SUBJECT NOTES

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The max rate of chan e of output across when coswt !" #i.e$ S% ! d&'(dt )max ! w&m. S% ! *+f&m &(s ! *+f&m v(ms. Thus the maximum fre,uency fmax at which we can o-tain an undistorted output volt of pea. value &m is iven -y fmax #/0$ ! Slew rate(1.*2 3 &m . called the full power response. 4t is maximum fre,uency of a lar e amplitude sine wave with which op5amp can have without distortion. 6C Characteristics of op5amp7 Current is ta.en from the source into the op5amp inputs respond differently to current and volta e due to mismatch in transistor. 6C output volta es are8 ". 4nput -ias current *. 4nput offset current 9. 4nput offset volta e :. Thermal drift 4nput -ias current7 The op5amp;s input is differential amplifier8 which may -e made of BJT or <ET. 4n an ideal op5amp8 we assumed that no current is drawn from the input terminals. The -ase currents enterin respectively$. www.vidyarthiplus.com into the invertin and non5invertin terminals #4 B5 = 4B>

www.vidyarthiplus.com 4nput -ias current7 The op5amp;s input is differential amplifier8 which may -e made of BJT or <ET. 4n an ideal op5amp8 we assumed that no current is drawn from the input terminals. The -ase currents enterin respectively$. into the invertin and non5invertin terminals #4 B5 = 4B>

Q "`a

4B

4f *? 4
?

4f input volta e &i ! '&. The output &olta e &o should also -e #&o ! '$ 4B ! @''nA Be find that the output volta e is offset -y8

&o 4@

b c

%f

Q *`a

Op5amp with a "C feed-ac. resistor &o ! @'''nA D "C ! @''m& The output is driven to @''m& with 0ero input8 -ecause of the -ias currents. 4n application where the si nal levels are measured in m&8 this is totally unaccepta-le. This can -e compensated. Bhere a compensation resistor %comp has -een added -etween the non5invertin input terminal and round as shown in the fi ure -elow.

Current 4B> flowin throu h the compensatin resistor %comp8 then -y E&F we et8 www.vidyarthiplus.com

www.vidyarthiplus.com 5&">'>&*5&o ! ' #or$ &o ! &* 5 &" GGH#9$ By selectin proper value of %comp8 &* can -e cancelled with &" and the &o ! '. The value of %comp is derived a &" ! 4B>%comp #or$ 4B> ! &"(%comp GGH#:$ The node Ia; is at volta e #5&"$. Because the volta e at the non5invertin input terminal is #5& "$. So with &i ! ' we et8 4" ! &"(%" GGH#@$ 4* ! &*(%f GGH#1$ <or compensation8 &o should e,ual to 0ero #&o ! '8 &i ! '$. i.e. from e,uation #9$ &* ! &". So that8 4* ! &"(%f GGH#J$ ECF at node Ia; ives8 4B5 ! 4* > 4"

4@

% " ffffffff ? & " ffffffff

f

Assume 4B5 ! 4B> and usin e,uation #:$ = #2$ we et b c % " ? % f ff " ffffffffffff & " ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

4 @ &"

b c f" ? %f fffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

%"

%" %f

Q `2a

%" %f %comp %f %comp ff " fffffffffffffffffffff

%" ? %f

%comp ! %" )) %f GGGH#K$ i.e. to compensate for -ias current8 the compensatin resistor8 %comp should -e e,ual to the parallel com-ination of resistor %" and %f. 4nput offset current7 Bias current compensation will wor. if -oth -ias currents 4B> and 4B5 are e,ual. Since the input transistor cannot -e made identical. There will always -e some small difference -etween 4B> and 4B5. This difference is called the offset current www.vidyarthiplus.com

www.vidyarthiplus.com )4os) ! 4B>54B5 GGH#"'$ Offset current 4os for BJT op5amp is *''nA and for <ET op5amp is "'pA. Even with -ias current compensation8 offset current will produce an output volta e when &i ! '. &" ! 4B> %comp GGH#""$ And 4" ! &"(%" GGH#"*$ ECF at node Ia; ives8 4* ! #4BG4"$

4 * 4 @ @ j4 ? %comp ffffffffffffff a % " k Q `"9

&' ! 4* %f 5 &" &o ! 4* %f 5 4B> %comp

A ain

&o ! "C L D *''nA &o ! *''m& with &i ! ' E,uation #"1$ the offset current can -e minimi0ed -y .eepin feed-ac. resistance small. Unfortunately to o-tain hi h input impedance8 %" must -e .ept lar e. %" lar e8 the feed-ac. resistor %f must also -e hi h. So as to o-tain reasona-le ain. The T5feed-ac. networ. is a ood solution. This will allow lar e feed-ac. resistance8 .eepin the resistance to round low #in dotted line$. The T5networ. provides a feed-ac. si nal as if the networ. were a sin le feed-ac. resistor. By T to M conversion8 while

%f

%t* % %t s ? fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff * %
s

To desi n T5 networ. first pic. %tNN%f(* GGH#"2$ % %t* ffffffffffffffffffff Then calculate %s `a
f

Q " J`a

* %t

Q "K

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4nput offset volta e7 4nspite of the use of the a-ove compensatin techni,ues8 it is found that the output volta e may still not -e 0ero with 0ero input volta e O& o P ' with &i ! 'Q. This is due to unavoida-le im-alances inside the op5amp and one may have to apply a small volta e at the input terminal to ma.e output #&o$ ! '. This volta e is called input offset volta e &os. This is the volta e re,uired to -e applied at the input for ma.in output volta e to 0ero #&o ! '$.

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Fet us determine the &os on the output of invertin and non5invertin amplifier. 4f & i ! ' #<i #-$ and #c$$ -ecome the same as in fi ure #d$. Total output offset volta e7 The total output offset volta e &OT could -e either more or less than the offset volta e produced at the output due to input -ias current #4B$ or input offset volta e alone#&os$. This is -ecause 4B and &os could -e either positive or ne ative with respect to round. Therefore the maximum offset volta e at the output of an invertin and non5invertin amplifier #fi ure -8 c$ without any compensation techni,ue used is iven -y many op5amp provide offset compensation pins to nullify the offset volta e. "'E potentiometer is placed across offset null pins "=@. The wipes connected to the ne ative supply at pin :. The position of the wipes is adRusted to nullify the offset volta e.

Bhen the

iven #-elow$ op5amps does not have these offset null pins8 external -alancin

techni,ues are used.

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& OT J " ?
H

% ffffffff f %"

I K& os

? % f 4 B Q *:

Bith %comp8 the total output offset volta e

& OT J " ?
Balancin circuit7 4nvertin amplifier7

I % ffffffff f

%"

` K& os ? % f 4 os Q *@

Non5invertin amplifier7

Thermal drift7 Bias current8 offset current8 and offset volta e chan e with temperature.

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www.vidyarthiplus.com A circuit carefully nulled at *@SC may not remain. So when the temperature rises to 9@SC. This is called drift. Offset current drift is expressed in nA(SC. These indicate the chan e in offset for each de ree Celsius chan e in temperature. Open 5 loop op5amp Confi uration7 The term open5loop indicates that no feed-ac. in any form is fed to the input from the output. Bhen connected in open 5 loop8 the op5amp functions as a very hi h ain amplifier. There are three open 5 loop confi urations of op5amp namely8 ". differential amplifier *. 4nvertin amplifier 9. Non5invertin amplifier The a-ove classification is made -ased on the num-er of inputs used and the terminal to which the input is applied. The op5amp amplifies -oth ac and dc input si nals. Thus8 the input si nals can -e either ac or dc volta e. Open 5 loop 6ifferential Amplifier7 4n this confi uration8 the inputs are applied to -oth the invertin and the non5invertin input terminals of the op5amp and it amplifies the difference -etween the two input volta es. <i ure shows the open5loop differential amplifier confi uration. The input volta es are represented -y & i" and &i*. The source resistance %i" and %i* are ne li i-ly small in comparison with the very hi h input resistance offered -y the op5amp8 and thus the volta e drop across these source resistances is assumed to -e 0ero. The output volta e & ' is iven -y &' ! A#&i" 5 &i* $ where A is the lar e si nal volta e ain. Thus the output volta e is e,ual to the volta e ain A times the difference -etween the two input volta es. This is the reason why this confi uration is called a differential amplifier. 4n open 5 loop confi urations8 the lar e si nal volta e ain A is also called open5loop ain A.

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4nvertin amplifier7

4n this confi uration the input si nal is applied to the invertin input terminal of the opamp and the non5invertin input terminal is connected to the round. <i ure shows the circuit of an open 5 loop invertin amplifier. www.vidyarthiplus.com

www.vidyarthiplus.com The output volta e is "2'' out of phase with respect to the input and hence8 the output volta e & ' is iven -y8 &' ! 5A&i Thus8 in an invertin amplifier8 the input si nal is amplified -y the open5loop ain A and in phase 5 shifted -y "2''. Non5invertin Amplifier7

<i ure shows the open 5 loop non5 invertin amplifier. The input si nal is applied to the non5invertin input terminal of the op5amp and the invertin input terminal is connected to the round. The input si nal is amplified -y the open 5 loop ain A and the output is in5phase with input si nal. &' ! A&i 4n all the a-ove open5loop confi urations8 only very small values of input volta es can -e applied. Even for volta es levels sli htly reater than 0ero8 the output is driven into saturation8 which is o-served from the ideal transfer characteristics of op5amp shown in fi ure. Thus8 when operated in the open5loop confi uration8 the output of the op5amp is either in ne ative or positive saturation8 or switches -etween positive and ne ative saturation levels. This prevents the use of open 5 loop confi uration of op5amps in linear applications.

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www.vidyarthiplus.com Fimitations of Open 5 loop Op 5 amp confi uration7 <irstly8 in the open 5 loop confi urations8 clippin of the output waveform can occur when the output volta e exceeds the saturation level of op5amp. This is due to the very hi h open 5 loop ain of the op5amp. This feature actually ma.es it possi-le to amplify very low fre,uency si nal of the order of microvolt or even less8 and the amplification can -e achieved accurately without any distortion. /owever8 si nals of such ma nitudes are suscepti-le to noise and the amplification for those application is almost impossi-le to o-tain in the la-oratory. Secondly8 the open 5 loop ain of the op 5 amp is not a constant and it varies with chan in temperature and variations in power supply. Also8 the -andwidth of most of the open5 loop op amps is ne li i-ly small. This ma.es the open 5 loop confi uration of op5amp unsuita-le for ac applications. The open 5 loop -andwidth of the widely used J:" 4C is approximately @/0. But in almost all ac applications8 the -andwidth re,uirement is much lar er than this. <or the reason stated8 the open 5 loop op5amp is enerally not used in linear applications. /owever8 the open 5 loop op amp confi urations find use in certain non 5 linear applications such as comparators8 s,uare wave enerators and asta-le multivi-rators. Closed 5 loop op5amp confi uration7 The op5amp can -e effectively utili0ed in linear applications -y providin a feed-ac. from the output to the input8 either directly or throu h another networ.. 4f the si nal feed-ac. is out5 ofphase -y "2'' with respect to the input8 then the feed-ac. is referred to as ne ative feed-ac. or de enerative feed-ac.. Conversely8 if the feed-ac. si nal is in phase with that at the input8 then the feed-ac. is referred to as positive feed-ac. or re enerative feed-ac.. An op 5 amp that uses feed-ac. is called a closed 5 loop amplifier. The most commonly used closed 5 loop amplifier confi urations are ". 4nvertin Non4nvertin amplifier #&olta e 5 series Amplifier$ 4nvertin Amplifier7 The invertin amplifier is shown in fi ure and its alternate circuit arran ement is shown in fi ure8 with the circuit redrawn in a different way to illustrate how the volta e shunt feed-ac. is achieved. The input si nal drives the invertin input of the op 5 amp throu h resistor %" . amplifier #&olta e shunt amplifier$ *.

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www.vidyarthiplus.com The op 5 amp has an open 5 loop ain of A8 so that the output si nal is much lar er than the error volta e. Because of the phase inversion8 the output si nal is "2' ' out 5 of 5 phase with the input si nal. This means that the feed-ac. si nal opposes the input si nal and the feed-ac. is ne ative or de enerative. &irtual Tround7 A virtual round is a round which acts li.e a round . 4t may not have physical connection to round. This property of an ideal op 5 amp indicates that the invertin and non 5 invertin terminals of the op 5amp are at the same potential. The non 5 invertin input is rounded for the invertin amplifier circuit. This means that the invertin input of the op 5amp is also at round potential. Therefore8 a virtual round is a point that is at the fixed round potential #'&$8 thou h it is not practically connected to the actual round or common terminal of the circuit. The open 5 loop ain of an op 5 amp is extremely hi h8 typically *''8''' for a J:". <or ex8 when the output volta e is "'&8 the input differential volta e &id is iven -y

& id

& ff ffff f'

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<urther more8 the open 5 loop input impedance of a J:" is around *CU. Therefore8 for an input

*''8'''

'.'@m&

4i

differential volta m& e of '.'@m&8 the input current is only & fffid '.'@ fffff fffffffffffffffffffff Since the input current is so small compared to all other si nal currents8 it can -e approximated as 0ero. <or any input volta e applied at the invertin input8 the input differential volta e & id is ne li i-ly small and the input current is ideally 0ero. /ence8 the invertin input acts as a virtual round. The term virtual round si nifies a point whose volta e with respect to round is 0ero8 and yet no current can flow into it.
i

*C

'.*@nAA

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