!

3.0 The Green house Effect

The Greenhouse Gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2) : Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle. Methane (CH4) : Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Nitrous oxide (N2O) : Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste. Fluorinated gases : Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").

The Formation of Greenhouse Effect

Green house effect was formed from the accumulation of gases like C,methane,nitrous oxide,etc in the atmosphere and form a blanket coverage to the underneath earth.These gases have high capacity of trapiing or holding the out going long wave radiation.When this radiation is traped before escaping the lower atmosphere it increases the temprature of the earth environment.Increasing in environmental temprature causes melting of the polar ice,increasing in volum of the ocean and sea water,overflooding,unseasonal rainfall due to high evaporation and condensation in the atmosphere for areas far from ocean and sea...This inturn affect human settelement,animal life and habitate,crop production, transportation etc.From the mentioned gases nitrous oxide is the most dangrous in traping radiation (200x> CO2) and methane is the second(28).

The Sources
The man-made (or anthropogenic) component of the greenhouse effect is caused by mans activities that emit greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The most important of these is the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels contain carbon, and when they are burnt this carbon combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide. Changes in land use are also important sources of greenhouse gas emissions. For example deforestation results in the emission of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere that was previously stored on the Earths surface in the form of trees and other vegetation, or locked up in soils. We emit carbon dioxide to the atmosphere in enormous quantities because we burn so much fossil fuel and the changes in land use that we have implement are so widespread. This is why carbon dioxide is the most important gas in the man-made component of the greenhouse effect.

Combustion

Deforestation

The Greenhouse Effect

Global Warming
The term "global warming" refers to the increase in the average temperature of global surface air and oceans since about 1950, and to continuing increases in those temperatures.Another term for "global warming" is "climate change."Per the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace with Al Gore for landmark work on climate change:"The global surface temperature is an estimate of the global mean surface air temperature. However, for changes over time, only anomalies... are used, most commonly based on the area-weighted global average of the sea surface temperature anomaly and land surface air temperature anomaly."

The Effects of Global Warming

1) Rising Sea Level 2) Shrinking Glaciers 3) Heat Waves 4) Storms and Floods 5) Drought 6) Disease 7) Economic Consequences 8) Loss of Biodiversity 9) Destruction of Ecosystems

4.0 The Thinning of The Ozone Layer

The Causes of Ozone Depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion. Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners in buildings and cars manufactured before 1995. Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital sterilants. Also used in foam products such as soft-foam padding (e.g. cushions and mattresses) and rigid foam (e.g. home insulation). Halons Used in some fire extinguishers, in cases where materials and equipment would be destroyed by water or other fire extinguisher chemicals. In B.C., halons cause greater damage to the ozone layer than do CFCs from automobile air conditioners. Methyl Chloroform Used mainly in industry for vapour degreasing, some aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives and chemical processing. Carbon Tetrachloride Used in solvents and some fire extinguishers. Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs) HCFCs have become major, transitional substitutes for CFCs. They are much less harmful to stratospheric ozone than CFCs are. But HCFCs they still cause some ozone destruction and are potent greenhouse gases.

The Effects of Ozone Depletion

Harm to human health: More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin. More cataracts, blindness and other eye diseases: UV radiation can damage

several parts of the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva. Cataracts (a clouding of the lens) are the major cause of blindness in the world. A sustained 10% thinning of the ozone layer is expected to result in almost two million new cases of cataracts per year, globally (Environment Canada, 1993). Weakening of the human immune system (immunosuppression). Early findings suggest that too much UV radiation can suppress the human immune system, which may play a role in the development of skin cancer.

Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and natural ecosystems: Several of the world's major crop species are particularly vulnerable to increased

UV, resulting in reduced growth, photosynthesis and flowering. These species include wheat, rice, barley, oats, corn, soybeans, peas, tomatoes, cucumbers, cauliflower, broccoli and carrots. The effect of ozone depletion on the Canadian agricultural sector could be significant. Only a few commercially important trees have been tested for UV (UV-B) sensitivity, but early results suggest that plant growth, especially in seedlings, is harmed by more intense UV radiation. In particular, plankton (tiny organisms in the surface layer of oceans) are threatened by increased UV radiation. Plankton are the first vital step in aquatic food chains. Decreases in plankton could disrupt the fresh and saltwater food chains, and lead to a species shift in Canadian waters. Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could reduce fish yields for commercial and sport fisheries.

Damage to marine life:

Animals: In domestic animals, UV overexposure may cause eye and skin cancers. Species

of marine animals in their developmental stage (e.g. young fish, shrimp larvae and crab larvae) have been threatened in recent years by the increased UV radiation under the Antarctic ozone hole.
Materials: Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by UV

radiation. The economic impact of replacing and/or protecting materials could be significant.

The Ways to Reduce Ozone Depletion

1. Limit private vehicle driving A very easy way to control ozone depletion would be to limit or reduce the amount of driving as vehicular emissions eventually result in smog which is a culprit in the deterioration of the ozone layer. Car pooling, taking public transport, walking, using a bicycle would limit the usage of individual transportation. It would be a great option to switch to cars/vehicles that have a hybrid or electric zero-emission engine. 2. Use eco-friendly household cleaning products Usage of eco-friendly and natural cleaning products for household chores is a great way to prevent ozone depletion. This is because many of these cleaning agents contain toxic chemicals that interfere with the ozone layer. A lot of supermarkets and health stores sell cleaning products that are toxic-free and made out of natural ingredients. 3. Avoid using pesticides Pesticides may be an easy solution for getting rid of weed, but are harmful for the ozone layer. The best solution for this would be to try using natural remedies, rather than heading out for pesticides. You can perhaps try to weed manually or mow your garden consistently so as to avoid weed-growth. 4. Developing stringent regulations for rocket launches The world is progressing in scientific discoveries by leaps and bounds. A lot of rocket launches are happening the world over without consideration of the fact that it can damage the ozone layer if it is not regulated soon. A study shows that the harm caused by rocket launches would outpace the harm caused due to CFCs. At present, the global rocket launches do not contribute hugely to ozone layer depletion, but over the course of time, due to the advancement of the space industry, it will become a major contributor to ozone depletion. All types of rocket engines result in combustion by products that are ozonedestroying compounds that are expelled directly in the middle and upper stratosphere layer near the ozone layer. 5. Banning the use of dangerous nitrous oxide Due to the worldwide alarm caused by a study in the late 70s about the alarming rate at which the ozone was being depleted, nations around the globe got together and formed the Montreal Protocol in the year 1989 with a strong aim to stop the usage of CFCs. However, the protocol did not include nitrous oxide which is the most fatal chemical that can destroy the ozone layer and is still in use. Governments across the world should take a strong stand for banning the use of this harmful compound to save the ozone layer.

5.0 The Importance of Proper Management of Development Activities and the Ecosystem

5.1 Managing Development Activities to Ensure a Balanced Ecosystem

The Use of Renewable Energy

Biomass
Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in plants gets passed on to animals and people that eat them. We make biomass energy with wood fuels, alcohol fuels, trash, decaying crops and landfill gas. Even our trash can be used for energy! Scientists consider biomass a renewable energy source because we can always grow more trees and crops, and waste will always exist. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage.

Solar energy
The sun has produced energy for billions of years. Solar energy is the suns rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth. Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Today, people use the sun's energy for lots of things, including generating electricity on-campus at CU. Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

Photovoltaic (PV devices) or solar cells change sunlight directly into electricity. PV systems are often used in remote locations that are not connected to the electric grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators, and lighted road signs. Solar Power Plants - indirectly generate electricity when the heat from solar thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid which produces steam that is used to power generator.

Solar Panel

Wind energy
Wind is simple: air in motion. Caused by the uneven heating of the earths surface by the sun, wind is constantly moving. Since the earths surface is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the suns heat at different rates.

Like old fashioned windmills, todays wind machines use blades to collect the winds kinetic energy. As the blades turn, a generator inside the turbine creates clean electricity that can be added to the grid to power homes and businsses around the world. Historically windmills were used to mill grain. Now, they can make enough energy to power entire cities. The worlds largest wind turbine is now the Enercon E-126. This turbine has a rotor diameter of 126 meters (413 feet). This new turbine is officially rated at 6 megawatts, but will most likely produce 7+ megawatts (or 20 million kilowatt hours per year). Thats enough to power about 5,000 households of four in Europe. A quick US calculation would be 938 kWh per home per month, 12 months, thats 11,256 kWh per year per house. Thats 1776 American homes on one wind turbine. In 2006, wind machines in the United States generated a total of 26.6 billion kWh per year of electricity, enough to serve more than 2.4 million households. This is enough electricity to power a city larger than Los Angeles, but it is only a small fraction of the nation's total electricity production, about 0.4 percent. The amount of electricity generated from wind has been growing fast in recent years. In 2006, electricity generated from wind was 2.5 times more than wind generation in 2002.

Hydro energy
Through the use of large dams we are able to harness the power of rivers and moving water. Dams are good for two things, creating electricity and creating reservoirs for drinking water. Water passes through the bottom of the dam and the pressure from all the water in the reservoir turns turbines that generate electricity. We use hydropower specifically to create electricity. These dams do have their own drawbacks though. Impeeding the natural flow of a river causes widespread ecological damage, affecting the migration and habitat of countless aquatic species. The change in river flow can lead to serious problems with errosion and sediment depletion. Read about some of the impacts of dams on Colorado rivers in the LA Times article titled, Colorado river dams decimate native fish.

Hydroelectric station

Geotermal Energy
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. We can use the steam and hot water produced inside the earth to heat buildings or generate electricity. Because the water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth, geothermal energy is considered a renewable energy source.

Perkembangan Fizikal Remaja

NAMA: SITI FARAHNASIHAH BINTI ABDULLAH MRSM: MRSM PENGKALAN HULU

Perkembangan Fizikal
Zaman remaja adalah tempoh yang mana seorang individu dikelilingi oleh isu-isu seksual, iaitu keupayaan mengalami ataupun melahirkan perasaan seks. Perubahan kematangan seks dan perubahan hormon yang terlibat adalah asas bagi kematangan seks seorang remaja. Zaman remaja adalah masa mempelajari seks dengan tujuan mencari suatu identiti seks peribadi. Pada peringkat usia ini remaja mempunyai perasaan ingin tahu yang tinggi mengenai misteri alam seks. Pada peringkat ini remaja memikirkan sama ada mereka mempunyai daya tarikan seks, adakah perkembangan mereka berterusan, adakah mereka akan dicintai oleh seseorang dan adakah normal apabila mereka melakukan hubungan seks. Kebanyakan remaja akhirnya menunjukkan perkembangan seksual yang matang tetapi terdapat jangka masa yang mana hadirnya perasaan kekeliruan dan perasaan mudah dilukai sepanjang kehidupan seksual mereka. Mengikut seorang ahli psikologi Stanley Hall (1904) zaman remaja ialah jangka masa seseorang itu mengalami berbagai cabaran dan tekanan ( storm and stress ). Ini bermaksud remaja yang mengalami perubahan fizikal, intelek serta emosi dan terpaksa berhadapan dengan berbagai konflik di dalam dirinya dan juga masyarakat. Perkembangan fizikal remaja perlu diketahui bagi membantu memahami tentang sesetengah remaja yang lambat atau cepat dalam pekembangan mereka dan apakah kesan-kesan disebaliknya. Ketika ini remaja-remaja lelaki dan perempuan secara sedar atau tidak akan mengalami perubahan dari segi bentuk tubuh badan dan emosi. Perubahan-perubahan ini berlaku akibat tindakan hormon dalam bentuk badan. Kadar pembesaran dan perubahan zaman remaja adalah berbeza di antara remaja lelaki dan perempuan. Malah kadar pembesaran adalah berbeza di antara seorang individu dengan individu yang lain.

Kematangan Biologi
Pada awal alam keremajaan, remaja selalunya sibuk menyesuaikan diri dengan pertumbuhan yang berlaku pada tubuhnya. Kesedaran ke atas kejantinaan diri semakin bertambah. Ini sudah pasti memberi kesan kepada imej tubuh serta konsep kendiri. Pada usia beginilah dia terlalu prihatin dengan keadaan tubuhnya. Dia sering membezakan dirinya dengan rakan sebaya yang lain. Remaja yang cepat matang mempunyai beberapa kelebihan apabila dibandingkan dengan yang lambat matang. Mereka terlebih dahulu mengambil tempat dalam masyarakat remaja sementara mereka yang lambat matang perlu bersaing daripada sudut fizikal dan sosial bagi mendapat tempat yang istimewa dalam kelompok remaja.

Tingkah Laku Heteroseksual

Remaja zaman dahulu mempunyai sikap yang berbeza ke atas pelbagai aspek seksual berbanding dengan remaja zaman sekarang, terutamanya remaja perempuan. Sebuah kajian ke atas kelompok pelajar sebuah kolej di Amerika Syarikat di antara tahun 1900 dengan tahun 1980 menunjukkan peratusan orang muda yang melakukan hubungan seks meningkat; dan kadar pelajar perempuan yang melakukan hubungan seks meningkat lebih cepat dibandingkan dengan pelajar lelaki. Remaja perempuan belajar mengaitkan seks dengan cinta. Beberapa buah kajian di Barat menunjukkan bahawa cinta adalah faktor utama ramai remaja perempuan melakukan hubungan seks. Keinginan berkahwin dengan pasangan mereka juga wujud di kalangan pelajar wanita tetapi kurang bagi pelajar lelaki. Faktor-faktor lain adalah seperti desakan teman lelaki, perasaan ingin tahu dan keinginan seks yang tidak berkaitan dengan cinta.

Akil Baligh
Di akhir zaman kanak-kanak, satu siri perubahan biologi dan psikologi akan berlaku yang membawa mereka ke alam remaja. Alam remaja akan membawa mereka ke dalam kematangan sama ada dari segi fizikal, dan pemikiran mereka turut berubah serta turut berperanan dalam masyarakat. Baligh adalah merupakan perubahan biologi yang menandakan permulaan remaja. Ianya bermula apabila tahap hormon yang memasuki salran darah meningkat ekoran respon kepada isyarat daripada bahagian otak iaitu hipotalamus. Apabila tahap pertumbuhan hormon bertambaha dalam badan, lonjakan pertumbuhan kanak-kanak dengan tiba-tiba akan berlaku. Lonjakan ini merupakan tanda yang nyata tentang permulaan akhil baligh. Apabila ini berlaku perkara yang paling ketara semasa baligh adalah merupakan perkembangan permatangan seksual iaitu kebolehan pembiakan. Bagi remaja lelaki perubhan yang akan berlaku ialah suara menjadi garau, misai dan janggut mula tumbuh, bahu dan dada menjadi bidang, jerawat mula tumbuh, mengalami mimpi yang menghairahkan sehingga mengeluarkan air mani serta zakar dan buah zakar mula membesar. Pengalaman inilah menunjukkan remaja lelaki telah akil baligh. Bagi remaja perempuan pula perubahan yang akan dialami seperti buah dada (payudara) mula membesar, bulu tumbuh di celah ketiak dan bahagian ari-ari, Punggung melebar menunjukkan ciri-ciri kewanitaan, jerawat mula tumbuh, mula didatangi haid, suara mungkin berubah dari suara keanakanakan kepada suara yang lebih matang.

Teori dan Konsep

Menurut Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), akil baligh bermula pada usia 15 tahun atau mungkin lebih awal dari yang dianggarkan. Pada masa ini, kanak-kanak melalui peringkat kedua kelahiran, bentuk badan mula berubah dan keinginan muncul dari dalam, "Perubahan angin, kemarahan, perubahan fikiran, membuatkan mereka tidak dapat mengawal". Mula berasa segan atau malu apabila berhadapan dengan kehadiran orang yang berlainan jantina, mereka mula merasai perasaan seksual. Dengan kata lain mereka mula tertarik antara satu sama lain. Remaja juga mengalami perkembangan kognitif. Mereka sudah mampu menghadapi konsep yang lebih abstrak dan mula berminat dalam perkara-perkara yang melbatkan teori dalam pelajaran sains dan moral. Manakala Sigmund dan Anna Freud, awal remaja adalah peringkat yang paling bermasalah disebabkan perubahan dramatik psikologi yang berlaku pada masa ini. Dorongan seksual dan agresif, yang bukan semasa peringkat latensi, sekarang mengganggu ego dan daya tahannya. Zon genital, khasnya didorong tenaga seksual yang hebat, dan remaja ini sekali lagi dilanda fantasi oedipal. Remaja ini mungkin rasa susah atau tidak selesa apabila berada di kalangan ibu bapanya. Stanley Hall (1904) berpendapat perkembanagan seseorang individu ditentukan oleh naluri iaitu tenaga-tenaga biologi dan faktor genetik dan bukannya persekitaran. Beliau mengatakan zaman remaja sebagai zaman 'storm and stress' yang bersifat biologikal yang terhasil daripada perubahan-perubahan yang berlaku semasa baligh yang tidak dapat dielakkan. Mencapai akil baligh merupakan satu masa apabila emosi menjadi tidak stabil dan tergugat. Hall percaya bahawa hasil daripada tekanan-tekanan dan perubahan tersebut, remaja akhirnya akan menjadi individu yang matang dan bermoral.

KoGNiTiF ReMajA
PENGENALAN
Perubahan dalam perkembangan kognitif yang dialami oleh remaja : * Perubahan ini tidak dapat dilihat dengan jelas, berbeza bagi setiap individu, namun penting bagi seseorang individu bagi mencapai tingkat perkembangan kognitifnya akan mempengaruhi cara ia melihat dirinya, merancang masa depannya, dan menganalisis permasalahan yang dihadapi. * Terdapat banyak teori mengenai perkembangan kognitif remaja, termasuk teori perkembangan kognitif sebagaimana yang dikemukakan oleh Piaget, namun secara umum remaja cenderung menggunakan idea-idea yang abstrak dan berfikir secara abstrak, multidimensional, relatif dan reflektif. Sejauh manakah tepatnya tingkat perkembangan kognitif seorang individu pada masa remaja sukar diramalkan, dan sangat berbeza mengikut seseorang. * Perkembangan kognitif seseorang itu tidak hanya ditentukan dari pertumbuhan dan kematangan sistem saraf pusat mahupun periferi sahaja, namun juga cara ia memproses informasi, meningkatkan daya ingat dan kapasiti memorinya, dan kedekatannya dengan suatu objek pengetahuan. * Walaupun demikian, tingkat kematangan kognitif seseorang dapat ditingkatkan dengan latihan-latihan dan usaha untuk memperbaiki cara belajar dan mengorganisasi memori. Hal ini juga tidak terlepas dari potensi-potensi yang dimilikinya, termasuk bakat tentang pengetahuan tertentu. * Suatu perkara yang harus diperhatikan pada perkembangan kognitif remaja adalah bukan pada kepantasan berfikir dan banyaknya informasi yang dikuasai yang penting, namun lebih kepada cara remaja itu menggunakan informasi yang dimilikinya untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan yang dihadapi.

TEORI PERKEMBANGAN KOGNITIF PIAGET

Teori perkembangan kognitif dipelopori oleh Jean Piaget. Beliau adalah seorang pakar psikologi kanak-kanak dari Switzerland. Piaget juga menerangkan cara berfikir yang kesan kepada tingkah laku setiap individu. * Teori yang dikemukakan oleh Piaget lebih berfokus kepada tahap. Tahap bagi remaja ialah tahap akhir iaitu, tahap operasi formal yang bermula pada umur dua belas tahun hinggalah ke atas. * Pada tahap ini mereka berupaya mengunakan serta memahami logik dan konsep abstrak dan cuba merealisasikan konsep tersebut. * Mereka tidak lagi cuba menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah secara cuba jaya (trial and error), seperti semasa mereka berusia tujuh tahun, tetapi mereka menggunakan pelbagai alternatif dalam menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah. * Mereka berkeupayaan melakukan sintetis terhadap sesuatu kejadian dan seterusnya cuba membentuk hipotesis untuk mencapai sesuatu kesimpulan. * Remaja pada tahap ini mampu memikirkan perkara abstrak dan berfikir secara logik, reflektif serta sistematik.

Definisi berkaitan remaja

Remaja: Remaja didefinisikan sebagai masa peralihan daripada masa kanak-kanak ke masa dewasa. Batasan usia remaja menurut WHO (badan PBB untuk kesihatan dunia) adalah 12 sampai 24 tahun. Namun jika pada usia remaja seseorang sudah berkahwin, maka ia tergolong dalam dewasa atau bukan lagi remaja. Sebaliknya, jika usia sudah bukan lagi remaja tetapi masih tergantung pada orang tua (tidak mandiri), maka dimasukkan ke dalam kelompok remaja.

mulai dewasa, sudah akil baligh, sudah cukup umur untuk berkahwin. (Kamus Dewan, Edisi ketiga)

Pengenalan: Secara amnya, dalam melalui proses kehidupan ini, manusia melalui tiga peringkat perkembangan yang utama iaitu kanak-kanak, remaja dan dewasa. Tiap tiap peringkat mempunyai ciri perkembangan psikologikalnya yang tersendiri. Apabila melangkah di alam remaja, seseorang individu itu akan mempelajari cara cara menyesuaikan diri dengan alam sekelilingnya. Ia bermula dengan proses penyesuaian pada bentuk dan perasaan yang ada pada tubuh dan kemudian penyesuaian dengan manusia dan situasi yang berlainan. Selepas itu,barulah mereka akan melangkah ke alam dewasa. Zaman remaja: Zaman remaja merupakan satu masa peralihan sementara daripada zaman kanak-kanak kepada zaman dewasa. Ia boleh didefinisikan sebagai satu masa yang bermula apabila baligh sehingga permulaan zaman dewasa. Waktu remaja adalah waktu yang amat kompleks. Pelbagai jenis masalah seperti perubahan pada diri, perubahan mental, percubaan-percubaan dalam hidup dan pelbagai bentuk lagi berlaku pada waktu ini. Masa remaja dikatakan zaman yang menimbulkan pelbagai konflik yang menyebabkan tekanan jiwa kepada individu. Hal ini kerana seseorang remaja gemar mencuba sesuatu yang kadang-kala bertentangan dengan norma sosial masyarakat. Contohnya pengambilan dadah, seks bebas dan sebagainya. Satu fenomena yang sering kedengaran kini ialah pertelingkahan di antara remaja dan ibu-bapanya. Perkara ini berlaku akibat tidak ada komunikasi kerana adanya jurang generasi. Hal ini menyebabkan berlakunya kes-kes remaja lari dari rumah dan ia menjadi satu fenomena yang menjadi fokus permasalahan remaja masa kini. RUJUKAN: Mahmood Nazar Mohamed. 2005.Pengantar Psikologi:Satu Pengenalan Asas Kepada Jiwa Dan Tingkah Laku Manusia. DBP. Kuala Lumpur.

Pertumbuhan dan perubahan fizikal

Pada zaman remaja, fizikal remaja mengalami perubahan yang ketara dan tiba-tiba. Sifat seksual kedua seperti bulu badan, pertambahan lemak badan, perkembangan otot, dan kematangan organ seksual akan menimbul dalam perubahan fizikal remaja. Ada perubahan wujud bersama pada lelaki dan perempuan, iaitu saiz badan, peningkatan kekuatan tenaga dan stamina.Tetapi kebanyakan perubahan adalah spesifik antara seks. Akil baligh merujuk kepada pencapaian kematangan seksual pada lelaki dan perempuan. Tanda permulaan akil baligh perempuan merujuk kepada waktu haid yang pertama, manakala bagi lelaki pula merujuk kepada pancaran air mani. Perubahan akil baligh selalunya didahului oleh pertambahan lemak badan, ada remaja awal menjadi gemuk dan pendek pada masa ini. Kedua-dua lelaki dan perempuan mempunyai lemak dalam tempat dada. Lemak di dada perempuan akan kekal, manakala lelaki pula tidak, ia hanya satu peringkat perkembangan sahaja. Perubahan akil baligh bagi remaja awal ialah peningkatan besar dalam ketinggian. Saiz otot dan tulang mula berkembang. Lemak yang berlebihan di badan lelaki akan hilang, manakala Lemak di badan perempuan akan kekal pada bahagian tertentu.Pada zaman remaja awal, bahagian badan yang berbeza berkembang dengan kadar yang tinggi. Perkembangan fizikal remaja ini akan selesai dalam 10 tahun bermula daripada permulaan akil baligh. Untuk mencapai saiz badan dewasa, kaki dan tangan mereka semakin panjang. Seterusnya kelebaran badan berkembang. Perkembangan cepat tersebut akan mengakibatkan remaja berasa janggal Selain itu, badan dan kulit remaja akan bermula mengeluarkan banyak minyak, akibatnya badan mereka akan mengeluarkan bau. Perubahan fizikal tersebut adalah dikawal oleh hormon,bahan biokimia yang dirembeskan dengan bilangan yang sangat kurang oleh kelenjar endokrin. Hormon mempengaruhi pertumbuhan remaja sejak zaman fetal hingga sekarang, bilangan pengeluaran hormon semakin bertambah pada akil baligh. Hormon lelaki dan hormon perempuan muncul dalam kedua-dua seks, tetapi lelaki mempunya hormon bernamaandrogens yang lebih banyak, dan hormon yang terpenting,testoterone berbanding dengan perempuan, manakala perempuan pula mempunyai hormon dipanggil estrogen danprogesterone yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan lelaki (Tanner, 1978). Setiap hormon mempengaruhi satu set sasaran atau reseptor yang tertentu. Contohnya rembesan testosteronemenyebabkan zakar bertumbuh, bahu menjadi semakin lebar, bulu bertumbuh di tempat kemaluan dan di muka. Sebaliknya,estrogen menyebabkan uterus dan dada bertumbuh dan pinggung menjadi semakin lebar. Sel dalam tempat sasaran mempunyai keupayaan untuk bertindakbalas dengan hormon tertentu yang mengedar dalam darah tetapi tidak bertindakbalas terhadap yang lain. Contohnya, uterus bertindakbalas secara terpilih

terhadapestrogen dan progesterone. Sel sasaran adalah sangat peka terhadap kuantiti hormon dan sangat kecil, walaupun hormon muncul dalam bilangan yang begitu kurang seperti mengesan seketul gula yang larut dalam satu kolam renang (Tanner, 1978)

Kelenjar endokrin merembes hormon yang kompleks dan halus, kerja penyenggaraan ini dijalankan oleh 2 tempat otak:hypothalamus dan pituitary. Hypothalamus adalah bahagian otak yang memulakan proses pertumbuhan dan pembiakan sejak zaman remaja. Pituitari terletak dibawah bahagian otak, ia mengeluarkan beberapa jenis hormon, termasuk hormon pertumbuhan, iaitu hormon yang mengawal seluruh pertumbuhan badan, dan beberapa hormon tropi kedua. Hormon tropi ini merangsang fungsi beberapa kelenjar, termasuklah kelenjar seks, iaitu testis dalam badan lelaki dan ovari dalam badan perempuan. Kelenjar seks mempunyai 2 fungsi: mengeluarkan sperma atau ovum dan merembeskanandrogens atau estrogens. Hormon yang dirembeskan oleh kelenjar pituitari dan kelenjar seks mempunyai pengaruh emosi terhadap fizikal remaja Kematangan seksual pada lelaki. Selepas pertumbuhan secara menyembur, perubahan major biologikal kedua ialah pembanguan sistem pembiakan. Pada lelaki, tanda pertama akil baligh ialah pertumbuhan testis dan skrotum secara pecut. Lebih kurang 1 tahun selepas pertumbuhan ini bermula, zakar mengalami pertumbuhan secara menyembur. Antara 2 perkara ini, bulu pubik mula muncul, tetapi ia tidak mencapai pertumbuhan sepenuhnya sehingga selepas penyelesaian perkembangan kemaluan. Sejak tempoh ini, perkembangan saiz jantung dan paru-paru juga berlaku. Berpunca daripada kelakuan hormon seks lelaki,testosterone, lelaki juga membangun lebih banyak sel darah merah berbanding dengan perempuan. Pengeluaran sel darah merah yang luas ini adalah salah satu faktor menyatakan keupayaan olahraga remaja lelaki mengatasi remaja perempuan. Pancutan air mani pertama akan berlaku pada awal umur 11 tahun atau lewat umur 16 tahun. Pancutan pertama selalunya wujud pada tempoh pertumbuhan lelaki yang cepat dan mungkin datang sejak pelancapan atau mimpi lembap. Pancutan pertama ini biasanya tidak mempunyai cukup air mani untuk subur (Money, 1980). Selain itu, pertumbuhan yang lain ialah suara garau yang janggal. Suara betul-betul berubah mengambil tempat berelavif lewat dalam rangkaian perubahan akil baligh, dan dalam kebanyakan lelaki berlaku terlalu perlahan untuk menjadi kepentingan sebagai batu tanda jarak pertumbuhan. (Tanner, 1978) Kematangan seksual perempuan Dalam perempuan, dada bertunas adalah biasanya tetapi bukan selalunya sebagai tanda pertama akil baligh bermula. Perkembangan uterus dan vagina adalah serentak dengan pembesaran labia dan kelentit.Waktu haid pertama, adalah berkemungkinan besar menandakan peringkat perubahan perempuan, sebenarnya berlaku lewat dalam rangkaian, selepas puncak pertumbuhan secara menyembur.

Waktu haid pertama mungkin berlaku pada awal umur 9 atau lewat umur 16 ; purata perempuan Amerika Syarikat ialah 12 . Dalam bahagian dunia lain, waktu haid pertama berlaku lebih lewat berbanding dengan Amerika Syarikat. Contohnya, purata perempuan Czechoslovakian menghadapi haid pertama pada umur 14 tahun, purata di antara Kikuyu of Kenya ialah umur 16 tahun, dan untuk Bindi of New Guinea ialah umur 18 tahun (Power, Hauser, & Kilner, 1989). Waktu haid pertama biasanya berlaku semasa dia hampir mencapai ketinggian dewasanya dan semasa dia diuruskan untuk menyimpan jumlah minimum lemak badan. Bagi purata ketinggian perempuan, tanda ini biasanya berlaku semasa beratnya mencapai lebih kurang 100 pound (Frisch, 1988). Perubahan dalam perempuan Perkembangan dada Pertumbuhan bulu kemaluan Pertumbuhan bulu di bawah ketiak Pertumbuhan badan Waktu haid pertama Pertambahan pengeluaran minyak dan peluh yang dihasilkan oleh kelenjar. Perubahan dalam lelaki Pertumbuhan testis dan scrotal sacPertumbuhan bulu kemaluan Pertumbuhan bulu di bawah ketiak dan muka Pertumbuhan badan Pertumbuhan zakar Perubahan suara Pancutan air mani yang pertama Pertambahan pengeluaran minyak dan peluh yang dihasilkan oleh kelenjar. Imej badan dan penyesuaian. Ahli sosiologi memanggil remaja sebagai kumpulan pinggiran (marginal group), iaitu satu kumpulan antara budaya atau budaya dominan yang pinggir bahawa biasanya menunjukkan keperluan intensifieddisahkan. Remaja boleh menjadi tidak sabar terhadap penyimpangan dengan ekstrim. Media massa menghasilkan kecenderungan remaja terhadap ketidaksabaran oleh imej menarik stereotaip pasaran, riang remaja tanpa pimpes, janggal, pendakap, atau masalah berat. Sebab banyak remaja adalah sensitif dengan ekstrim terhadap kemunculan fizikal dan menggunakan banyak masa untuk memeriksa mereka sendiri di hadapan cermin, ketidaksamaan antara imej sendiri mereka yang kurang sempurna dengan kilap unggul yang mereka nampak dalam media sering menghasilkan kesangsian sendiri dan kebimbingan.Sejak imej badan berhubungan sangan dekat dengan masa kematangan, banyak kajian telah menerangkan kesan kematangan awal atau lewat. Prihatin remaja terhadap imej badan. Sejak zaman kanak-kanak pertengahan, kanakkanak menjadi sedar terhadap jenis badan dan unggul yang beza, dan mereka dapat idea jelas saksama terhadap jenis badan, kadar, dan teknik mereka. Tetapi dalam remaja, ada peperiksaan rapi terhadap penerimaan jenis badan. Dalam masyarakat kita, ada orang muda menakluk mereka sendiri kepada pengehadan makanan dengan bersungguh, sementara itu memulakan dengan usaha ke atas keras regimen kesihatan fizikal dan latihan tenaga, contohnya mengangkat berat, olahraga, atau menari. Biasanya, kebanyakan lelaki lebih menumpukan prihatin mereka terhadap kekuatan fizikal bahawa mereka boleh menggunakannya ke atas persekitaran (Lerner, Orlos, & Knapp, 1976). Jadi, ketinggian dan otot adalah penting terhadap mereka. Sebaliknya, perempuan sangat bimbang mereka menjadi terlalu gemuk atau terlalu tinggi. Mereka menumpukan prihatin terhadap berat, di samping itu, sebab mereka prihatin terhadap penerimaan sosial. Keputusannya, banyak remaja perempuan yang

normal, walaupun kurus, mereka berasa mereka gemuk dan cuba untuk menghilangkan berat badan mereka. Apabila mereka terlalu ekstrim, prihatin terhadap berat ini boleh mendatangkan anorexia nervosa atau bulimia.Ketinggian, berat dan wajah adalah sumber prihatin kepada remaja. Lebih kurang 2/3 remaja harap mereka sendiri akan mempunyai satu atau banyak bahagian pertukaran fizikal (Peterson & Taylor, 1980). Bilangan kesedaran sendiri terhadap badan seseorang menyusut pada remaja akhir. Menurut satu kajian, kepuasan terhadap imej badan perempuan pada umur 13 tahun dan lelaki pada umur 15 tahun adalah paling rendah.

Selepas umur tersebut, kepuasannya meningkat dengan ketara. Keseluruhannya, dalam umur antara 11 tahun dan 18 tahun, kepuasan imej badan perempuan lebih rendah daripada lelaki (Rauste-von Wright, 1989).Terdapat perbezaan yang menarik dalam perubahan remaja perempuan dan lelaki yang ingin buat terhadap badan mereka. Perempuan mahu perubahan spesifik: saya hendak buat telinga saya dalam keadaan tertentu atau Saya hendak buat dahi saya lebih rendah. Lelaki juga tidak puas tetapi kurang tepat. Seorang lelaki tipikal mungkin berkata: Saya ingin mendapat rupa yang handsome dan tidak gemuk. Saya ingin mendapat rambut hitam berombak. Saya hendak tukar seluruh rupa fizikal jadi saya akan menjadi handsome, dengan bentuk tubuh yang baik. Kedua-dua perempuan dan lelaki bimbang terhadap kulit mereka. Setengah kalangan remaja berkata mereka prihatin terhadap pimples dan blackheads. Kematangan awal dan lewat. Walaupun banyak remaja mempunyai sikap positif dengan patutnya terhadap kadar kematangan mereka sendiri (Pelletz, 1995), kematangan awal dan lewat mendatangkan masalah, terutamanya bagi lelaki kematangan lewat. Lantaran daripada perempuan matang, dengan puratanya, 2 tahun lebih awal daripada lelaki, jadi lelaki kematangan lewat adalah orang yang paling lewat mencapai akil baligh dan paling lewat untuk mengalami pertumbuhan secara pecut. Oleh itu, dia adalah paling kecil dan kurang otot berbanding dengan rakan sama umur dia, dia mengalami kelemahan dalam sukan. Kanak-kanak dan dewasa berkecenderungan menganggap kanak yang lebih kecil sebagai kanak yang lebih muda, jadi, orang yang mengalami kematangan lewat mempunyai status sosial yang lebih rendah di kalangan rakan dia dan dipandang sebagai kurang kecekapan oleh dewasa (Brackbill & Nevill, 1981). Kadang-kalanya persepsi ini menjadi ramalan kepenuhan sendiri, dan lelaki kematangan lewat akan memberikan reaksi dengan pergantungan kebudak-budakan dan tingkah laku tidak matang. Dalam kes lain, dia mungkin bantah dan menjadi sangat aggresif. Setidak-tidaknya, lelaki kematangan lewat mempunyai kesusahan penyesuaian yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan lelaki kematangan awal. Lelaki kematangan awal bercenderungan menambahkan semua jenis sosial dan faedah olahraga di kalangan rakannya. Daripada zaman pertengahan kanak-kanak, lelaki kematangan awal lebih suka menjadi pemimpin rakan kumpulan mereka (Weisfeld & Billings, 1988). Jika

kematangan awal adalah aset kepada remaja lelaki, jadi ia juga menjadi rahmat kepada perempuan. Dalam perempuan, faedah awalnya terlekat pada kematangan lewat. Perempuan kematangan lewat mungkin mula matang pada masa yang sama dengan rakan lelaki dia. Dia lebih popular dalam golongan rakan dia berbanding dengan perempuan kematangan awal. Perempuan kematangan awal, lebih tinggi, dan lebih matang berbanding dengan rakan lelaki dia. Akibatnya, dia kurang mempunyai peluang untuk berbincang dengan rakan dia bahawa perubahan fizikal dan emosi yang dia alami.

Tetapi, sebaliknya perempuan kematangan awal kerap berasa lebih tertarik, mereka lebih popular dengan lelaki yang lebih besar, dan mereka keluar untuk pertemuan sosial lebih kerap berbanding dengan rakan yang mengalami kematangan lewat

"You Will Never Be" How did we ever come to this I never thought you'd be Someone I'd have to miss... And there I was caught in your game Needing answers that never came And we took a chance, You said you were strong Strong enough But you were wrong... And now I'm... Deafened by your silence Blinded by the tears If you're looking for forgiveness You won't find that here Cause you lied your way to heartbreak And now it's all too clear That you will never be... Look at her She won't ever compare You can say you're sorry But I still don't care Was she worth this mess Was she worth this pain You can say it's her fault But you're both to blame And now I'm... Deafened by your silence Blinded by the tears If you're looking for forgiveness You won't find that here Cause you lied your way to heartbreak And now it's all too clear That you will never be... Looking back it was all so easy I hope you know you're my last mistake Don't come around and say you need me I won't stay Now I know that you were so deceiving Was it fun for you to walk away I hope you liked it Cause she's so damn easy You won't change Deafened by your silence Blinded by the tears If you're looking for forgiveness You won't find that here Cause you lied your way to heartbreak And now it's all too clear That you will never be... That you will never be...

Ku sedar ku tak seberapa Jika dibanding mereka Yang jauh lebih megah dari diri ini Apa yang mampu ku berhias Hanyalah hati yang ikhlas Terpendam simpan untuk dia yang sudi Mencintai aku dengan seadanya Mencintai aku bukan kerana rupa Dalam waktu sedu Dalam waktu hiba Ku harapkan dia rela Mencintai aku dengan seadanya Sanggup menerima insan tak sempurna Atau mungkin cinta sebegitu hanya Kisah dongeng saja Belum pernah ku merasakan Dipeluk dalam dakapan Eratnya melindungi jiwa rapuh ini Sanubariku memerlukan Kehadiran seorang teman Tulus mencurah kasih sepenuh hati Mencintai aku dengan seadanya Mencintai aku bukan kerana rupa Dalam waktu sedu Dalam waktu hiba Ku harapkan dia rela Mencintai aku dengan seadanya Sanggup menerima insan tak sempurna Atau mungkin cinta sebegitu hanya Kisah dongeng saja

Pernahkah kau bermimpi seketika Berada di tempatku Membayangkan pahit manis berlalu Entah siapa yang tahu Mungkin nanti kau jua merasakan Berdepan dengan kata menyesakkan Takkan tugumu kebal Tiada pertimbangan (Chorus) Keheningan malam membangunkan Kepayahan jiwa meluahkan Andai kau jujur memahami Tiadaku menjauhi Dan kisahku yang masih panjang Menambahkan berat yang memandang Lantas ku pendam Ku putuskan biarlah rahsia (Bridge) Semakin aku hidup dalam cinta Tiada kuasa mampu menghalangnya Hentikan kata-kata Bertulangkan dusta (Chorus) Pernahkah kau bermimpi seketika Berada di tempatku

Biar mimpi mimpi kita Jejak sampai ke bintang Walau harus menggapai awan Menongkah arus ini Aku tahu bukan mudah Tapi mimpi ini harus aku Tiada gunung yang terlalu tinggi Tiada laut yang terlalu luas Tuk mereka memisahkan kita Dari mimpi-mimpi kita ini Jangan resah ini takdir Tuhan mendengarnya Tuk membawa mimpi-mimpi kita Biar mimpi sampai ke bintang Kerna kita semua tahu Kerana ini impian Setiap satu dari kita Tiada gunung yang terlalu tinggi Tiada laut yang terlalu luas Tuk mereka memisahkan kita Dari mimpi-mimpi kita ini Jangan resah ini takdir Tuhan mendengarnya Tuk membawa mimpi-mimpi kita Menuju ke bintang

Bertuturlah cinta mengucap satu nama Seindah goresan sabda-Mu dalam kitabku Cinta yang bertasbih mengutus hati ini Ku sandarkan hidup dan matiku pada-Mu [*] Bisikkan doaku dalam butiran tasbih Ku panjatkan pintaku pada Maha Cinta Sudah diubun-ubun cinta mengusik rasa Tak bisa ku paksa walau hatiku menjerit [**] Ketika cinta bertasbih nadiku berdenyut merdu Kembang kempis dadaku merangkai butir cinta Garis tangan tergambar tak bisa aku menentang Sujud syukur pada-Mu atas segala cinta Back to [*][**]

Cinta

Back to [**]

Garis tangan tergambar tak bisa aku menentang Sujud syukur pada-Mu atas segala cinta Ketika cinta bertasbih