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Preparation Guide
Network+
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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... I
ABOUT SPECIALIZED SOLUTIONS ...........................................................IX
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1
COMPTIA TEST OBJECTIVES FOR NETWORK+ .............................................................2005
STUDY PLAN STRATEGIES ..................................................................................................9
YOUR VIDEO INSTRUCTOR .................................................................................................9
HOW TO TAKE THE TEST ..................................................................................................10
Who may take the test? ...............................................................................................10
How to Prepare to Ensure Exam Success...................................................................10
ABOUT THIS COURSE .......................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 1 – NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS ..................................................17
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING ....................................................................................17
Benefits of Networking Computers .............................................................................17
Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN) .................................18
The Client/Server Relationship ...................................................................................19
Client/Server Networking............................................................................................19
Peer-to-Peer Networking ............................................................................................20
BASIC NETWORK STRUCTURE (TOPOLOGY).....................................................................21
Bus Topology ..............................................................................................................21
Star Topology..............................................................................................................22
Ring Topology.............................................................................................................22
SPECIAL TOPOLOGIES ......................................................................................................23
Hybrid Topologies ......................................................................................................23
Mesh Topology............................................................................................................23
Wireless Topology.......................................................................................................24
NETWORK ACCESS ...........................................................................................................26
Token Passing .............................................................................................................26
Ethernet.......................................................................................................................26
Fast Ethernet...............................................................................................................27
HUBS AND CONCENTRATORS ...........................................................................................28
Passive Hubs...............................................................................................................28
Active Hubs .................................................................................................................29
Hub-Based Networks ..................................................................................................29
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................30
KEYWORDS EXERCISE .................................................................................................31
REVIEW QUESTIONS - CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................33
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS (NOS) ....................................35
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM? ..................................................................................35
Preemptive vs. Non-preemptive Multitasking .............................................................36
WHAT IS A NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM (NOS)? ........................................................37
Peer-to-Peer LANs......................................................................................................37
Server/Client Software ................................................................................................39
NOS PACKAGES...............................................................................................................42
Specialized Solutions, Inc. i
Network + Training & Test Preparation Guide
Novell NetWare .......................................................................................................... 42
Microsoft Windows NT Network Operating System................................................... 45
UNIX Operating Systems............................................................................................ 47
Banyan VINES (Virtual Integrated Network Service)................................................ 48
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... 50
KEYWORDS EXERCISE ................................................................................................. 51
REVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................ 52
CHAPTER 3- THE OSI MODEL AND COMMUNICATION STANDARDS.......... 55
THE SEVEN LAYERS OF NETWORK COMMUNICATION ..................................................... 55
SEVEN LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL ................................................................................ 56
Application Layer ....................................................................................................... 56
Presentation Layer ..................................................................................................... 57
Session Layer.............................................................................................................. 57
Transport Layer.......................................................................................................... 57
Network Layer ............................................................................................................ 58
Data Link Layer.......................................................................................................... 58
Logical Link Control (LLC) ....................................................................................... 59
Media Access Control (MAC) .................................................................................... 59
Physical Layer............................................................................................................ 60
PROTOCOL STACKS ......................................................................................................... 62
Communication Between Peer Layers ....................................................................... 62
OSI AND THE REAL WORLD ............................................................................................ 64
DEVICES AND THE OSI MODEL ....................................................................................... 66
Repeaters .................................................................................................................... 66
Bridges........................................................................................................................ 66
Routers........................................................................................................................ 66
Brouters ...................................................................................................................... 67
Gateways .................................................................................................................... 67
IEEE 802 STANDARDS .................................................................................................... 68
NETWORK DRIVERS AND THE OSI MODEL ...................................................................... 70
NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification)......................................................... 70
ODI (Open Data Link Interface) ................................................................................ 70
PROTOCOLS AND OSI ...................................................................................................... 70
Protocol Binding ........................................................................................................ 71
Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless ................................................................... 71
Routable vs. Non-Routable Protocols ........................................................................ 71
Networking Protocols and Stacks............................................................................... 72
AppleTalk.................................................................................................................... 73
DECnet ....................................................................................................................... 73
IPX/ SPX..................................................................................................................... 73
SMB (Server Message Block) ..................................................................................... 74
SNA (Systems Network Architecture) ......................................................................... 74
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ....................................................................... 74
IP (Internet Protocol)................................................................................................. 74
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)................................................................................ 74
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) ..................................................................................... 74
Telnet .......................................................................................................................... 75
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Introduction
This Training Guide is designed to meet all of the Network+ exam objectives. It can be
used in conjunction with the Specialized Solutions, Inc. Network+ video training series,
as a stand-alone textbook, or as a textbook in a classroom environment. We have
carefully prepared this multi-media training material to provide you with the needed
information in a logical, easy to follow format.
“The skills and knowledge measured by this examination are derived from industry-wide
job task analysis and validated through an industry wide survey. The results of this
survey were used in weighing the domains and ensuring that the weighting is
representative of the relative importance of the content.”
“This examination includes blueprint weighting, test objectives and example content.
Example concepts are included to clarify the test objectives and should not be construed
as a comprehensive listing of the content of the examination.”
Total 100%
The following is a further breakdown of the specific areas covered on the Network+
exam:
1.2 Specify the main features of 802.2 (Logical Link Control), 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.5 (token ring), 802.11
(wireless), and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) networking technologies, including:
• Speed
• Access method (CSMA / CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) and CSMA / CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection))
• Topology
• Media
1.3 Specify the characteristics (For example: speed, length, topology, and cable type) of the following cable
standards:
• 10BASE-T and 10BASE-FL
• 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-FX
• 1000BASE-T, 1000BASE-CX, 1000BASE-SX and 1000BASE-LX
• 10 GBASE-SR, 10 GBASE-LR and 10 GBASE-ER
1.4 Recognize the following media connectors and describe their uses:
• RJ-11 (Registered Jack)
• RJ-45 (Registered Jack)
• F-Type
• ST (Straight Tip)
• SC (Subscriber Connector or Standard Connector)
• IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
• Fiber LC (Local Connector)
• MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)
• USB (Universal Serial Bus)
1.5 Recognize the following media types and describe their uses:
• Category 3, 5, 5e, and 6
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
• Coaxial cable
• SMF (Single Mode Fiber) optic cable
• MMF (Multimode Fiber) optic cable
1.6 Identify the purposes, features and functions of the following network components:
• Hubs
• Switches
• Bridges
• Routers
• Gateways
• CSU / DSU (Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit)
1.7 Specify the general characteristics (For example: carrier speed, frequency, transmission type and
topology) of
the following wireless technologies:
• 802.11 (Frequency hopping spread spectrum)
• 802.11x (Direct sequence spread spectrum)
• Infrared
• Bluetooth
1.8 Identify factors which affect the range and speed of wireless service (For example: interference,
antenna type and environmental factors).
2.2 Identify the seven layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model and their functions.
2.3 Identify the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) layers at which the following network components
operate:
• Hubs
• Switches
• Bridges
• Routers
• NICs (Network Interface Card)
• WAPs (Wireless Access Point)
2.4 Differentiate between the following network protocols in terms of routing, addressing schemes,
interoperability and naming conventions:
• IPX / SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange / Sequence Packet Exchange)
• NetBEUI (Network Basic Input / Output System Extended User Interface)
• AppleTalk / AppleTalk over IP (Internet Protocol)
• TCP / IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
2.5 Identify the components and structure of IP (Internet Protocol) addresses (IPv4, IPv6) and the required
setting for connections across the Internet.
2.6 Identify classful IP (Internet Protocol) ranges and their subnet masks (For example: Class A, B and C).
2.8 Identify the differences between private and public network addressing schemes.
2.9 Identify and differentiate between the following IP (Internet Protocol) addressing methods:
• Static
• Dynamic
• Self-assigned (APIPA (Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing))
2.10 Define the purpose, function and use of the following protocols used in the TCP / IP (Transmission
Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) suite:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
2.11 Define the function of TCP / UDP (Transmission Control Protocol / User Datagram Protocol) ports.
2.12 Identify the well-known ports associated with the following commonly used services and protocols:
• 20 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• 21 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• 22 SSH (Secure Shell)
• 23 Telnet
• 25 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• 53 DNS (Domain Name Service)
• 69 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• 80 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• 110 POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
• 119 NNTP (Network News Transport Protocol)
• 123 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
• 143 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4)
• 443 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
2.13 Identify the purpose of network services and protocols (For example: DNS (Domain Name Service),
NAT (Network Address Translation), ICS (Internet Connection Sharing), WINS (Windows Internet Name
Service), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), NFS (Network File System), Zeroconf (Zero
configuration), SMB (Server Message Block), AFP (Apple File Protocol), LPD (Line Printer Daemon) and
Samba).
2.14 Identify the basic characteristics (For example: speed, capacity and media) of the following WAN
(Wide Area Networks) technologies:
• Packet switching
• Circuit switching
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• T1 (T Carrier level 1) / E1 / J1
• T3 (T Carrier level 3) / E3 / J3
• OCx (Optical Carrier)
• X.25
2.15 Identify the basic characteristics of the following internet access technologies:
• xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
• Broadband Cable (Cable modem)
• POTS / PSTN (Plain Old Telephone Service / Public Switched Telephone Network)
• Satellite
• Wireless
2.17 Identify the following security protocols and describe their purpose and function:
• IPSec (Internet Protocol Security)
• L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol)
• SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)
• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)
Continued on the next page…
Continued from the previous page…
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)
• 802.1x
2.18 Identify authentication protocols (For example: CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol), MS-CHAP (Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol), PAP (Password
Authentication Protocol), RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service), Kerberos and EAP
(Extensible Authentication Protocol)).
3.2 Identify the basic capabilities needed for client workstations to connect to and use network resources
(For example: media, network protocols and peer and server services).
3.3 Identify the appropriate tool for a given wiring task (For example: wire crimper, media tester / certifier,
punch down tool or tone generator).
3.4 Given a remote connectivity scenario comprised of a protocol, an authentication scheme, and physical
connectivity, configure the connection. Includes connection to the following servers:
• UNIX / Linux / MAC OS X Server
• Netware
• Windows
• Appleshare IP (Internet Protocol)
3.6 Identify the purpose, benefits and characteristics of using a proxy service.
3.7 Given a connectivity scenario, determine the impact on network functionality of a particular security
implementation (For example: port blocking / filtering, authentication and encryption).
3.8 Identify the main characteristics of VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks).
3.9 Identify the main characteristics and purpose of extranets and intranets.
3.10 Identify the purpose, benefits and characteristics of using antivirus software.
4.2 Given output from a network diagnostic utility (For example: those utilities listed in objective 4.1),
identify the utility and interpret the output.
4.3 Given a network scenario, interpret visual indicators (For example: link LEDs (Light Emitting Diode)
and collision LEDs (Light Emitting Diode)) to determine the nature of a stated problem.
4.4 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a client accessing remote network services, identify the
cause of the problem (For example: file services, print services, authentication failure, protocol
configuration, physical connectivity and SOHO (Small Office / Home Office) router).
4.5 Given a troubleshooting scenario between a client and the following server environments, identify the
cause of a stated problem:
• UNIX / Linux / Mac OS X Server
• Netware
• Windows
• Appleshare IP (Internet Protocol)
4.6 Given a scenario, determine the impact of modifying, adding or removing network services (For
example:
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), DNS (Domain Name Service) and WINS (Windows
Internet
Name Service)) for network resources and users.
4.7 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a network with a particular physical topology (For example:
bus, star, mesh or ring) and including a network diagram, identify the network area affected and the cause
of the stated failure.
4.8 Given a network troubleshooting scenario involving an infrastructure (For example: wired or wireless)
problem, identify the cause of a stated problem (For example: bad media, interference, network hardware
or environment).
You can maximize your multi-media learning experience by using all of the courseware
materials as you study for your certification. This combination of resources will provide a
thorough understanding of the concept or function being presented.
Suggestion:
• Complete the questions and exercises at the end of each segment of this study
guide and in the textbook.
• Practice the function on your computer. Hands-on experience is best, not all
concepts and functions can be performed on a workstation.
Bill has been in the computer industry for over 15 years. Originally in technical sales and
sales management with Sprint, Bill made his transition to Certified Technical Trainer in
1997 with ExecuTrain. Bill now runs his own company as an independent contractor in
Birmingham, Alabama, teaching classes for most of the national training companies and
some regional training companies. In addition, Bill has written the “MCDST Study
Guide” for Sybex Inc. as well as “Designing Security for Windows Server 2003
Network” for Exam Cram2. Bill says, “My job is to understand the material so well that
I can make it easier for my students to learn than it was for me to learn.”
The Network+ exam was launched worldwide April 30, 1999. Prometric and VUE testing
centers administer the exam. The Network+ test is currently available throughout the
world in English, German, French and Japanese.
Schedule the test for a few weeks from now so that you will have a guidepost that is
constantly reminding you that you need to study the material. You can locate a testing
center and schedule the test on the web. You can take the test at any Virtual University
Enterprises testing center (vue.com) or any Thomson Prometric testing center
(2test.com). You can also call VUE at 877-551-7587 or Thomson Prometric at 888-895-
6116. You may be surprised at how near you are to a testing center!
Based on your time to learn (and your schedule), set aside the time to learn. Make
an appointment with yourself. Put it on your calendar and keep it!
The time it takes you to read the text may be different from the time needed to
watch the video or do the practice exercises.
Evaluate your active schedule – determine when you have some free time. If you
don’t have any free time – MAKE SOME!
Complete the course a second time. What you learned in the later chapters may help you
get a better understanding of the material the second time through.
Re-read the test and review the video presentation. You will be surprised at how much
more sense it makes this time. You will also “pick up” some concepts that you missed the
first time through.
Focus on the areas that you had trouble with the first time.
If you need to, go though the entire course again. Your objective is to own the
information (make it part of you).
Continue retaking the practice exams and studying the areas that require improvement
until you are consistently scoring in the 90% range on the practice exam.
Before you begin the exam the test administrator will tell you what to do when you
complete the exam. If the administrator does not do this, or if you are unclear about what
you should do, ask the administrator BEFORE beginning the exam.
Keep track of the time and pace yourself. You will have plenty of time as long as you use
it wisely.
Usually, you are given the ability to skip a question, mark a question or answer a
question. At the end of the exam you will be able to see which ones are answered,
marked or skipped. If you know the answer, answer the question. If you’re not quite sure,
mark it and come back to it. If you don’t know the answer, skip it. Sometimes later
questions will help answer earlier questions. Trust your first instinct about an answer!
Go back and answer any marked or unanswered questions. If you positively don’t know
the answer, guess. An unanswered question is always wrong!
Stay calm. Do not read too much into the question, but be sure to read it in its entirety.
Make sure to note if it is a multiple answer question and select the correct amount of
answers. (At the end of the test when you have the opportunity to review, you can see
which questions are not answered. Make sure ALL questions are answered BEFORE you
exit the test!)
When you’ve completed the test and exit the system, you are given immediate online
pass/fail notification and your score. You will also receive a printed Examination Score
Report indicating your pass or fail status from the test administrator. It lists your score by
objective, which will enable you to see which areas require improvement if you didn’t
pass.
The testing center will notify CompTIA of your score and they will confirm your
certification with you. (You don’t need to send them the score report.)
If you do not receive a passing score, you may call an authorized testing center to
schedule a time to retake the exam. Before retaking the exam, put in extra study time in
the objective areas that need improvement. Please note: YOU MUST PAY FOR EACH
EXAM RETAKE!
CD 1:
Introduction and Overview
Network Topologies
Network Technologies
Cable Standards
Media Connectors
CD 2:
Media Types
Network Components
Wireless Technologies
Protocols and Standards
The OSI Model
IP Addressing
CD 3:
Ports
Services
WAN
Internet Access
Remote Access
Security Protocols
CD 4:
Server Operating Systems
Client Connectivity
Tools for Networking
Firewalls
Proxy Service
Network Connectivity
Virtual Local Area Networks
Antivirus Software
Fault Tolerance
Disaster Recovery
CD 5:
Troubleshooting
Network Utilities
Troubleshooting Network Services
Troubleshooting Topologies
Troubleshooting Strategy
Preparation for a Certification Test
This study guide is divided into 11 chapters. It is designed to be an effective study tool
that will help you retain the information that is presented in the course.
After completing this chapter you will understand why networking is important and how
it relates to the computer environment. You will also be able to identify the two major
network configurations and describe the difference between a LAN and a WAN.
Introduction to Networking
There are many different uses for the term “networking.” Real estate professionals would
think of networking as a means to make more sales through talking to people about what
they do.
Most companies network their office computers for the simple reason of economics. It is
much less expensive to purchase one network printer to serve everyone’s needs (or one
department’s depending on the size of the network) than to purchase a printer for every
user.
Sharing applications ensures that all users are using the same programs (and versions)
and makes it much easier to manage documents. Another advantage of networking is the
ability to have a centralized location for document storage. Saving files to one location
(usually the file server) makes it easy for everyone to gain access to the files that they
need. Additionally, a central file server can keep unauthorized users from accessing
confidential or sensitive files. A central file server also allows for an easier backup
strategy to be implemented.
LAN
WAN
A network is classified into one of these groups based upon its size and function. A LAN
is the basic (and smallest) starting point of any computer network. Even if the network is
merely two computers connected by a cable to share information, or if its hundreds of
computers spread throughout a high-rise office building, it is still considered a LAN. The
main distinction between a LAN and a WAN is that a LAN is confined to a limited area
whereas a WAN has no geographical limits. Also, the speed of communication between
the computers is typically much faster in a LAN.
When LANs are connected they create a WAN. A WAN can connect networks from
building to building or across the world. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN.
Servers and clients are roles played by computers and users as they interact in their daily
activity. These terms are not interchangeable; it is the role they play in the dynamic world
of desktops and laptops that changes.
The only true client/server relationship where the roles do not change is the mainframe
computer. A mainframe will handle all the functions, including applications. The
mainframe is always the server and anyone who accesses it is always the client.
Client/Server Networking
In a server-based network there is a dedicated computer called a server that is the central
location of resources. Users, also known as clients, log onto the server to access the files
or applications that they wish to use. A server is a high-end computer that has a very
large amount of storage, including hard disk space and RAM, that is capable of servicing
clients who access shared files. A large network may have more than one server. For
example, there may be a dedicated server for file storage (called a file server), one for
applications (application server), one for printing (print server), or a mail server (E-mail).
The advantages of this type of network are central administration, efficiency in backing
up the data, network security, and expandability. The disadvantages are greater expense
and the complexity of installation. Also, configuration and management may be more
challenging. Since the client/server network is the most common choice of businesses
today, it would appear that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
A peer-to-peer network is simple and inexpensive to install. The computers are simply
cabled together, and as long as each computer has an operating system capable of
client/sharing (e.g. Windows 95 and up) they will be able to communicate via the
network. In a peer-to-peer network all computers are equal.
A disadvantage of the peer-to-peer network is that since users are responsible for their
own systems’ security, network security is unreliable. Also, a peer-to-peer network is
difficult to expand.
Peer-to-Peer Network
Setting up a network requires more than just cabling the computers together. Different
topologies have different cabling requirements. NICs, (Network Interface Cards, also
called Network Adapter Cards), connectors, how the computers will talk to each other
(protocols), and even how the cabling is run through a building, are all determined by the
topology used.
There are three standard topologies that a network professional needs to understand:
• Bus Topology
• Star Topology
• Ring Topology
Bus Topology
The simplest and probably the most used form of network topologies is the Bus topology
(sometimes called a linear bus). The nodes (computers or devices connected to the
network) are all connected along a single cable. This cable is called a trunk, backbone, or
segment.
Only one computer at a time can transmit data on a Bus network or signals will collide
and the transmission will fail. This means that the more computers that are connected to a
Bus the slower the network becomes as devices are waiting to transmit or retransmit.
The Bus topology is a passive topology. Devices only listen for data being transmitted,
they do not move the transmissions along. The signal is sent out on the cable and it
travels from one end of the cable to the other. If not prevented, the signal would travel
back and forth along the cable and cause what is known as signal bounce. While the
signal is bouncing back and forth, it prevents other devices from sending data. To stop
signal bounce, a component called a terminator is installed at each end of the cable. A
terminator absorbs the signal and stops signal bounce.
In a Bus network, if the cable breaks, the network will go down and devices will not be
able to communicate with each other.
Star Topology
In a Star topology, all devices are connected to a central point called a hub. It requires a
lot more cable than the Bus topology, but the advantage is that if one computer (or the
cable that connects one computer to the hub) goes down, the rest of the network will still
continue to function. If the hub fails, however, the entire network will go down.
Star Topology
Ring Topology
In a Ring topology, the devices are connected in one continuous circle of cable. There are
no ends to terminate. The data is transmitted around the loop in one direction and passes
through each computer on the network. The Ring is not a passive topology like the Bus
topology. The signal is actually boosted and sent on along the cable when it passes
through the computers on the network. A disadvantage is that if one computer fails, it can
affect the entire network.
The Star Ring topology is similar to the Star Bus, but the hubs in a Star Ring are
connected in a star pattern by a main hub.
Mesh Topology
In the Mesh topology every device is connected to every other device by separate cables
and has redundant paths. This is very expensive to install but it is extremely reliable
because of the redundant paths.
Wireless Topology
A Wireless topology is one in which there aren’t any cables connecting the network
devices to the LAN or one which the LAN uses wireless technology between access
points. Since each computer has its own connection to the wireless access point (WAP),
the topology of a wireless network is that of an “invisible star”. . The benefits of wireless
technology will be discussed at length in Chapter 4 of this book.
Network Access
The topologies that we have been discussing describe the way in which the computers
and other devices on a network are connected. This is based on the media or wiring of the
network. Another aspect of networks that is related to topology is the way in which the
network is accessed by individual devices. With several devices connected to one media,
we create kind of a “party line”. The method that is used for an individual device to be
able to use the network party line is called media access. The two most common network
standards are distinguished by their respective media access methods, they are called
Token Ring and Ethernet. We will also cover access methods in more detail in the
chapter “Network Protocols and Standards.”
Token Passing
Token passing is the method of sending data around a Token Ring topology. A token is
passed along from device to device until it is received by a computer that needs to
transmit. The sending computer grabs the token and encodes it with addressing
information for the receiving computer and sends it out on the ring. It is passed along
from device to device until it arrives at the computer whose addressing information
matches the one encoded on the token, and the message is delivered. The receiving
computer then sends the token back to the sending computer to let it know that it received
the message. The sending machine then creates a new token to send around the ring that
will be grabbed by the next device that wants to transmit data on the network. Since there
is only one token, only one device at a time can communicate on the network.
Token Passing
Ethernet
Ethernet uses a system known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD). Carrier Sense means the network card listens to the cable for a quiet period
during which it can send messages. Multiple Access means that more than one computer
Collision Detection
Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet was developed to meet the increasing demands on networks. Fast Ethernet
works on the same principals as Ethernet but operates at 10 times the speed of the
original. Ethernet transmits at 10 Mbps and Fast Ethernet transmits at 100 Mbps.
Active Hub
Hub-Based Networks
Hub-based networks are increasing in popularity. They have many advantages over other
types of networks: 1) If a cable breaks only the portion of the network on that segment is
affected. 2) Centralized monitoring of traffic and activity along with diagnostic
capabilities are available. 3) A variety of cable types can be accommodated. 4)
Expanding the network can be easily accomplished by using hubs.
Summary
In this chapter we learned that the main reason for networking (as it relates to computers)
is the sharing of resources. The two types of networks are LANs and WANs. A LAN is
the smallest form and is the basic building block for larger networks. A WAN is not
geographically limited and typically has greater speed of communication than a WAN,
and the Internet is the world’s largest WAN.
We also learned about the two basic network classifications of networks: the peer-to-peer
network and the server-based network. It is important to know the differences between
these two classifications and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Topology is a term we use to describe the logical shape of the connection of computers in
a network. The three main types of topology are bus, star, and ring.
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. If you are having
trouble with any of these concepts, go back and review the chapter again.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Active Hub
Application
Application Server
Bus Topology
Client
Data
Fax Server
File Server
Hub
Hybrid Topology
LAN
Mail Server
MAN
Media
Mesh Topology
Network
Network Administrator
Passive Hub
Peer-to-peer
Peripheral
Print Server
Keyword Definition
Resources
Ring Topology
Security
Server
Server-based
Sharing
Star Topology
Token Passing
User
WAN
Wireless Topology
1. What are the key differences between a local area network (LAN) and a wide area
network (WAN)?
This chapter is all about the various operating systems with which a networking
professional needs to be familiar. When we are talking about operating systems, what we
are really talking about are network operating systems.
In this chapter we will explore the features and benefits of the more popular network
operating systems. We will also discuss their minimum requirements and interoperability
capabilities. The differences between server and client operating systems as well as
preemptive and non-preemptive multitasking will be covered as well.
Hardware resources such as RAM, processor time, hard disk space, and peripherals are
all controlled by the operating system (the software). The operating system is also
responsible for the running of applications (e.g. word-processing, spreadsheet, and
database programs). The main objective is to make sure that the hardware and the
applications are all compatible with each other, as well as the operating system.
Preemptive multitasking means that the operating system can take control of the
processor without a task’s permission. Non-preemptive multitasking is when the task
decides when it is done with the processor. In non-preemptive multitasking, the processor
is never taken away from a task. Preemptive multitasking began with Windows 95 and
the Intel Pentium processor. It is used on all of the latest operating systems.
Windows 95/98
Windows 95 and Windows 98 are operating systems that include a network operating
system. Their new graphical interface and networking capabilities make them a vast
improvement over their predecessors. They use an icon called the Network Neighborhood
for desktop access of the network. All shared resources are arranged on a hierarchical
basis and displayed in Network Neighborhood.
Plug-n-Play technology has also made installing a NIC much easier. Windows 95/98 is
also able to better identify NICs. To install a NIC with Windows 95/98 is as simple as
installing the card, turning on the computer and answering questions. Then, all you have
to do is share any directories and peripherals to the network, and you have a working
network.
Windows 95/98 also performs very well as a client with both the NetWare and Windows
NT operating systems. It is necessary to install the requester software (NetWare Client32
for Windows 95) with NetWare. With NT the only drawback is that you will not be able
to utilize NT’s advanced security features because Windows 95 is not compatible with
the NTFS file system.
Windows ME
Windows ME is the client operating system that has followed the Windows 9x operating
systems. It is well-suited for editing home movies, moving photos to the Web, and
archiving music. It protects critical files and will allow you to revert your system back to
normal if anything goes wrong. Help and support is improved from Windows 98 and
home networking is made easier than ever.
Windows XP Home
Windows XP Home edition is the newest edition of Microsoft’s OS for home users. It
allows for faster user switching, a simplified visual design, It also uses System Restore,
like ME, which allows for safety when installing additional software or making changes
to the computer’s configuration. It, like the rest of the client OS software mentioned here,
is equipped to be networked easily.
LANtastic Artisoft
ReadyLink Compex
WEB WebCorp
Server/Client Software
In a peer-to-peer network, the computers act as both a client and a server. However, it is
necessary to have an operating system that can perform in this environment. In a Server-
based network, the purpose of a network operating system is to connect all devices on a
network (computers and peripherals) and to coordinate their usability. This can also
provide accessibility and security for all devices on a network. Some network operating
systems require that different versions are installed depending on whether a computer is
the server (provides resources remotely over a network) or a client (uses resources
locally).
• Client Software
• Server Software
Client Software
If you type a command for your stand-alone computer to perform a task, the command is
processed over the computer’s internal CPU via the computer’s local bus. However, if
you were requesting resources or services that exist on a remote server, the operating
system has to have the capability to redirect (forward) the request away from the local
bus, out onto the network, and to the server. The component that handles these requests is
called the redirector.
Server Software
As their name implies, Servers exist to serve. They process requests from clients for
resources such as files and peripherals. They are the storage facility for the bulk of the
data in a network environment and as such are an excellent point from which to centrally
manage a network. Unlike most client software, server software includes services for the
following:
• Security
• Data Protection
Servers make it possible to manage users from a central location. Users are required to
enter a password before they can log on and gain access. Administrators set up and
manage user accounts and passwords.
Security
Administrators can set up the accounts to determine who gets privileges to what
resources and change them as needed (including denying access). The server keeps track
of who is logged onto a network and what resources have been (or are being) accessed.
Network security is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10.
Data Protection
As we already discussed, most of the data is stored on the server. This makes it an
excellent point from which to perform regular backups. Most network administrators
provide some sort of fault-tolerance system on the server. At the very least, the server
should be attached to an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Some networks even
cluster server so that more that one server can share a database of information. This
The purpose of the redirector is to make network resources look like local resources to
application programs. It does this by assigning drive letters, called drive designators, to
resources. If it is a local designator (drive C: for example) the request is passed on to the
local bus. If it is a network designator the request is forwarded to the server, which opens
the file or transfers the print job to the network printer, etc. This makes the application
program believe that it is simply working with a very large hard drive or with a local
printer. It does not need to know anything about networks.
NOS Packages
There are a multitude of network operating systems available for use. Each of them has
its own advantages and disadvantages. In this section, we will take a closer look a some
of the more popular ones.
Novell NetWare
The NetWare operating system has been around for a long time. In the past, it was the
most popular server operating system, but it is losing market share to Microsoft servers
every year. It is a reliable operating system that provides performance and security. The
earliest version (2.2) was designed to operate on 286 machines. Versions 3.12 and 4.11
operate on 386, 486, or Pentium machines. Version 4.11 is called IntranetWare. It is
Novell’s push to gain market share and is a way of creating an Intranet, which is like the
Internet but within a network or company. Version 6.5 is now on the market. NetWare is
based upon the industry standard X500 directory architecture. NetWare is administered
through NetADMIN, which is a DOS-based utility, or through NWADMIN.EXE, which
is a Windows-based utility. It may be installed in either the client or server format.
• NetWare’s popularity is due largely to its ability to provide services across multi-
operating system environments.
NetWare Security
The purpose of a network may be to share resources, but there will always be data in any
network to which access must be restricted. NetWare provides more than adequate
network security by using a combination of approaches. First, login security provides
authentication and verification of user name, password, time, and account restrictions.
Trustee rights regulate which directories and files a user can access, as well as what kind
of access they have. Directory and file attributes are used to set the types of access for a
file or directory such as viewed, copied, shared, non-shareable, deleted, or changed. See
Chapter 10 for more information on network security.
NetWare also provides a method of using simple commands to send messages to other
users on the network. You can send messages to individuals or to groups very easily. You
can even send messages to everyone in a group, except an individual workstation.
Version 2.X:
RAM 2.5 MB
Version 3.X:
RAM 6 MB
Version 4.X:
RAM 16 MB
Version 5:
RAM 64 MB
Client Software
The client software may be installed on any computer running any of the following:
• OS/2 1.1 or later (Standard or Extended Edition) and the NetWare Client32 for
OS/2
• OS/2 2.11 or OS/2 Warp and the NetWare Client32 for OS/2
The NT Kernel, which as at the base of all Microsoft’s servers, actually evolved from a
project that was jointly developed by IBM and Microsoft (OS/2). Microsoft released the
Windows NT operating system and a network operating system version, Windows NT
Advanced Server in 1993. Today, Windows NT has two versions: Server (the server
software) and Workstation (the client software). Although Server and Workstation can
both operate as either stand-alone or network systems, Server is much more powerful so
that it may provide network management. The newest of these server operating systems,
Windows 2000 Server and Windows Server 2003, offer even more advantages and
stronger security than their predecessors.
Messenger Service monitors the network and provides pop-up messages for the user.
Alerter Service sends the notifications that are monitored by the messenger service.
Browser Service provides a list of all available domain and workgroup servers.
Interoperability
As Novell NetWare was the “big kid on the block” when NT came on the scene,
Microsoft wanted to make NT as compatible with NetWare as possible. This trend
continued with the latest Windows server operating systems (Windows 2000 Server and
Windows Server 2003. The following is a list of services included with Windows Server
software to ensure NetWare compatibility:
CSNW (Client Services for NetWare) is the Microsoft service that allows workstations
to use file and print services on a NetWare server. It can be installed on the Microsoft
client to allow it to connect the Netware server directly. Installing CSNW automatically
installs the NWLink protocol as well.
FPNW (File and Print Service for NetWare) is a utility that enables NetWare clients to
access Microsoft file and print services. This software is not included with Netware but
can be purchased separately.
DSMN (Directory Service Manager for NetWare) is another add-on utility that is used
to integrate user and group account information between the two operating systems. It
allows Novell NDS computers to be managed just as Microsoft domain controllers.
Migration Tool for NetWare is a tool used to convert from NetWare to Windows. Its
purpose is to move (called migrating) NetWare account information to Microsoft’s
domain controller.
VINES was originally based on UNIX and has a directory services application called
StreetTalk layered on top. StreetTalk provides directory, security, and messaging
services, as well as file and printer sharing.
Linux is another operating system similar to UNIX. It is a publicly open system that has
made it popular among enthusiasts already familiar with a UNIX interface. At its
inception, Linux was designed to be less expensive than UNIX; in fact the software is
available for a free download. It uses a GUI (graphical user interface), TCP/IP, and many
other features associated with an OS. It is available on both Intel (PC) and PowerPC
(Mac) platforms, as well as others. Linux is open source, which means that it can be
changed by a software programmer. Because of its open source nature, many variations
of Linux have been created over the years such as Caldera and Red Hat.
The Macintosh ("Mac") was developed by Apple Computer in 1984. In conjunction with
Xerox, they developed what later became known as the mouse and the first GUI display.
The Mac OS X is the most current operating system used in conjunction with the Apple
computer (at the time of the writing of this book), and the processor used in Apples today
is called PowerPC. Macs are known for being used primarily in video or graphic
production, but users also use them personally, both at home and on the go.
Summary
Operating systems are the lifeblood of the computer. Without an operating system a
computer is just another pile of metal and plastic. Network operating systems allow a
computer to function in a network environment. Today, the most popular network
operating systems also function as the network operating system. There still are
numerous LANs that use a network operating system over a conventional operating
system.
In a peer-to-peer network, the computers may function as either a server (when sharing
resources to others on the network) or a client (when sharing the resources of another
computer on the network). In a server-based network, the client computers rely on the
server for their resources.
Server and client machines typically use different operating systems. Novell’s NetWare
allows for client machines to use a variety of operating systems. Windows NT has Server
software for the server and Workstation software for client machines. The main
advantages of the server-based network are increased security, centralization of
administration, and data backups.
A key component in a network operating system is the Redirector (called the Requester in
Novell NetWare). The function of the redirector is to determine whether a requested
resource is located locally (on the client computer) or exists on the server (remotely). The
redirector then routes the request to the proper bus accordingly. With the redirector, an
application is unaware that it is working from a network.
It is important for the networking professional to know the major network operating
systems used today, such as Novell NetWare and Windows server operating systems, and
at least be familiar with others, (UNIX, Banyan VINES, etc.).
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. Study through the
chapter again if you need to.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Keyword Definition
Client Software
CSNW
DSMN
FAT
File Server
GSNW
Interoperability
MHS
Linux
Macintosh
Multitasking
NDS
Non-Preemptive
Multitasking
NOS
NTFS
NWLink
Preemptive Multitasking
Print Server
Redirector/Requester
Security
Server Software
UNIX
Review Questions
5. What is NDS?
6. What are the minimum hardware requirements for installing Novell NetWare
version 5?
7. Define interoperability.
9. What is NTFS?
11. What are the minimum hardware requirements for Windows NT Server?
15. What type of network would utilize Windows for Workgroups as an operating
system?
The OSI Model was created after many of the protocols it represents were already in use.
As a result, some of the information regarding these protocols may appear to be
inconsistent with the OSI Model.
There are seven steps required to prepare data for transmission between the sending
application and the receiving application. The OSI model represents these seven steps as
seven layers. These layers are used extensively in network environments and it is
imperative that the networking professional understand the different layers and their
functions.
The OSI model defines the rules involving how network devices will contact each other,
and how they will communicate if they are using different languages. The OSI model
also defines how a device knows when to transmit; when not to transmit; and how to
make sure that transmissions are received correctly by the recipient. Even how the
physical media is arranged and connected; how the data will flow (at what speed); and
how bits are represented on the medium are defined within these specifications.
The first thing you should notice is we’ve listed the layers from the top down. This model
is usually represented in this way because we refer to the layers as upper and lower
layers, depending upon their functions.
The network redirector operates at this layer. The redirector is responsible for making
network services appear to be local services to a computer.
As its name implies, it presents data to the application layer. The presentation layer acts
as a translator between an application’s native format and the network.
Session Layer
The Session layer organizes the flow of data between
devices. This layer is responsible for establishing,
managing, and ending connections. Each connection
is called a session. The Session layer uses a name
lookup service such as NetBIOS to identify and establish sessions between two
computers. It is also responsible for security and other functions that allow two
applications to communicate over the network.
The Session layer controls the communication between the two computers and
determines who can transmit, or receive, and when. The Session layer organizes data
synchronization and also inserts checkpoints in the data. These checkpoints ensure that
all data is sent (or received) and make it possible to limit retransmissions in the event of a
network failure during transmission. Only the data after the last transmission will have to
be retransmitted after a failure.
The Transport layer is responsible for delivering data that is in sequence, without
duplication, and error free. The Transport layer accepts packets from the Session layer
and repackages them. It is responsible for resizing them before being sent to the
destination computer. For example, if the packets are too small, they will be combined. If
When the data is received, it will be un-packed, stripped of its addressing information,
checked for errors, and then assembled and sent up to the Session layer. In an ideal
world, all data packets will be sent and retrieved in an orderly, error free manner. Should
an error occur, however, the Transport layer will sort out the problems and request that
missing packets be retransmitted.
TCP and UDP are Transport layer protocols. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
When you are using a connection-oriented protocol, the Transport layer is responsible for
the guaranteed delivery of packets. This is accomplished through various error control
and other protocol-dependent features. UDP is a connectionless protocol. When you are
using a connectionless protocol, delivery of packets is not guaranteed. Connectionless
protocols are faster, but connection-oriented protocols are more reliable.
Network Layer
The hardware that is used to construct the network
plays an important role at this layer. The network
layer handles all the routing information as packets
travel from one network to another.
The Network layer is responsible for communication between computers via their IP
addresses. This layer makes routing decisions for transmissions that are further away than
a single link. It translates logical network addresses into physical machine addresses and
determines the best route to the destination computer. This controls network congestion,
especially on large intranetworks where there may be more than one way to reach a
destination.
This layer is also responsible for breaking packets into smaller chunks, if they are larger
than the largest acceptable frame size on a network. For example, the largest frame size
on an Ethernet is 1,518 bytes and the smallest is 64 bytes. This layer also reassembles the
data before passing it up to the Transport layer on the receiving side. Routers and NICs
function on this layer.
In a broadcast network such as Ethernet, the data is sent out on the wire to all computers.
The frame is accepted by the Physical layer of all of the computers on the network and
passed up to the Data Link layer. It is the Data Link layer that determines whether the
message is for an individual computer or not. If it is, it accepts the data and passes it up to
the next layer. If it is not, then it discards the data.
The IEEE Committee thought that the Data Link layer needed to be further defined. They
accomplished this by splitting the Data Link layer into two sub-layers.
Logical Link Control (LLC)
The Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer of the Data Link layer is the upper of the two
sub-layers. It is responsible for connecting two computers on a network and maintaining
that link.
The LLC sub-layer provides SAPs (Service Access Points) that are used by other
computers to transfer information to the upper OSI layers. The Logical Link Control
layer is concerned with managing traffic over the physical medium. It identifies a line
protocol, such as SDLC, NetBIOS or NetWare and may also assign sequence numbers to
frames and track acknowledgements. The IEEE 802.2 standard defines how this takes
place.
Media Access Control (MAC)
The Media Access Control (MAC) sub-layer of the Data Link layer controls the way that
multiple computers share the same media channel. The way that a network shares the
channel is called its carrier access method. The three main types of access methods are
Contention (CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA), Token Passing, and Demand Priority.
This sub-layer communicates directly with NICs using the MAC address. The MAC
address is another name for the 12-digit (6 byte or 48 bits) hexadecimal address that is
hardwired on the NIC by the manufacturer. It uniquely identifies devices on the same
medium. The first 3 bytes (6-digits) identify the manufacturer, (they are the vendor code
that is assigned to a manufacturer by the IEEE Committee) and the last 6-digits identify
the NIC (host). The manufacturer is assigned blocks of numbers to assign to NIC cards.
The combination of these numbers assures that each NIC that is manufactured (by any
vendor) will have a unique MAC address. Although quite rare, it is not unheard of for
these addresses to be duplicated even with these precautions having been taken. MAC
addresses are copied to RAM when a NIC is initialized.
The first 3 bytes (00-00-13) identify the manufacturer of the card. The last 3 bytes (35-
FD-AB) are the Device ID that is unique to the associated Vendor ID.
Bridges operate at the Data Link layer. Bridges are devices that connect network
segments and filter data using MAC addresses. Switches, which are intelligent hubs that
use MAC addresses to send packets, data work at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
Physical Layer
The Physical layer is the bottom layer of the OSI
model. It is the only layer of the OSI model that
communicates directly with its peer on another
computer. It is responsible for the mechanical and
electrical functions of transmitting data over a network. It converts the data into the raw
bits and signals (1’s and 0’s) that are actually transmitted over the network medium. The
Physical layer of the receiving computer converts the bits back into frames.
The Physical layer is not concerned with the contents of the packets, it is only concerned
with the physical elements of the network and the transmission and reception of signals.
It specifies such things as how many pins a network connector will have, and what each
one will do. It identifies the NIC, synchronizes the data, and determines when and how
data may be transmitted.
Point-to-point and multipoint connections are addressed at the Physical layer. Point-to-
point communication is the process of one device communicating with one other device .
Multipoint communication is the process of one device communicating with multiple
devices on a network. Point to point communication is often used between switches and
routers on a network.
The physical characteristics of a network will affect the specifications of the Physical
layer. For example, an Ethernet network using UTP would have different specifications
than an Ethernet network using Fiber Optic cable.
Repeaters, hubs and transceivers, all operate at the Physical layer of the OSI model.
Protocol Stacks
When more than one protocol is necessary to accomplish a task, protocols can be layered
so that specific protocols handle their appropriate subtasks at specific layers of the OSI
model. These subtasks are stacked in such a way that together they complete a whole
task. This is called a protocol stack, or suite. Each protocol receives services from the
layer directly below it, and provides services to the layer directly above it.
This is accomplished by each layer (with the exception of the top and bottom layers)
adding a header to the message (or removing it on the receiving end) before passing it
down (or up) to the next layer. Headers contain instructions for tasks that need to be
performed at that level. For example:
You send a request for services to the server. You are communicating directly with the
Application layer. (Remember, the Application layer is not the actual application, simply
a support layer to allow applications to perform network functions.) The request is in the
form of a packet. The request is then passed to the Presentation layer where a header is
added to the message. The Presentation layer passes the modified packet down to the
Session layer, which also adds a header and passes the packet down to the Transport
layer. This process continues until the packet reaches the Physical layer. The Physical
layer does not add a header, it simply converts the packet into a bit stream and sends it
out onto the network medium.
When the destination computer receives the data, the process of moving through the
layers is reversed. As the packet travels up through the layers, each layer reads and
performs the tasks specified in its peer’s header before passing the packet up to the next
layer. When it arrives at the Application layer of the destination computer, the data is
back in its original form so that it may be interpreted by you and the request is considered
processed.
In addition to reading the headers and performing the instructions, each layer is also
responsible for adding or removing headers so that the data is ready to be interpreted by
the next layer.
Note: Packets (also called service data units) are made up of data and headers
acquired from upper layers. Because of this, they are sometimes referred to by
different names at different layers. The term packet is appropriate to all of the layers,
but the following table lists the other names that might be associated with them at
the various layers:
In fact, some of the components or layers may actually do the work of several layers of
the OSI Model, as in the case of the TCP/IP protocol. Also, the OSI Model is not a
protocol. Its purpose is to provide a graphical image of how network protocols work
together to provide communication between two computers. By relating various protocols
to the OSI model, we can better understand how they communicate across the layers.
Data will travel from one computer to another on a network from the Application layer to
the Physical layer on the sending computer, then to the Physical layer on the receiving
computer and back up to the Application layer. This communication will take place as
long as both computers are using the same protocols. The various layers of the protocol
are communicating as though they have virtual connections.
Flow of Data
As part of the Network+ Certification program, you will need to know the seven layers of
the OSI model. The following mnemonics are commonly used to help remember the
layers:
Throw Transport To
No matter how you memorize the layers, you do need to remember the different layers
and the tasks for which each layer is responsible. Keep in mind that it isn’t actually the
layer that performs the task, it is the appropriate hardware or software that does the work.
The OSI model simply defines which functions need to be completed at each layer and
which protocols are to be used at each layer. This is so that different types of computers
with different types of hardware and software can communicate.
These specifications make it possible for hardware and software manufacturers to create
products that will function in different computing environments. The specifications
describe how components are supposed to function. Without them we would not have as
many software or hardware packages available to us, because each product would have to
be specialized towards each type of computer or operating system, etc.
Repeaters, bridges, routers, and gateways are the most common devices that are used to
expand a network. The networking professional needs to be familiar with these devices,
as well as where in the OSI model they operate.
Repeaters
A repeater operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model. It regenerates or amplifies a
signal across LANs. As electrical signals travel across a network medium the signal
weakens as a result of resistance from the cabling itself. This weakening is known as
attenuation. A repeater amplifies these signals so that they can travel further or across
LANs.
Bridges
A bridge operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Bridges connect two separate
networks to form one logical network. They rely on MAC addressing to forward
messages to their destination.
Routers
Routers operate at the Network layer of the OSI model. Routers are responsible for using
logical addresses to move packets from one network to another and deliver them to a
host. Most routers today support multiple protocols such as:
TCP/IP SNAP
SNA PPP
SLIP PPTP
IPX/SPX DECnet
• NetBEUI
• DLC
• LAT
Number Defines
802.1 Internetworking
If you would like more information on these standards, visit IEEE’s web-site at
http://www.standards.ieee.org
There are also many other web sites that discuss these standards, and if you would like
more information on them, a little surfing might be in order.
Network protocols work at various layers of the OSI model. It is the protocol operating at
a certain OSI layer that defines that layer’s function. Application layer protocols provide
support for application-to-application functions in the upper layers of the OSI Model.
Transport layer protocols reside in the middle layers of the OSI model and are
responsible for establishing sessions and ensuring that data is sent and received error free,
and in full. Network protocols reside in the lower layers of the OSI model and handle the
addressing and routing functions of network communication. The network layer protocols
also are responsible for error checking (CRC) functions.
Protocol Binding
In order to function, a protocol must be bound to the NIC. This binding process is what
links the protocol stacks to the NIC driver. It is possible to bind two protocols to one NIC
(such as TCP/IP and IPX/SPX) or to have two NICs with one protocol bound to each one.
(This is useful if your network communicates with another entirely dissimilar network.)
The order in which these protocols are bound to the NIC determines which one the
network operating system will attempt to use first. For example, if TCP/IP is bound first,
the operating system will attempt to communicate using TCP/IP first. If that fails, it will
then attempt to communicate with the second protocol.
Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless
Communication between computers may be connection-oriented or connectionless.
Connection-oriented would be like dialing up your friend to ask them to come to a party.
You speak directly to your friend who either agrees or disagrees to come. In a
connectionless scenario, it would be like calling your friend and simply leaving a
message on his answering machine. You have no confirmation (unless he calls you back)
that he received the message.
• AppleTalk
• DECnet
• IPX/ SPX
• PPP
• PPTP
• SLIP
• SMB
• SNA
• TCP/IP
• UDP
• X.25
• XNS Protocols
• DLC
• LAT
• NetBEUI
AppleTalk
This proprietary protocol stack allows Macintosh systems to operate in a network
environment. This stack consists of:
• AppleTalk Filing Protocol (AFP) – Manages file sharing at the Application layer
Many companies use Netware with the TCP/IP protocol stack. Novell Netware 5.1 and
later installs TCP/IP by default.
SMB (Server Message Block)
This Microsoft protocol operates at the Presentation layer and is used for communication
between the server and the redirector.
SNA (Systems Network Architecture)
This protocol suite is used with IBM mainframes and AS/400 systems. The two main
protocols in this stack are APPC (Advanced Peer-to-Peer Communications) and APPN
(Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking). APPC supports Transport and Session layer
services, while APPN provides Network and Transport layer connections.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
The TCP/IP suite contains two major protocols, TCP and IP. It also contains several
others that the networking professional needs to be familiar with. We will cover TCP/IP
extensively in Chapters 8 & 9.
TCP functions at the Transport layer of the OSI model and is a connection-oriented
protocol. TCP is responsible for adding header information that contains error checking
and flow control information.
IP (Internet Protocol)
IP is a connectionless protocol. It operates at the Network layer of the OSI model and is
responsible for addressing packets and routing them over the network.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
UDP provides the datagram service in TCP/IP. A datagram is a kind of packet that has
minimum overhead. No error checking exists and delivery is not guaranteed, so the
application must do the error checking and retransmission if necessary. Missing packets
and out-of-sequence data is not checked and no acknowledgements are sent. It is faster
than TCP because it is connectionless. It is also layered on IP like TCP.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This protocol is used for file sharing between computers on a TCP/IP network. FTP is an
Application layer protocol and is available for nearly every operating system. It is used to
upload and download files on the Internet and between two computers.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is used for transferring files quickly and more
simply than the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). It is less capable than FTP because it uses
UDP rather than TCP, making it connectionless. If you do not need to use passwords,
then TFTP would be advisable over FTP.
Telnet
This Application layer protocol allows a user to log on and run applications remotely.
The local computer acts as a display only and all processing occurs remotely. Telnet can
also be used for remote configuration of servers and network devices such as routers and
switches.
NFS (Network File System)
Sun Microsystems developed NFS as a file and drive sharing system. It operates like a
combination of Telnet and FTP and allows users to access files and drives on remote
computers as if they were local resources. It is an Application layer protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP is an Application layer protocol that is responsible for sending E-mail from the
sender’s server to the recipient’s E-mail server.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) – This is a simple routing protocol that counts the
hops that will be needed to reach a destination. It chooses the route with the fewest hops,
without regard to speed. It resides in the Network layer.
NTP (Network Time Protocol)
Network Time Protocol (NTP) is used in a networked environment to synchronize
computer clock times. It uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to synchronize
computer clock times to a millisecond. It is designed to be reliable and allows for
scalability.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
Like RIP, this is also a Network layer protocol. OSPF counts the number of hops to the
destination computer, but in addition, it also takes into consideration the network speed
and traffic and makes routing decisions based on the best route, instead of only the
number of hops.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
ARP is responsible for resolving IP addresses to MAC addresses. ARP keeps a table of
corresponding IP and MAC addresses that have been resolved in the previous 10 minutes.
ARP will first check its table and if a matching address is not found, it will broadcast on
the local subnet to determine the MAC address of the computer with the associated IP
address. The computer that has the corresponding IP address will respond to the
broadcast by sending its MAC address. ARP will add the information to its table for
future use. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a related protocol that
performs the same function, but in reverse.
In addition, X.25 is also an equipment specification. The first specification refers to the
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment). This is the host on an X.25 network. The second part
of the specification is the DCE (Data Communications Equipment). The DTE acts as an
endpoint for communications and the DCE acts as an entry point for the DTEs.
This is an older packet switching network that uses switches and circuits. Data is routed
via the best connection at a given time. This means that routes change as conditions
change. Packets from the same transmission are routed via the best route (and don’t
necessarily follow the same route) and are reassembled at the receiving end. At each stop,
packets are re-examined to determine whether they are damaged, making X.25 a very
slow but very reliable protocol. Because of this, the X.25 network is sometimes referred
to as a cloud. Data goes in and comes out, but in between, it is out of the administrator’s
control.
X.25 functions take place at the Physical and Network layers and normally interface with
a protocol called LAPB (Link Access Procedures-Balanced).
XNS (Xerox Network System)
XNS is a proprietary protocol developed by Xerox for their Ethernet LANs. It is bulky
and slow and has largely been replaced by TCP/IP.
Non-Routable Protocols
The following protocols are non-routable. This means that they may not be used with
networks that use routers to connect multiple LANs. This also means that they may not
be used to connect to the Internet.
DLC (Data Link Control)
DLC operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. It was originally used to connect
IBM mainframes to HP network printers. This protocol is not used for data
communication. Instead, it is installed only on the print server and communicates directly
with the printer.
This is not an actual protocol and is not used to perform networking functions, only
printing functions.
LAT (Local Area Transport)
LAT does not have a Network layer, which is the main reason that it is non-routable. It is
a DEC protocol used for interactive, asynchronous terminal traffic over a LAN. It is
typically used between a DECserver and a VAX minicomputer.
Note: TCP/IP is such an important protocol that we will be covering it in depth later in
the text.
Summary
In this chapter, we learned about the OSI model and its importance in networking. We
also learned what type of devices function at various levels of the OSI model and how
these devices interact with each other.
It is important to note that memorizing the OSI model will not only help you pass the test,
but also help you to narrow down problems when troubleshooting a network.
For example, if you can get to the server through a router, you know that networking is
taking place and that you have functionality up to layer three.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
802.x Standards
Application Layer
Bridge
Brouter
Gateway
Network Layer
Non-Routable Protocol
OSI
Physical Layer
Presentation Layer
Protocol Stack
Repeater
Routable Protocol
Router
Session Layer
Transport Layer
3. A network adapter card operates at the _____ layer of the OSI Model.
9. The ____________ layer is responsible for the mechanical and electrical functions of
transmitting data over a network.
11. Which OSI layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and ending connections?
13. Which part of this MAC address is the Device ID? 00-01-A5-D3-B4-01
82 Specialized Solutions, Inc.
Chapter 3 – The OSI Model and Communication Standards
14. Which OSI layer makes routing decisions?
15. Which OSI layer is responsible for delivering data in sequence, without duplication
and error free?
16. The Data Link layer has been split into two sub-layers. What are they?
18. Which IEEE standard defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer?
23. You have expanded your NetBEUI network into two segments and are using an
intelligent router to optimize network traffic. Will this work? Why or Why not?
Network Cabling
Although wireless networks do exist, (and we’ll cover them later in this chapter), most
networks utilize some type of cable to carry transmissions on the network.
There are numerous kinds of cable, but fortunately for the networking professional there
are only three major types that you need to understand.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a copper core (either solid or stranded) surrounded by plastic
foam insulation, a braided metallic shield called the ground as well as an outer cover.
Because it is shielded, it is less susceptible to EMI than UTP.
Coaxial cable is used in Ethernet Networks; 10Base2 (Thinnet) and 10Base5 (Thicknet)
in a Bus topology.
It can transmit voice, video, and data over longer distances that UTP or STP.
Thinnet
Thinnet is about ¼-inch thick and is flexible and easy to install. It has a maximum
segment length of 185 meters (about 606 feet) and a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. It
uses a BNC (British Naval Connector) “T” connector to connect directly to the NIC. It is
not often used in today’s networks, but may still be used in some temporary installations
such as a construction trailer (although wireless would be a much more likely
alternative).
Thicknet
Thicknet is about ½-inch thick and fairly rigid. Its copper core is thicker than Thinnet and
can carry signals farther (maximum segment length is 500 meters or about 1650 feet). It
also has a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. It uses a device called a transceiver to connect
the Thicknet cable to the NIC via a drop cable. The drop cable is connected to the NIC’s
AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) port connector, or DIX (Digital, Intel, Xerox), which is
more commonly known as a DB-15 connector.
10Base5 RG-8 50
Thicknet
10Base5 RG-11 50
Thicknet
10Base2 RG-58 50
Thinnet
Cable TV RG-59 75
ARCnet RG-62 93
Coaxial Connectors
British Naval Connectors (BNC) are used in both Thinnet and Thicknet networks to
connect the cable to the computers. As a networking professional you will need to be
familiar with the different types and their uses, as well as how they are attached to the
cables.
The BNC T connector is used to connect the network interface card to the cable. It is
attached directly to the NIC but allows network signal to flow straight through it as well
as to the NIC.
The BNC barrel connector is used to connect two lengths of Thinnet cable together. It is
soldered or crimped onto the cable to make the connection.
BNC Terminator
Both ends of the cable must be terminated to absorb signals and eliminate signal bounce.
The BNC terminator is a connector that has a resistor built in that performs this function.
One of the terminators must be grounded.
BNC Connectors
N Connectors
Thicknet uses N connectors that screw on. Both ends of the cable need to be terminated
with one end grounded.
N Connector
Transceivers
The computers in a Thicknet network do not connect directly to the cable as with
Thinnet. Thicknet uses a device called a transceiver. A transceiver is a device that
transmits and receives signals on a network medium.
The transceiver has a port for an AUI connector (AUI port connectors are also called DIX
connectors or DB-15 connectors), and an AUI cable. This cable is called a drop cable or a
transceiver cable, and is used to connect the device to the network. It is common to
connect a Thinnet LAN to a Thicknet backbone using a transceiver.
Transceiver
Vampire Taps
Although transceivers can be connected by cutting a cable and splicing N connectors and
T connectors on the transceiver, this was time-consuming and it absorbed signal so it was
not the common approach. Instead, most networking professionals used a clamp-on
transceiver. These clamp-on transceivers were often referred to as vampire taps because
they utilized sharp teeth that punctured the cable to make the connection. This types of
connections have been largely replaced by newer cable methods such as twisted-pair and
fiber optic cable.
Vampire Tap
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable has become the most popular type of cable used in networks today. It
is flexible and easy to install and is the least expensive of all the cable types.
This cable type consists of insulated pair strands of copper wire that are twisted around
one another. There are four pair strands in most twisted-pair cables. The twist helps
UTP
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cabling is the less expensive of the twisted-pair cable
types and hence the most popular. Since it is unshielded, it is more sensitive to EMI. It
has a maximum segment length of 100 meters. The quality of UTP is based on the
number of twists per meter in each pair of wires. The tighter the twist, the faster the
signal can be sent through the wires without crosstalk. Currently, there are six categories.
Category 3 cabling has a transmission speed of 10 Mbps. Category 5 UTP has a
transmission speed of up to 100 Mbps. UTP wire typically consists of eight wires or four
pairs. The following is a summary of UTP cables.
STP
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cabling is insulated with a foil mesh between the wire pairs.
This results in less sensitivity to
EMI.
RJ-45 Connector
AppleTalk
AppleTalk networks utilizing STP cabling uses a DIN-type (DB-9) connector.
Distribution Panels
Distribution racks and shelves are sometimes used to create more room for cables when
floor space is at a premium. This is an excellent way to organize network cables.
Expandable patch panels (sometimes called punch down blocks) are also used with UTP
installations. They come in various sizes up to 96 ports and support transmission speeds
of up to 10 Gbps . These patch panels act like a switchboard where cables are connected
and organized. The wire is assembled in the back of the patch panel in what is called the
pin location. The pin location is a color-coded slot into which the wire is punched down
using a special tool punch down tool to make the proper connection by stripping the
insulation from the wire without breaking the wire. The front of the patch panel contains
RJ-45 ports (a port is a female counterpart for the RJ-45 jack). The RJ-45 jack’s position
can therefore be changed from patch panel to patch panel to use a different set of cables
for the same connection. This gives the network administrator a greater degree of
flexibility and provides fault tolerance for the network cabling system. Wall plates are
typically used to make the connection to the computers themselves.
Because data only passes in one direction over fiber-optic cable, it consists of two
separate strands enclosed in a plastic jacket for strength. One strand transmits and one
receives. Signals are sent along the cable as pulses of light.
Because data is transmitted as light and not as electrical impulses, the data cannot be
tapped or stolen. Because of this feature, fiber-optic is used in networks that need a
secure media that transmits at high speeds over long distances.
IBM Cabling
IBM has its own special cabling for use on their Token Ring networks. They do not
conform to the same specification as used with standard UTP. IBM cabling is based on its
Type. The following is a summary of IBM Types:
2 Six twisted pairs, two STP and Same as type 1 but adds voice
four UTP – maximum length capability along with data.
100 meters (328 feet).
3 Four UTP with two twists per Lower cost alternative to type 1 or
inch – 22 or 24 AWG wire – 2. Cannot be used for 16 Mbps
maximum cable length is 45 Token Ring.
meters (148 feet).
4 Not Defined
7 Not Defined
IBM has developed its own cabling complete with its own standards and specifications.
The connector that they developed is unique in that any connector can connect to another
as opposed to having “male” and “female” connectors as with other types of connectors.
An IBM connector is sometimes called a hermaphrodite. These are very rarely used in
today’s modern networks.
IBM Connector
Coaxial 10 30 90 185
Thinnet
Cabling Terms
The following are terms that you will encounter when working with network cabling:
AWG (American Wire Gauge)
AWG is the standard that describes wire thickness. As the AWG wire number decreases,
the wire thickness increases. For example, 10-gauge wire is heavier than 14-gauge wire.
Typical STP and UTP wires are 24-gauge.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a term used to measure the ability of a network medium to transmit data.
Bandwidth is measured in megabits per seconds (Mbps) or gigabits per second
(Gbps).Baseband vs. Broadband
There are two techniques that are used to transmit signals over cable:
• Baseband uses the entire capacity of the cable as a single channel. It is used with
digital and utilizes TDM (Time Division Multiplexing). The signal flow is bi-
directional.
• Broadband allows two or more channels to share the bandwidth of the cable or
medium. It is used with analog and utilizes TDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing). The signal flow is uni-directional.
• Simplex refers to one-way communication only. For example, a pager can receive
a message, but cannot send a message.
• Half-Duplex can send transmissions both ways, (send and receive) but only one at
a time. An example would be a CB radio transmission where only one person can
talk at a time.
Coaxial cable comes in two grades: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Plenum. PVC is used
for the outer cover and the insulation in Polyvinyl Chloride grade cabling. PVC grade
cable is less expensive than Plenum grade cable but it gives off poisonous smoke and gas
when burned. If this type of cable were used in the plenum, these fumes would circulate
throughout a building in the event of a fire.
• Budget
• Network Traffic
• Security Needs
• Size/Distance
• Environment
The installation parameters need to be considered as well. For example, how will the
cable need to be installed? (If there are tight corners, the flexibility of the medium should
be considered.)
Will plenum grade cable need to be purchased? (If installing cabling in the plenum, local
fire codes will need to be addressed.)
Will the cable be installed in “noisy” areas where EMI will be a factor? (If installing the
cable near equipment or fluorescent lighting, shielded cable or fiber optic cable might be
more appropriate.)
If security is an issue on the network and the data to be transmitted needs to be secure,
fiber-optic cabling might be appropriate to avoid any tapping.
Is future growth of the network expected? (Expandability for future growth is easier to
achieve if it is planned for in advance.)
Transmission speeds and, last but not least, cost are issues that will need to be addressed
when planning your network. Building a low-cost network that doesn’t do the job won’t
win you any brownie points in the long run!
This card is installed into an expansion slot on every computer on the network and the
cable is connected to the card’s port. It makes the physical connection to the network,
handles network addressing, and controls the flow of data on the network.
Preparing the Data
Computers carry data internally via data pathways called buses. Because these paths are
side-by-side, data is moved along in groups. This is known as parallel communication.
Network cabling moves data in a single data stream. This is known as serial
communication.
Data traveling via a computer’s bus is traveling in parallel because the bits are traveling
along side-by-side. Older computers had 8-bit buses which meant that data could be sent
8-bits at a time. Today, most buses are 16-bit or 32-bit. We’ll discuss the different data
bus architectures a little later.
The NIC takes data coming from the computer in parallel form and converts it into serial
data so that it can be sent along the network cable.
Signals and Clocking
In order to understand how a NIC works, you need to have a basic understanding of
signals and clocking.
Signals
There are two types of signals:
Analog: Signals or waveforms that frequently take the form of sine waves, which
constantly vary in one or more values. Analog data has an infinite number of possible
states.
Clocking
Clocking is the method used by the NIC to count and pace the number of signals that it
sends and receives. Signals are sent in a continuous flow that represents the start and stop
of a data frame. This is how the NIC keeps track of how much data has been sent or
received.
Each NIC has a unique address that is hardwired onto it by the manufacturer. The IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) committee assigns blocks of these
unique numbers to each manufacturer.
DMA (Direct Memory Channel)
The NIC must be able to communicate with the computer in order to prepare data for
transmission on a network medium. Most computers utilize Direct Memory Access
(DMA) and the computer assigns some of its memory space for use by the NIC.
DMA allows the NIC to access the computer directly without having to go through the
CPU. This makes transferring data much faster.
The NIC signals the computer to send the data that it wants to transmit and the
computer’s bus moves the data from memory to the NIC.
Data often moves faster than a NIC can process it. When this occurs, the data is sent to
the card’s RAM (buffer) until it can be processed.
Controlling the Data Flow
Before transmitting, a NIC will send data over the network to the receiving card. This
communication takes place so that both the sending and receiving cards can agree on data
flow and confirmation parameters. Before transmission actually takes place the NICs
agree on the following points:
• How much data each card can hold before overflow occurs.
If one card is faster or more sophisticated than another card, they agree on common
parameters so that the data is sent at a speed that can be handled by the slowest card.
Once all of these parameters are agreed upon, the two cards start sending and receiving
data.
Configurable Options
In order for the computer to communicate with the NIC, the NIC may need to be
configured. Plug-and-Play cards configure themselves to be compatible with the
The operating system and the NIC need to have compatible resource settings, such as:
Typically IRQ5 is used for the network adapter card. IRQ3 and IRQ15 may also be used
if IRQ5 is already assigned. The main concept to understand is that the NIC is set up to
use an IRQ that is not already assigned to another device. Check your system’s
documentation to determine its current IRQ settings. The most important thing to
remember about IRQs is that typically no two devices can use the same interrupt.
Some NICs have settings that allow you to specify the size of the buffer, while others do
not use RAM addresses at all.
DMA Channel
Configuration of Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels is similar to IRQs. The main
difference is that there are only eight DMA channels available. The good news is that
unlike an IRQ, not all devices need one. DMA channels are used by devices that
frequently need access to large amounts of memory. With a DMA channel, these devices
can access the memory that they need without interrupting the processor. Only devices
like NIC cards that need this type of memory access are assigned DMA channels.
Connector Type
Your NIC may automatically adjust to use the kind of connector that you are using (BNC,
RJ-45, or both), or you may have to configure it manually.
Wireless NICs
Wireless NICs are used to connect wireless network systems to the computer. They
usually use a type of antenna (omnidirectional) and an antenna cable. Special software is
usually needed to connect a wireless NIC. Wireless LANs are discussed later in this
chapter.
Fiber-Optic NICs
Due to the high-cost of fiber-optic adapter cards, they are usually only used in special
cases where high-speed direct computer to fiber-optic cable connections are required.
Network Performance
Because of the effect that the NIC can have on network performance, it is important that
it is configured correctly and optimally. Most cards offer features that are designed to
improve network performance:
Utilizing Direct Memory Access (DMA) improves network performance by allowing the
computer to move data directly to the NIC’s buffer without going through the CPU.
Shared Adapter Memory is a method by which a NIC contains RAM that it shares with
the computer as if it were actually installed in the computer.
Shared System Memory is a method by which the NIC utilizes a portion of the
computer’s memory to process data.
Both EISA and MCA NICs offer Bus Mastering. This is a method by which the NIC
takes temporary control over a computer’s bus, thereby bypassing the CPU. The data
would then move directly to system memory leaving the CPU free to process other tasks.
This type of card is expensive, but investing in one can increase network performance by
20 to 70 percent.
RAM Buffering holds data in RAM chips that are located on the NIC until it can be
processed. Network traffic travels faster than most NICs can process data. Without this
feature, the NIC would be a bottleneck.
Some NICs have onboard microprocessors that eliminate the need of the computer’s CPU
to process data, thereby improving network performance.
Wireless Networks
The term wireless network implies that it is a network that doesn’t use any cabling. This
is misleading as most wireless networks utilize a system that consists of both cabling and
wireless components.
• Local Area Networks (LANs) – There are fully wireless systems, but usually the
wireless components are members of a wire-based LAN.
Mobility is another reason wireless networks are created. Doctors make rounds all over
the hospital and are often not at their desks when they need to access their computers.
With wireless systems, a user can access the network from anywhere in the building.
Wireless is also an option for areas where installing cabling would be impossible or
unsightly. This would include historical buildings where local codes would not allow
renovations, or open reception areas where the cables would be visible. Outdoor
installations often utilize wireless systems. Sometimes wireless systems are used to
connect to remote locations such as ocean dwelling oil platforms.
Wireless networks are more portable than cabled systems, making them ideal for uses
that require frequent moving.
Wireless networks use wireless access points (WAPs) to “connect” the network devices
to each other. They function just like other access points (i.e. – hubs), but through the use
of an infrared or radio medium.
Wireless Antennae
Wireless Transmission Methods
There are four basic methods of wireless transmissions:
• Laser
• Radio
• Microwave
• Infrared
You use infrared transmissions every time you use your TV’s remote control. This
involves using infrared (below Red) light to carry signals to a receiver. These signals
need to be rather strong because they can be affected by light sources, such as windows.
The effective distance between a transmitter and a receiver is limited to about 100 feet.
Infrared transmits very fast because of its high bandwidths. Infrared networks typically
broadcast at about 10 Mbps.
Infrared Networks
There are four types of infrared networks:
• Reflective Infrared
• Line-of-Sight Infrared
• Scatter Infrared
With reflective infrared, the signal is beamed towards a central unit, which then routes
the signal appropriately.
Line-of-Sight Infrared
With this type of infrared system, there must be a direct line-of-sight path between the
transmitter and receiver.
Scatter Infrared
Transmission rates are slower with this type as the signal is designed to bounce off of
walls, ceilings, etc. until it reaches the receiver. The effective distance of the signal is
limited to about 100 feet.
The signals can be broadcast via two methods: hopping, or direct sequence modulation.
In the hopping method, the available frequencies are divided into hops and the
transmitters and receivers “hop” from frequency to frequency for a predetermined length
of time.
In the direct sequence modulation method, the message is broken into parts (called
chips), which are then transmitted over separate frequencies.
• Packet-Radio Networking
• Cellular Networking
Packet-Radio Networking
Packets are sent via a satellite. These network-style packets are encoded with source and
destination address information, and only the destination device can receive and read the
packet.
Cellular Networking
Cellular networking is achieved via the cellular phone network. The packets sent are
called Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) and this form provides very fast
communication.
Satellite Station Networking
Microwave is currently the most common of the long distance transmission methods in
the US. It is used for line-of-sight communication.
Terrestrial Microwave
This is used for earth-based communication such as between two buildings, or across
large flat open areas like bodies of water or deserts. This form of microwave
communication is used to transmit over shorter distances.
Satellite Microwave
This is a very expensive technology and is utilized by very large corporations who pool
the billions of dollars required to develop and launch a satellite. Signals are beamed up to
the satellite and then sent back down to the appropriate receiver. This form of microwave
communication is used to transmit globally.
Summary
The first part of this chapter covers the various aspects of network media or cables. There
are three primary types of cabling: Coaxial, Twisted Pair, and Fiber-Optic. Coaxial
comes in two types: Thinnet and Thicknet. Twisted Pair can be Unshielded (UTP) or
Shielded (STP). Fiber-Optic cable uses pulses of light to carry signals.
You should know the types of connectors used for each cable type: BNC, RJ-45, AUI,
etc. In addition, you should know the maximum segment lengths for each cable type.
After discussing at network cabling we then took a look at the hardware that acts as the
intermediary between the cabling and the computer itself. This device is called the
network interface card (NIC) and provides the physical connection to the network. It
prepares, transmits, receives, and controls data flow over the network. As a network
professional, it is important for you to be able to configure the network card for optimum
performance.
Finally, we took a look at the future. Wireless networking is the trend of the future. As a
networking professional, it is important to understand the concepts associated with
wireless networks. The four basic wireless types are: Infrared, Laser, Radio, and
Microwave.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Analog Signals
AWG
Bandwidth
Baseband
BNC Connector
Broadband
Buffer
Cellular Networking
Clocking
Coaxial Cable
Digital Signals
EISA Bus
Fiber-Optic Cable
Full-Duplex
Half-Duplex
IRQ
ISA Bus
Laser Transmissions
Keyword Definition
MCA Bus
Microwave Transmissions
Narrow-Band Radio
PCI Bus
PCMCIA Card
Plenum
Reflective Infrared
Ring Speed
RJ-11 Connector
RJ-45 Connector
Satellite Microwave
Scatter Infrared
Simplex
Single-Frequency Radio
Spread-Spectrum Radio
Terminator
Terrestrial Microwave
Thicknet
Thinnet
Transceiver
Keyword Definition
Vampire Tap
20. In Token Ring networks, what are the two ring speeds available?
22. What are some of the reasons you would need to install a wireless network?
Ethernet is one of the most popular networking architectures. In this chapter, we will
discover how Ethernet works, as well as how Token-ring networks function. AppleTalk
and ARCNet networks are also included in this chapter.
After completing this chapter, you will have a working knowledge of the different
network architectures and the access methods that they use. You will also understand
how networks send data and what information is included in the frames that are
transmitted across the network medium. You will develop an understanding of Ethernet
networks and the IEEE standards for Ethernet. You will also know how Token Ring
networks function and what hardware is required to make them function. AppleTalk and
ARCNet architecture, while not as popular as Ethernet, are still important technologies
that the networking professional needs to comprehend.
A protocol is a language that computers use to communicate with other computers, in this
case, over a network. In Chapter 3, you saw how each layer of the OSI Model has
different protocols that define how the information travels. The way these protocols
interact is called a protocol stack.
• Digital’s DECnet
• Apple’s AppleTalk
The OSI Model was created at a later date than some of the aforementioned protocols;
thus, they do not map directly to the OSI Model.
• Transport protocols ensure that data is sent to the correct destination without
errors.
A protocol must be bound to the network adapter card, also known as the network
interface card (NIC), in order for it to be used with a network computer. In some
instances, as in the case of TCP/IP or IPX/SPX, two protocols may be bound to one card.
The order in which the operating system will use the protocol is determined by the order
in which the protocols are bound to the NIC.
Access Methods
In a network, multiple computers are contending with each other for access to the
network media. The rules for determining how a computer may send or receive data on
the network is called the access method.
The access method that a system uses is designed to prevent simultaneous sending of data
along the cable. If two or more computers were to send data at the same time, the data
may collide and be destroyed (or partially destroyed). The access method organizes the
sending and receiving of data. All computers on the network need to utilize the same
access method in order to be consistent in the way that the data is handled. This will
ensure that a dominant access method being used by one computer doesn’t override
access to the cable causing the network to fail.
Occasionally, however, two computers will transmit data at the same time and the data
will collide. The Collision Detection aspect of CSMA/CD causes the two computers to
stop transmitting and then attempt to retransmit after a specified period of time.
Naturally, the more users who are connected to a network, the denser network traffic
becomes. Greater network traffic can dramatically slow down the CSMA/CD access
method.
A computer that is waiting to transmit will take control of a free token. It will add
additional header and trailer information to the token as well as the data that it wishes to
transmit. Data is transmitted in frames. The header information that is added to the token
includes sending and receiving addressing information. The trailer includes error control
information.
When the computer is ready, the token is released back out onto the network and
continues around the ring until it reaches the destination computer. The destination
computer grabs the token and receives the data. It then adds some data to the token
indicating that it received the data and releases the token back out onto the ring. The
token continues around the ring until it arrives back at the source computer.
The source computer takes the token and confirms that the data it transmitted was
received. It then creates a new “free” token and releases it back out on the network to be
used by any computer that needs to transmit.
If either the source (sending) or destination (receiving) computer detect errors in the data
that was transmitted, the frame would be resent. A computer in a Token Ring network
must possess a token in order to transmit. Because only one computer at a time may
transmit, this is not a contention method and there are no data collisions. (Some more
recent versions of the Token Ring network have the capability to pass two tokens around
the ring.)
Demand Priority
The demand priority access method is designed for the 100 Mbps Ethernet standard
100VG-AnyLAN. It has been addressed in the IEEE 802.12 standard and is based on the
hubs and end-nodes being the two components that make up a 100VG-AnyLAN network.
An end node in a 100VG-AnyLAN could be a computer, router, switch, or bridge.
The hub manages network traffic by searching for requests to transmit from all the nodes
connected to the network. The hub is responsible for verifying that all end-nodes,
addresses, and links are functioning.
Demand priority is more efficient than CSMA/CD because there is only traffic between
the sending computer, hub, and destination computer, instead of broadcasts over the
entire network. Because of the cabling method used with this access method, (four pairs
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of wires are used, which enables quartet signaling) computers can send and receive at the
same time.
Contention can occur with demand priority if two computers transmit at exactly the same
time, but it is possible to configure so that certain types of data receive priority when
there is contention. If the hub receives two transmissions simultaneously, the one with the
highest priority is serviced first. If the two transmissions have the same priority level,
they are serviced at the same time by alternating between the requests.
Data is broken down into small chunks called frames or packets. (The terms frames and
packets are often used interchangeably, but we will use the term packets.) Data is
converted to packets in order for it to be moved across the network medium more
quickly. Also, if there is a transmission error, only a small portion of the data is affected
(and needs to be re-transmitted). The destination computer receives the packets and
reassembles them in the correct order to translate it back into the original message.
The sending computer breaks the data into packets and adds information to each packet in
order to make it possible for the receiving computer to reassemble them in the correct
order. This information allows for error checking after the data has been reassembled.
Packet Structure
Packets may contain:
• Instructions that tell the receiving computer how to reassemble the data.
Headers
Headers are attached to each packet. The header contains information such as an alert
signal to announce that a packet is being transmitted, the source and destination
addresses, and clocking information.
Data
This part of the packet contains the actual data that is to be transmitted. Depending upon
the network, packets can be various sizes, usually from 512 bytes to 4Kilobytes. Most
files are much larger than this so many packets will be made up to complete the
transmission.
Trailer
The information in the trailer can vary depending upon the communication method or
protocol used in a network. Usually, the trailer contains the error checking information.
A Packet
Network Standards
Network standards can best be described as the physical and functional characteristic of a
network. Protocols that are used with the OSI model define the rules of communication.
The standards define the means of communications. For example, in a railroad, data (in
this case passengers and freight) is moved in various cars. There are rules or protocols
that govern how the cars are loaded and the origination and destination points. However,
it is the rails and switches that govern the actual movement of the trains (data). These
provide the standards for the railroads. Not all railroads are the same (some are electric,
some are diesel, some are wide gauge, and some are narrow gauge), but all railroads that
are built to the same standards can exchange cars (data). In this section, we are going to
look at different standards for networks. Standards work in the Physical and Data Link
layers of the OSI model.
Logical Link Control (802.2)
The Logical Link Control layer, as addressed previously, is one of two sublayers of the
Data-Link layer and is concerned with managing traffic over the physical medium. The
LLC has the ability to track acknowledgements, but its primary function is maintaining
the network link by identifying a line protocol, like NetBIOS (Windows) or NetWare
(Novell).
Ethernet (802.3)
Ethernet is a non-propriety network architecture that was originally developed at the
Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) by Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs. The
original version was a 2.94 Mbps network system that would connect over 100 computers
on a one-kilometer cable.
Ethernet is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is a method for computers and data
systems to connect over shared cabling. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology (10BaseT
and 100BaseT use the star topology and 10Base2 and 10Base5 use a bus topology), and
typically transmits at 10 Mbps. It is a baseband system and utilizes the CSMA/CD access
method. It is probably the most popular network architecture used today. It can be
installed with Thinnet coaxial (10Base2), Thicknet coaxial (10Base5), or Twisted Pair
cable (10BaseT and 100BaseT).
There are a number of Ethernet IEEE standards. The following are the four that transmit
at 10 Mbps:
• 10BaseT
• 10Base2
• 10Base5
• 10BaseFL
10BaseT has a maximum segment length of 100 meters (Twisted Pair wiring maximum
segment length) and it is connected using RJ-45 connectors. If the segment must exceed
this limitation, repeaters can be used for longer distances. The maximum number of
nodes per network is 1024 and the minimum distance between nodes is 2.5 meters.
10BaseT uses the star topology.
10Base2 (Thinnet)
10Base2 uses Thinnet (coaxial) cable with BNC connectors in a Bus topology. As its
name implies, it transmits at 10 Mbps using baseband technology. The “2” stands for 2
times 100 meters, indicating its maximum segment length. The actual maximum segment
length, however, is 185 meters. The maximum number of nodes per segment is 30. The
maximum number of segments containing nodes per network is 3. (There may be five
segments but only three may be populated.) This is referred to as the “5-4-3 Rule”. The
maximum number of nodes per network 90. The minimum distance between nodes is .5
meters.
10Base5 (Thicknet)
10Base5 uses Thicknet (coaxial) cable, BNC connectors and a transceiver. It transmits at
10 Mbps using baseband technology in a bus topology. The “5” stands for 5 times 100
meters, meaning 10Base5 has a maximum segment length of 500 meters. The maximum
number of nodes per segment is 100 in a 10Base5 system, and the maximum number of
segments is 5 with 3 being populated. The maximum number of nodes per network 100.
The minimum distance between nodes is 2.5 meters.
• 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet
100VG-AnyLAN
In 100VG-AnyLAN the VG stands for Voice Grade. It is known by at least four names:
100VG-AnyLAN, 100BaseVG, VG, and AnyLAN. When you see any of these terms,
they are referring to the same thing.
The IEEE specification 802.12 is the standard that defines this technology. It is basically
a way of transmitting Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets. This uses a star topology
over fiber-optic and Category 4 and 5 twisted pair cable at a data transmission rate of 100
Mbps. It can support the demand priority access method as well as an option for filtering
address frames at the hub for added privacy.
100BaseVG requires its own hub and cards, and the longest cable length is 250 meters.
(It can be extended longer but it requires special equipment.)
As you know, the 100 means that it transmits at 100 Mbps and the Base means it uses
baseband technology. The T4 means that it uses four-pair twisted pair cable, the TX
means it uses two-pair twisted pair cable, and the FX means fiber-optic cable is used.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet is a transmission technology based on the Ethernet frame format and
protocol used in local area networks (LANs), and provides a data rate of 1 billion bits per
second (one gigabit). Gigabit Ethernet is currently being used as the backbone in many
larger networks.
Because of its intense speed, Gigabit Ethernet is carried primarily on fiber optic cable,
although copper can be used with much shorter distances. ATM competes, to some
degree, with Gigabit Ethernet, but that will be referred to later in this book. 10-Gigabit
Ethernet is also on the horizon.
• AppleShare
• Novell NetWare
The Token Ring access method, more than the cable design, is what sets Token Ring
apart. The name Token Ring implies that the physical layout is that of a ring. Actually, it
is a star ring with each node connected to a central hub. The physical ring is in the hub
and the logical ring represents the data’s path between the nodes.
The cable used is STP and UTP (IBM types 1, 2, and 3), and it has a transmission speed
of 4 or 16 Mbps. Like Ethernet, it uses the baseband technology.
How it Works
Basically, the network creates a token when the first computer comes online. The token is
actually a stream of data that allows a computer to transmit data on the cable. This token
will travel around the ring until a computer signals that it needs to send data. Each
computer on the network acts as a repeater and regenerates the signal as the token/data
frame passes through it. A computer cannot transmit data in a Token Ring environment
unless it possesses the token. Data collisions are avoided because only one computer is
transmitting at a time and no other computer is allowed to transmit unless it possesses the
token (which won’t be released until the previous computer is finished).
The computer that wants to transmit takes possession of the token. While the token is in
use by a computer to send data, it is known as a data frame. The data frame is a different
type of frame than the token. This is so that no other network computer will try to possess
it to transmit data. The sending computer encodes the data frame with information such
as:
Start Delimiter
Access Control
This sets the frame priority and is also where it is encoded to let the network
computers know whether the frame is a token or a data frame.
Frame Control
The information here determines whether the frame is being transmitted to all
computers on the network or one specific “end station” computer.
Destination Address
Message
After encoding the data frame, the sending computer releases it out onto the network
where it travels around the ring until it reaches the destination address.
Note: Data travels in only one direction on a Token Ring network. Whether it travels
clockwise or counter-clockwise is a matter of convention. The IEEE 802.5 standards say
it travels clockwise, while IBM says counter-clockwise.
The receiving computer copies the data into its buffer. It then encodes the frame with
information indicating that it received the data and there were no errors detected. Or, if
there were errors, it would indicate that the data needed to be retransmitted.
The frame is then released back out onto the cable where it travels back to the sending
computer. Assuming that the frame acknowledges that the transmission was successful,
the old frame is removed and the computer creates a new token and releases it back out
onto the ring.
Beaconing
In a Token Ring environment, the first computer to come online is assigned to monitor
network activity. This computer, called the active monitor, has the responsibility of
making sure that frames are being sent and received accurately. The active monitor
investigates any frames that have traveled the ring more than once and ensures that only
one token is traveling the ring at any one time.
To accomplish this task, the active monitor performs a process known as beaconing.
Every seven seconds the active monitor will send out a beacon. The beacon is passed
from node to node around the ring. If a computer doesn’t receive a beacon when
expected, it will notify the monitor that it didn’t receive an expected signal. This signal
contains the address of its upstream neighbor, as well as its own address. The network
will then attempt to diagnose and repair the problem without disrupting the entire
network.
As each new computer comes online, the Token Ring network initializes it so that it may
join the ring. Its address is checked to confirm that there are no duplicate addresses on the
network and the other computers on the ring are notified of the new computer’s active
status.
A Token Ring network can be expanded to have as many as 33 hubs. Each node is
connected to the hub via a cable, just as in other networks that use a hub. When a
computer is connected, the internal ring converts to an external ring at each connection
point.
MAUs can sense when one of the connected computers fails. The faulty node is then
disconnected from the ring so as not to affect the rest of the network. In a pure token
passing environment, the failure of one computer will bring down the rest of the network.
There is some contention as to the maximum distance from the computer to the hub using
Type 3 cable. IBM states that it is only 46 meters, but some vendors state that it is as
much as 152 meters.
The maximum distance between two MAUs is 152 meters. Using STP, each ring can
connect up to 260 computers. Using UTP, each ring can connect up to 72 computers.
AppleTalk
AppleTalk is the network architecture used in a Macintosh environment. Although it is
not nearly as popular as the Ethernet or Token Ring architectures, it is still an
environment that you may be dealing with as a networking professional.
AppleTalk is included with the Macintosh operating system software; therefore network
capabilities are built into all Macintosh computers.
Apple has always been open to third-party development. As such, AppleTalk can be used
by non-Macintosh computers such as IBM compatible computers, mainframe computers,
Digital Equipment Corporation’s VAX™ computers, and even some UNIX computers.
LocalTalk
LocalTalk uses STP, UTP, or Fiber-Optic cable in a Bus topology. It uses the CSMA/CD
access method and can connect a maximum of 32 devices. Since Macintosh builds-in the
hardware for LocalTalk in every computer, it is very inexpensive to initiate. LocalTalk
performance is rather limited, so it is not used as often as Ethernet or Token Ring.
AppleShare
The file server on an AppleTalk network is called AppleShare. AppleShare also provides
a print server. The client software for AppleShare is also included in the Apple operating
system.
Zones
LocalTalk networks may be joined together using zones. A zone is a named Subnetwork
that users may access simply by selecting it. This is useful for expanding the LocalTalk
network or for relieving traffic on a larger network. AppleTalk can incorporate other
types of networks such as Token Rings, by using zones.
EtherTalk
EtherTalk is simply a way to run AppleTalk on coaxial cable using an EtherTalk NB
NIC. EtherTalk may be implemented on Thinnet or Thicknet coaxial cable.
TokenTalk
TokenTalk is simply a way to run AppleTalk in a Token Ring (IEEE 802.5 Standard)
environment. The TokenTalk NB card is used to attach to a Token Ring network.
ARCNet was developed before the IEEE 802 specifications, but it can be adequately
charted to the 802.4 standards (Token Bus LAN). It uses a token-passing access method
that transmits at 2.5 Mbps. A later version, called ARCNet Plus, has a data transmission
rate of 20 Mbps.
Just like other token-passing access method architectures, a token is needed in order for a
computer to transmit data. Instead of the token traveling around a ring, the token is
passed in numerical order. If computer #1 is at one end of the network and Computer #2
is at the other, the token still passes in numerical order. Obviously, this can really slow a
network down if the computers are not in order.
ARCNet transmits data in packets. These packets contain the destination address, the
source address and up to 508 bytes of data. The ARCNet Plus architecture can hold up to
4096 bytes of data.
ARCNet utilizes hubs. These hubs may be passive, active, or smart. ARCNet can use
twisted-pair or fiber-optic cabling, but is normally installed using RG-62 A/U coaxial
cable. If using an active hub in a Star topology, with coaxial cable and BNC connectors,
the maximum cable distance between the computer and the hub is 610 meters. This
distance drops to only 305 meters if using the Bus topology. If using either the Star or
Bus topology with UTP and RJ-45 or RJ-11 connectors, the maximum cable distance is
244 meters.
Wireless (802.11)
IEEE 802.11 is the latest generation of enterprise-class wireless LAN technology. Speeds
up to 54 Mbps will be available within wireless networks (LANs to be more specific).
Interference can be lessened by their ability to function in their own band (in the GHz
range, generally). The capacity to use wireless technology is there for large-scale
deployments as well. Wireless technology is discussed in further detail in chapter four.
Summary
This has been another information intensive chapter and we covered a lot of information
on the different networking architectures. Managing network data is all about traffic
control, and the access method (such as CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, Token Passing and
Demand Priority) is the governor of how traffic is controlled on a network. It is important
for the networking professional to understand the characteristics of each access method.
Data is sent out on the network in smaller chunks of data called packets (or frames). If it
were sent out in one continuous stream it would quickly bring network traffic to a halt
due to the large size of the data. Packets will include information to identify the source
address, destination address and the actual data that is being transmitted. Most packets
also include error checking or CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check) methods to check the
reliability of the packets received. Packets consist of three components: the Header,
which includes an alert signal that a computer is transmitting, the source and destination
addresses, and clocking information; the Data; and the Trailer, which is where the error
checking calculation is located.
Although Token Ring is not as popular as Ethernet, it is still a common architecture and
is said to be increasing its market share by as much as 20% per year. Be sure that you
understand how this architecture works, as well as the different cabling schemes and
cable distances, etc.
AppleTalk and ARCNet architectures may be used less than Ethernet or Token Ring, but
as a networking professional you will encounter them. It is important that you understand
their specifications and access methods as well.
Be sure to complete the following exercises and review questions. If you are having
trouble with any of these concepts, go back and review the chapter again.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Access Method
AppleShare
AppleTalk
ARCNet
Beaconing
CRC
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CD
Demand Priority
Ethernet
EtherTalk
Frames
Header
Hub
LocalTalk
Packets
Patch Cable
Smart Multistation
Access Unit
Token Passing
Keyword Definition
Token Ring
TokenTalk
Trailer
Zones
2. Describe the difference between the two different contention methods, CSMA/CD
and CSMA/CA.
5. What happens if two computers using the demand priority access method transmit at
exactly the same time?
7. What is CRC and what part of the packet is it usually located in?
17. How are data collisions avoided in the Token Ring architecture?
The place to start a new network is with a pad of paper and a pencil or two. Even if this
network is your own, rather than a client’s, you need to approach the project as if it were
for someone else. This will give you the discipline to ask yourself the right questions and
to begin the process of documentation. There are two things that you will need to know.
The Customer
Obtaining a clear understanding of your customer and their needs is essential when
designing a network. As a network professional, you will have a lot of knowledge and
expertise with networks. This is well and good if you are designing a network for your
own use. However, in many cases, you are not designing for yourself. You could design
the best high-speed low-cost Windows system that was ever imagined, but if your
customer is a Macintosh user, your design will not work for them. The following is some
suggested information that you should gather about your customer:
The size of the company and the portion of the network affected.
The product – this is very important as a graphic arts client will have different needs than
an engineering firm or a law office.
The facility – how big is the building(s) and what is the layout of the various offices?
Current level of technology – how many computers do they have, who has them, are
there any printers or scanners, etc? If, for example, this is a Macintosh-based company,
you certainly don’t want to design a network around Windows. Most importantly, pay
attention to details.
Will this be a simple LAN or a complex WAN with Internet and remote users?
What are the future needs? Is this network to start small and expand later, or will it meet
the requirements of the latest technology?
How much traffic do you anticipate now and in the future? A business office moving
1000 documents and spreadsheets across a network will generate far less traffic than a
graphic arts or engineering office moving 1000 large imaging files. For example, a text-
only MS Word file will be approximately 30 KB of data while a single page image file
will average 50 KB, if the file is compressed, or as much as 8 MB for the same image
scanned (black and white) at 300 dpi uncompressed (even more if color or grayscale). So,
the same 1000 documents could be as little as 30 MB, or as large as 8 GB.
Is an Internet connection needed now or in the future? Will it be for all users or just a
select few?
What additional services will the network need to provide? Sharing of resources, files
services, print services, etc.
Once you collect this information, prepare a design document. Your document should
include a summary of all the information you collected. This can be done using any word
processor or spreadsheet program. You may want to consider using a drawing program to
create a layout of the facility. This can be a simple program like Microsoft Paint, or as
complex and as expensive as AutoCAD. There are many intermediate drawing packages
that are available. A good intermediate program is Visio 2002. This program provides
simple templates for both facilities and network components. Remember, at this time,
you are not documenting your network, only documenting the facility and the
requirements of the network. You will need this information as you make decisions in the
next few steps.
With this information in hand, you are now ready to begin the designing of the network.
The level of security required. This can range from none to very high. Also, not all nodes
may need the same level of security.
The type of business and how that will affect network traffic.
Skill level of the network users. Are they able to handle a sophisticated network or must
the network be transparent to them?
The commitment of management and users. Are they committed to the change or are they
going to resist the change?
When to Choose Peer-to-Peer
There are many reasons why you would want to choose peer-to-peer. The most prominent
are simplicity and cost. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are equal. They can
provide services to the network and use services provided by others. For example, if you
have a printer connected to your computer, you can share it to the network and anyone
who has access to the network can send work to it. Likewise, if a colleague has a color
printer and you don’t, you can send work to it if you need color printing (assuming that
they share the printer to the network).
Peer-to-peer networks are economical to setup and implement. First, they do not require a
high-power computer with lots of speed and processing power. Most personal computers
today will have more than enough power to successfully operate in a peer-to-peer
environment. You may have to add network cards and cabling, but most operating
systems like Windows 95 and up and Macintosh OS X are “network ready.” That is, they
include the necessary software and protocols for file and print sharing. You may need to
install the software, as generally it is not installed during a standard installation. As long
as you have the original software disk (CD), you will have no problem. Keep in mind that
you may not be able to mix two different operating systems without additional software
or upgrading to a client/server network.
The disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks are security and limited network size. Peer-
to-peer networks do provide some security in the form of allowing you to select what you
want to share to the network. This sharing is on a directory level. This means that every
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Chapter 6 – Network Design
file in the directory will be available to the network. As for size, the general rule is that
peer-to-peer networks should be limited to about 10 workstations. You can connect more
workstations, but there will most likely be reductions in network performance as stations
are added. In a peer-to-peer situation, if anyone is using a resource on your workstation,
such as your printer, they will also be using your processor to do their printing. The result
will be a slow-down of performance on your workstation. This will be especially true if
your workstation is using an older, slower processor and/or has limited memory (RAM).
In a small network where everybody knows each other and security is not an issue, a
peer-to-peer network may be the perfect solution. Also, a client with a limited budget
may consider this type of network as a starting point or entry-level network.
When to Choose Client/Server
On a client/server network (also known as server-based networks), all network resources
are usually centralized. This means that one or more computers are designated as servers
and provide the resources for the entire network. Since these computers are larger, have
high-power processor, and lots of memory, the performance of the network will be better
than in a peer-to-peer network. Another advantage of server-based networks is that the
servers are never turned off. This means that if you need to use the color printer that is
connected to the print server, you will not need to worry if Mary is on vacation and her
computer is turned off (since she is the only one in the company that has a color printer).
Using a file server to maintain all of the company-wide files, instead of backing up
individual workstations, is another advantage of a server-based network. This centralized
file system also makes for easy transfers of files throughout the company, 24-hours per
day. Also, if employees need remote access, information can be made available to them
through a RAS (Remote Access Server) connection.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of using server-based networks is security. These
server-based networks provide a central database that manages access to all the resources
as well as the network itself. Before you can use any resource, you must have both the
authorization to use the network and permission to use the resource. In a strict peer-to-
peer network, any user can log on to a workstation (with a new name and password) and
gain access to the network. In a server-based network, only a network administrator can
create a user name and assign permissions to that user.
Last but not least, server-based networks are scaleable. This means that you can start
small with one server and a few workstations, and expand as your needs expand.
While there are many advantages, you will also need to consider the disadvantages. The
most prominent disadvantage is the cost to install and operate the network. It is obvious
that server-based networks will require better and higher-powered hardware, but what is
often overlooked is the cost to administer the network. The more sophisticated the
network, the more knowledgeable the administrator needs to be. Most employees have
little or no knowledge of the workings of computers, must less the workings of a
network. For these people, the network must operate transparent to them. In small
networks, all that is needed is one or two knowledgeable people to act as administrators.
Remember, this will take part of their normal workday will be taken up to react to any
problems and maintain existing accounts, etc. In large networks, administration can be a
If you are not sure you have enough information, get more.
If all else fails, present each case to the client and let them make the final decision.
Once you have made this decision, stick with it and move forward. This decision will be
the basis for the rest of your network design.
Public and Private networks
In addition, let us define the difference between the terms public and private network,
since your organization will more than likely need access to the Internet and networks
outside of their LAN. A private network would be a corporate network or an Intranet,
which would limit its access to those outside of the company. A public network would be
the Internet, with open access to the global community.
Actually, you can use any address that you want to use inside of your own network and
behind your firewalls. The only problem is that if your firewall were to come down, then
you might have an address conflict with another entity on the Internet. For this reason,
there are specific addresses that are filtered by the routers at the backbone of the Internet.
The use of these addresses will completely prevent the address conflict issue. For this
reason, it is highly recommended that you use these addresses for your private
addressing.
If you are designing a network from the ground up and literally starting with a blank
piece of paper, you can skip this section. On the other hand, if all or part of a network
already exists, you will need to make a detailed inventory of the materials you already
have. You may also want to take an inventory as part of your initial evaluation.
The best approach is to make an inventory sheet for each piece of equipment. This form
should identify the equipment and its specifications. The following page shows an
example of what an inventory sheet might look like. Use it as a starting place to build
your own. Also, if you are creating a new network and have no inventory to work with,
you must add new hardware, use this sheet to define your proposed new equipment. The
following is an example of an inventory sheet. Feel free to use this as a starting place for
developing your own customized form.
If Other: _______________________________________
Location:
Model: ____________________________
Serial #: _____________________________
RAM ____________________
Monitor ____________________
Modem ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
A Network Layout
If economics are a major concern and you are designing a small temporary LAN,
consider Thinnet coaxial cable. These cables are inexpensive and if all computers are in
the same proximity, a simple bus topology with each computer in a series will save on the
budget (don’t forget to terminate each end).
Cable lengths must be considered. If you intend to use UTP or STP cables, you must
make sure that the longest connection (computer to computer, or hub to computer) does
not exceed 100 meters (328 feet). In most environments this will be no problem, but if
this is a large facility, and the run from the server room to the maintenance shop is 400
meters (1312 feet), you will need Thicknet coaxial cables.
On the high end, where money is no object and security is critical or you have long
distances to cover, (up to 2 kilometers – 6562 feet) choose fiber optics.
The following are several other factors that must be considered before making your final
choice:
Topology – If you use a physical star topology, you will need to remember that all cables
must originate from the hub. Therefore, hub location is critical for determining cable
lengths.
Cable Grade – Local fire codes, or just good common sense, may require that you install
plenum grade cables for part or all of your installation. It may be more cost effective to
purchase a large quantity of plenum grade rather than a mix of plenum and standard
grade.
Cable Type – If your goal is to save money now and you don’t need a high-speed
network, you might consider CAT 3. However, for long term use and eventual upgrade to
100 MHz, the cost of CAT 5 is not significantly more than CAT 3. It will cost a lot more
to upgrade later.
5-4-3 – If your installation is coaxial Ethernet, you must comply with requirements of the
5-4-3 rule for number of segments, repeaters and nodes.
Most larger companies will have a dedicated room for their server (the Server room),
which is kept at the ideal temperature for the equipment. It is not strictly necessary to
have a dedicated room for the equipment, but it is important that the room be well
ventilated and climate controlled. The equipment should be shielded from ESD, EMI, and
RFI, and should have a method to ensure that clean power is available, such as a surge
suppressor and an uninterruptible power supply.
NOS Selection
Choosing the network operating system is a matter of user preference. Most network
operating systems today are robust and will operate transparent to the users. Therefore,
on the surface, it doesn’t really matter. As long as it is configured well and meets the
needs of the customer, it will work. On the other hand, sometimes the customer will make
the choice for you. If the customer has always used Novell NetWare and is satisfied with
the performance, it may not be prudent to recommend the change to Windows
2000/2003.
Protocol Selection
The most important issue with selecting a protocol is to use the same protocol throughout
the network. The next choice is whether to use a routable or non-routable protocol. The
non-routable protocols, such as NetBEUI are simple and work well with peer-to-peer
networks and small LANs. However, if you intend to work with a larger network or
WAN, which requires the use of routers, you need a routable protocol such as TCP/IP.
These routable protocols are more difficult to configure, but are not limited.
One advantage of using CAT 5 or CAT 6 cable in a star topology from a hub, is that you
do not have to install a computer on every outlet. The hub will know that the cable is not
connected and will simply ignore it. This way, you can install future or optional locations
in preparation for expanding.
Connecting to a computer
Cable to Hub
The connection of the cables to the hub will usually take place in the “server room.” This
is a centrally located room or closet that will house the primary server and hub. All the
cables will be brought to one location. To keep these organized, the cables are connected
to a patch panel. This is just a strip of RG-45 connectors. Each cable is in turn connected
to one of the outlets and a patch cable is then used to connect it to the hub.
Connecting to a Hub
Network Adapter Cards
Installing the cabling for a network is literally installing the Physical layer of the
network. Once that is done, there is one more part of the Physical layer that must be
installed. That part is the network adapter card. This card is a circuit board with all the
electronic circuitry and components necessary to physically connect to the computer and
the media. Because it must connect to both the computer and the media, we must select a
card that is compatible with both. Therefore you must know the requirements of each.
Actually, there are three things to consider:
• Network Compatibility
• Media Compatibility
• Computer Compatibility
Connecting to a NIC
Card to Network
Network adapter card compatibility is simple. The adapter card (NIC) must be able to
communicate on the network using the same standards and protocols as the other
components. If you are installing a Token Ring network, you must have Token Ring
cards. An Ethernet card simply won’t work on a Token Ring network. Also, the speed of
the card is important. For example, a 10 Mbps card (10BaseT) will work on a 100 Mbps
network (100BaseTX), but only at 10 Mbps. Some of the newer 100BaseTX cards will
work on a 10BaseT network, but only at 10 Mbps.
In addition to being compatible with the network, the card must be compatible with the
computer. Resolving these issues is actually quite simple, but requires some knowledge
of the inside workings of a computer. The processor (CPU) in a computer will
communicate with the expansion cards through the expansion bus. This bus is a group of
parallel conductors that carry digital information to and from the CPU to all parts of the
computer. Depending on the vintage of the computer, the number of connectors, and
therefore the speed at which data can be moved, will change. Network cards are designed
to meet the standards of the bus.
The actual connection between the card and the bus is called an expansion slot because of
the way the cards are installed. On one side of the circuit card are a group of gold
“fingers” that fit into the slot to provide the electrical connection. The different types of
cards are designated by the orientation and number of these connections. There are four
types of cards that you will encounter (ISA, EISA, Micro Channel, and PCI).
Before purchasing a network card, you will have to know the type of expansion slots used
in the computer and whether or not there are any free slots. The best way to find out is to
remove the case and look.
Note: Laptops and proprietary computers will have special cards designed to fit their
architecture. Laptops generally use PCMCIA cards, also called PC Cards.
Some network cards provide diagnostic lights, which can be a useful tool. These are little
LEDs (one, two, or three) that indicate the status of the card. Not all cards are the same,
so you will have to check the documentation to be sure of their meaning. In general, a
The details of installation will vary depending on the type of computer and the operating
system installed. Since describing the installation of a network adapter card for every
system is beyond the scope of this training course, the following is a generic procedure
that defines the key points that you must follow:
Purchase the card. First ensure that it is compatible with your system (network and
computer).
Configure the IRQ and I/O address. In most cases with a new card, this will be done with
the installation software or by the operating system. If your system is not Plug-n-Play,
you may still have to manually set some jumpers or switches. If you must do this
manually, be sure that no other device has already been assigned the IRQ or I/O address.
If there are any conflicts, the computer may not boot or the conflicting devices might not
be able to work simultaneously.
Physically install the card. Remove the case and install it into a free expansion slot. Note:
If you must remove the case, be sure to follow ESD (electro-static discharge) procedures.
Hint: you may not want to put the case back on until you have confirmed that the card is
working.
Install the appropriate drivers for the card. Drivers are usually supplied with the network
card. Many operating systems already include drivers for most network cards. If you
don’t have the driver or want to make sure that you have the latest driver, you can usually
download them from the manufacturer’s web site. In addition, if you upgrade your
operating system, you may need to download a new driver in order to make it work or to
increase its performance.
Now the network adapter card is installed, but you are not finished yet. You need to
configure the card to work with your network software. You still need to bind the card to
the network protocols that you are going to use. Finally, you will need to check the
documentation for the network operating system that you are using.
Note: Many computers that are designated as servers or gateways can have more than one
network card installed. Each card must be configured for a different network.
To increase marketability of their cards, some manufacturers will provide two, and
possibly three, different connectors allowing for multiple installation scenarios. The
bottom line is to be sure to look before you buy.
Computer Compatibility
Computer compatibility is often a serious problem encountered when installing a network
in an existing facility. Many growing companies purchase their computers only as needed
and will select the best buy of the day. While this makes good sense to the accounting
department, it can create havoc when you have to connect them and actually have them
communicate. You may have to connect some older “legacy” hardware with some new
high-speed high-tech machines. A typical problem encountered with highly
departmentalized companies is that each department has its own preferences. For
example, the graphics arts department may be Macintosh-based, the engineering
department may be PC-based, and the administrative department may just be thankful for
having whatever they could get their hands on.
These types of problems can be more personal in nature, as some individuals will not
want to change their way of doing things just to have a network. If you encounter this
type of situation, the decision may end up with the company’s management and you will
have to work with it. However, it is your responsibility to point out the strengths and
weaknesses of each scenario, as well as possible solutions.
With this information in hand, and knowledge of the network operating system, you
should be able to predict potential hardware compatibility problems and take action to
prevent them.
Standards
Earlier in this training course, we learned about network protocols and standards.
Standards are one way in which hardware and software suppliers can develop a product
and be assured that it will work with the products of other suppliers. As long as the
system is designed to meet the same standards, each component will work with the
others. As the network designer or administrator, you will need to establish the standards
for your network. By defining the standards to which the network must comply, you will
be assured that any new additions will function properly.
The following table lists an example of the minimum requirements for three operating
systems:
Still another web site to check for compatibility of hardware and software, especially
with the newest operating systems such as Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, is
the Microsoft Windows Catalog at www.microsoft.com/windows/catalog. Here you will
find the latest information about hardware and software that is Designed for Windows XP
and Windows Server 2003 or at least tested to be compatible with these operating
systems. This is part of the Windows Logo program. You can also look for the
corresponding logos on the boxes of hardware and software that you are considering
purchasing for your network.
2. What are the two areas of concern when starting a network project?
3. What are the two most prominent reasons to choose a peer-to-peer network?
6. Your client is installing a small Ethernet network and trying to save money at the
same time. However, he intends to expand the network in the future. Give one reason
why you should recommend that he spend a little more now and install CAT 6
cabling instead of CAT 5.
7. You are expanding your network and will need to invest in 50 to 100 new network
cards. Your accounting office found a really good deal on network cards, but they are
not all the same. Why should you refuse this offer?
8. Your company just bought ten new computers and all are guaranteed to meet the
minimum requirements of Windows XP. Was this a good purchase?
9. How do you know if a new piece of hardware will work with Windows XP?
• Concentrators
• Patch Panel
Hubs can be either active or passive. An active hub will require power and will often
provide some form of signal conditioning (amplifies weak signals). Active hubs can be
used to extend the length of network cabling by connecting them in a series. Passive hubs
do not use external power and are used only to concentrate the cables in a common
location.
• You are just plain tired of your old system and want to get your system updated.
When the time comes to make a serious expansion to a LAN, the simple hub just won’t
do the job. Depending on the objectives of the LAN, you will have to employ one or
more different pieces of hardware. Fortunately, there are several other devices that can be
used to expand a network. Each has its own unique advantages and disadvantages.
Repeaters
A repeater is a device that is used to extend the cable length on a network. They do not
translate or filter any information. They do however, amplify the signal, thereby
compensating for signal loss due to long cable lengths. Repeaters work in the Physical
Layer of the OSI model.
Repeater
Bridges
A bridge does the same things as a repeater, but has one additional feature. A bridge can
be used to isolate segments on a LAN, thus reducing the traffic for each segment. Bridges
work in the Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
Bridge
Routers
A router has all of the features of a bridge, but it can switch packets across multiple
networks. Routers can also determine the best path for “routing” traffic and filter
broadcast traffic on the local segment. Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI
model. Not all network protocols will work with a router. For example, the NetBEUI
protocol is not routable.
Router
Gateway
Gateways make it possible to connect different network architectures. Think of a gateway
as a computer that acts as a translator between two networks that don’t speak the same
language. It is an entrance to another network that controls traffic on your network.
Gateway
Connection Services
When expanding a network beyond the local area cable boundaries, it is likely that you
will need to connect to a third party’s cabling system. An example of such a system is the
telephone company. When considering which connection service to use, be sure to take
into account your throughput, the distance the data must travel, and the cost of the
service.
Carriers
Carriers are the companies that we contract with to carry our data over long distances.
They are providing the cabling, microwave, and satellite connections. When thinking of a
carrier, we most commonly think of our local telephone company or one of the long
distance carriers. Keep in mind that there are many carrier companies that provide many
different services at a variety of rates. Be careful when choosing a carrier. Be sure to
compare them on an equal basis and look for hidden costs. Just because the cost looks
good, does not mean that it is the best value.
When thinking of telephone lines, there are two levels of service to consider. The first is
public dial-up network lines. These are our standard telephone connections. With dial-up
networking, each computer must use a modem and establish a direct connection.
Typically, these connections are slow and not very reliable. Some of the newer digital
services will claim to have a speed of 56 Kbps, but connecting at this rate is rare. The
second choice is leased, or dedicated, lines. These powerful full-time dedicated
connections do not use a series of switches to complete the connection. Speed for leased
lines can reach 45 Mbps.
• Fiber-Optic Cable
• Microwave Transmitters
• Satellite Links
Those using a WAN link to connect LANs will need to use CSU/DSUs. A CSU/DSU
(Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a hardware device responsible for changing
the frame type from whatever the LAN is using into a frame that will work on the WAN.
It also changes the frame type back when frames are sent back.
The CSU is responsible for both the signals received from the WAN, as well as those
transmitted to it. The DSU is responsible for converting both the input and output
between the frame types between the LAN and the WAN. It can regenerate the signal, if
necessary, and deals with timing issues.
You can also use ISDN adapters if you are using ISDN PRI for WAN connectivity.
• Analog
• Digital
• Packet Switching
Analog Connectivity
Analog communication is the one that we are most familiar with. It is based on PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network). There are two types of PSTN: dial-up lines and
dedicated analog lines.
Analog Signal
1 Basic voice.
5 Basic data.
10 Application relays.
Dedicated analog lines provide an instant connection. This is because you lease the line
100% of the time and therefore do not have to dial-in. The down-side of these lines is that
you will have to pay for them 100% of the time instead of on an “as used” basis.
Dedicated lines are far more expensive, but if you have sufficient traffic, they can be
justified.
Digital Connectivity
When you need a faster, more secure line than can be provided by an analog connection,
you need DDS (Digital Data Service). The primary reason for using digital lines is that
they are 99% error-free.
Digital Signal
T1 is the most widely used type of digital line. It is capable of 1.544 Mbps transmissions.
It can be used to transmit digital voice, data, and video signals. The following table lists
the most common connection types:
T1 1 24 1.544 Mbps
E1 1 32 2.048 Mbps
The T1 and the T3 standard are American, whereas the E1 and the E3 are the European
standard.
Circuit-switched Network
Packet Switching Networks
Packet switching is a means of providing fast, convenient, and reliable network
messaging. A packet switched network provides multiple paths that packets could travel
from source to destination. In older, X.25 based packet switched networks, each packet
was examined at each step in the path to determine whether it was damaged. This made
for a very reliable and very slow connection. Today’s networks use a different technology
referred to as Frame Relay. With Frame Relay, a packet may be sent over multiple
permanent virtual circuits (PVCs), all of which are considered reliable. For this reason,
Frame Relay does not check the packet at each step in its route, so it can be both reliable
and fast.
Packet Switching
VLAN
Virtual LANs (VLANs) can be viewed as a group of devices on different physical LAN
segments that can communicate with each other as if they were all on the same physical
LAN segment. It is best understood as a “logical” LAN, which lays out hosts (computers,
printers, etc.) by another means apart from how they are connected physically and
geographically. An administrator might set up a VLAN based on certain departments
within his company, or by the specific use of the computers, or any other logical means.
This allows the administrator the luxury of modifying the VLAN, adding computers or
adjusting resources, without having to change the physical picture of the network. This
type of network is most closely associated with a “campus environment.”
VLAN
Advanced WAN Environments
If the existing services available do not meet the needs of your WAN, you might consider
some of the advanced WAN technologies. One of these may just provide you with the
necessary bandwidth and speed that you need.
ATM - Asynchronous transfer mode uses fixed length (53 byte) cells instead of packets.
These cells can speed communication because the network always know exactly what to
expect in regard the size of the next cell. These systems are designed to operate at a
throughput rate of 1.2 Gbps. However, in actuality, they currently operate at as high as
622 Mbps with most commercial boards operating at 155 Mbps. ATM is not media
dependent and will operate on coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optic. It is, however, media
limited. This means that the choice of media will limit the maximum speed of the
network. ATM is relatively new and will require special hardware and bandwidth to
reach its full potential. As well as the common voice and data, ATM can be used with
FAX, video, audio, and imaging.
FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface is the basis of fiber optic communication. It was
designed specifically for Token Ring networks and has a maximum ring length of 100
Kilometers (62 miles). It will support 500 computers and run at 100 Mbps. While not a
good choice for WANs, it is a good choice for LANs that require large bandwidth and
high speeds. Because it is fiber optic-based, it will provide a secure network that is
immune to interference.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network was one of the early digital services, and focuses on
the home and business market, while using copper telephone wires. ISDN BRI (Basic
Rate Interface), which is intended for use in the home or small business, has two 64 Kbps
SMDS
SMDS - Switched Multimegabit Data Service offers high bandwidth at speeds of up to 34
Mbps. This service is provided by some local companies and works well for MAN
installations (compatible with IEEE 802.6).
SONET
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is a fiber optic-based technology that specifies
the speeds at which the equipment can multiplex signals from sources into high-speed
carrier devices. It includes a set of signal rate multiples for transmitting digital signals on
optical fiber (OCx). It is capable of transmitting voice, data and video at rates ranging
from 51.84 Mbps (OC-1) all the way up to 40 Gbps (OC-768).
SDH
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard technology for synchronous data
transmission on optical media. Internationally, it is considered the equivalent of
Synchronous Optical Network. To be more precise, it is the European equivalent of
SONET, much like E1 is to T1. It carries all the bits from say, a call, within one
transmission frame. It uses Synchronous Transport Modules (STM), like OCx with
SONET. The data-rate can vary anywhere from STM-1 (155 Mbps) up to STM-64 (10
Gbps).
A modem is a device that makes it possible to communicate long distances over standard
telephone lines or cable. The name is derived from the words MOdulate and
DEModulate.
• Convert digital signals used by computers into analog signals that can be
transmitted via telephone lines.
Modems are available in both internal (standard expansion card) and external (connected
to a serial port and has its own power supply) versions.
Modems transmit data at various speeds. These speeds are measured as bits per second.
Speeds will range from very slow speeds of 300 bps to 56,600 bps. FAX modems will
send and receive data at speeds up to 14,400 bps. Originally modem speeds were
measured in terms of Baud. The Baud rate equals the frequency in cycles per second that
can be transmitted via telephone lines. With early modems, the Baud rate was equal to
the bps. However, due to the physical characteristics of copper wire and the effects of
transmitting signals over long distances, there is a limit of 2400 Baud. This limit cannot
be exceeded without encountering signal distortion. To overcome this and increase the
speeds of data transmission via modems, designers learned how to place several signals
within one cycle. Therefore, a given Baud rate could transmit data at 2, 4, 8, etc. times as
fast as the Baud rate. With this change, the term Baud has disappeared and been replaced
with bps. Today, modems have reached a new technology limit of 56,600 bps. Modems
are classified by a “V” rating. The following is a list of common “V” ratings:
RAS Connection
Connecting Two Computers
Establishing a remote connection can be either between two computers or between a
remote computer and a network. Let’s first look at connecting two computers. Any two
computers can be connected, either via modems and telephone lines, or directly via COM
ports and a cable.
When connecting two computers in close proximity (same room or building), all you
need to do is connect a cable between a COM port on each computer. A COM port is a 9-
pin male connector (it can be 25-pin but this is not as common as the 9-pin) on the back
of the computer. The trick is that you cannot use just any cable with 9-pin female
connectors. You must use a Null-Modem cable. This is a specially wired cable that
actually replaces the modem. Since the two computers are directly connected, there will
be no need to connect to telephone wires or dial a number, so this cable eliminates that
part of a modem connection. Also, the COM port provides the parallel to serial data
conversion that is necessary to complete a connection.
Both computers will have to run compatible software so that one will act as a server and
the other as a client. There are many off-the-shelf software packages that will perform
this type of communication. In addition, Windows XP has an feature called a direct cable
connection. By running Network Connections Wizard and following the simple
Making a RAS connection to a server is similar to a direct connection but, in this case,
you will use a modem to establish the connection. The server you are contacting may be
an individual computer or a server that provides access to a larger network. On the server
side, the RAS software must be installed and running. With this in place, the server will
answer the phone and allow the connection if you are an authorized user. On the client
side, your computer will have to make the phone call and provide the necessary security
authentication information to the server. Normally, the client computer will establish the
connection via DUN software. Windows (95/98 and NT) has an accessory called Dial-Up
Networking. From this accessory, you can set up the proper configuration for the
connection and dial the appropriate number.
RAS Protocols
In order for any connection to work, both computers must be using the same protocol.
RAS/DUN supports various connection protocols to ensure proper connections and
security. These protocols are:
• SLIP (Single Line Interface Protocol)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
• IPsec (Internet Protocol Security)
• L2TP (Layer Two Tunneling Protocol)
• SSL (Secure Socket Layer)
• TLS (Transport Layer Security)
• Kerberos (Greek mythology – three-headed canine who guards Hades’ gates)
• ICA (Independent Computing Architecture)
• It provides security.
IPsec
IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) is a framework of open standards for security at the
Network layer of the OSI model. It is designed to protect IP packets as well as to provide
defense against network attacks. It can be used in conjunction with VPNs (Virtual Private
180 Specialized Solutions, Inc.
Chapter 7 – Expanding a Network
Networks) and remote access for users who need access to resources on a private
network. It is based on an end-to-end security model, meaning that the computers, both
sending and receiving, are the ones aware of the IPsec transmission. It is transparent to
the user.
L2TP
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is the latest version of the tunneling protocol.
Unlike PPTP, it does not require IP connectivity. It combines Cisco’s Layer 2
Forwarding (L2F) with PPTP. It functions at the Data-link layer of the OSI model and is
used in conjunction with VPNs. L2TP offers many advantages over PPTP, most relating
to higher security.
SSL
The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a protocol for addressing the security of an Internet
transmission between a client and a server. It uses a key to encrypt the data, usually a
user’s credit card number. It is included in both Microsoft’s Internet Explorer and
Netscape’s Navigator and it is a complimentary addition to HTTPS, discussed here in the
next chapter.
TLS
TLS (Transport Layer Security) is the evolution of SSL. It can work with SSL and uses
Triple DES encryption (three 56-bit keys).
Kerberos
Kerberos is a secure method for authenticating a request for a service in a computer
network. It allows a user to request an encrypted ticket, or virtual proof-of-identity cards
so the user can request a service from a server. It does not provide authorization; it only
establishes the user’s identity.. Windows 2000 and Windows Server 2003 Active
Directory use this type of security by default, as does Novell Directory Services (NDS). .
Auditing
The server can create and maintain an audit trail of all connections. This audit can
include who signed on and when they signed on.
Callback Security
One method of providing both security and cost control is to require the server to
callback anyone that attempts to logon. By requiring RAS to call back to the
client that is requesting a connection, you can restrict the numbers that RAS will
call, therefore ensuring that the connection is legitimate. This feature can also be
used to ensure long distance charges are charged to the company rather than the
caller. This is a great benefit for those who travel for business and need access to
the network.
A security host or bastion host is a separate server that works between the RAS
server and the client. This provides for additional authentication, and thus more
security.
Installing and Configuring RAS
Installing RAS on a server is dependent on the network operating system installed on the
server. Before installation, you will have to collect all the information from your
operating system supplier to ensure that you have everything necessary. In addition, you
will need to collect data on the type of connection you intend to make and the specifics of
the computer hardware and network. At a minimum you will need to know the following:
• Your modem specifications including having the appropriate drivers for
your network and/or computer operating system.
• The type of communication port you intend to configure.
• Are there any client protocols that will have to be enabled?
• What are the security requirements of the connection/network?
Troubleshooting a RAS setup
While not usually complicated, installing RAS can be frustrating. If it does not work the
first time, you will have to carefully go through all the configuration parameters and
check every one. All it takes is one number or check mark out of place to prevent the
connection from working properly. Be sure to check everything including the RAS
configuration, the modem configuration, and any other software that might use the
modem. If another software package has “control” of the modem, your new RAS system
may not be able to gain access.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Analog Signal
Bridge
Carrier
Concentrator
CSU/DSU
Digital Signal
DUN
Frame Relay
Gateway
Hubs
ICA
Ipsec
ISDN
Kerberos
L2TP
MAU
PPP
PPTP
RAS
Repeater
Router
SDH
Keyword Definition
SLIP
SMAU
SONET
SSL
T1
VLAN
X.25
TCP/IP was developed by the Department of Defense agency (DARPA) in the 1960s as
part of a military research project. TCP/IP was designed to accommodate a large
internetworking environment comprising several different types of computers. From this
beginning, it has evolved into the protocol of the Internet. This is the most common
protocol suite with which a networking professional works. It is important for the
networking professional to know that TCP/IP is used on the Internet and that it can be
used with almost any network operating system.
RFC (Request For Comments)
A series of documents called RFCs (Request For Comments) serve as the standards that
were used in the development of TCP/IP. Although RFCs are not true standards (they are
documents that describe work in progress), some are considered to be Internet standards.
These standards, as well as Internet standards, are the responsibility of the IAB (Internet
Activities Board).
The TCP/IP protocol suite includes a number of protocols, such as SMTP, SNMP, and
FTP, which will be discussed later in the chapter. TCP/IP is a routable protocol that
provides full duplex connections. Full duplex means that data can travel in both
directions at once. Its popularity is largely attributed to the fact that it is not owned by a
specific vendor. TCP/IP is an open protocol and is considered to be an industry standard.
Also, these protocols were available on UNIX early on, and were even built into the
Berkeley Standard Distribution, known as BSD UNIX. TCP/IP is now the standard on all
versions of UNIX, and is in fact, the recognized standard for internetworking altogether.
The TCP/IP suite consists of four layers. Each layer maps to one or more layers of the
OSI model. The four layers are: Application, Transport, Internet and Network Interface.
The four layers that make up TCP/IP provide a guideline for this model. There are
actually five protocols that work within these layers to provide network connections.
These five protocols are:
• TCP- Transmission Control Protocol
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• IP – Internet Protocol
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
TCP/IP Protocols
As a network technician, and for the Network+ exam, you will not have to be an expert
on the workings of TCP/IP. However, you will need to know the various protocols and
how they relate to the OSI model.
The Top Five TCP/IP Protocols
As mentioned earlier, there are five major protocols used within TCP/IP. Let’s take a
look at them.
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) functions at the Transport Layer of the OSI Model.
Its job is to ensure that data transferred from one computer to another reaches its
destination intact. TCP breaks data into tiny chunks, called packets, or into even smaller
units of measurement called datagrams. It then routes the information to its destination,
and reassembles the data. This data exchange can be verified at various checkpoints.
Should lost or corrupted packets be detected, they can be retransmitted in a timely
manner.
TCP operates by first establishing a connection-oriented session through the use of ports
and sockets. It will then use the concept of sliding windows and acknowledgements to
ensure fast and accurate data transmission. Let’s take a look at how this works.
On a TCP/IP network, the origination point and destination point of the computers
between which data travels are called ports. A port is a virtual outlet that can be
opened on a network device. Port numbers are generally predetermined and
correspond to a specific service that is running on a machine.
Port numbers for some protocols are better known than others. The following list
provides a few examples:
For: Use Port
FTP 21
TELNET 23
SMTP 25
HTTP 80
POP3 110
The sending computer’s address is called the source port number, and the receiving
computer’s address is called the destination port number. The addresses, or port
numbers, consist of a unique 16-bit numeric address ranging from 0 to 65,535. The
well-known ports are associated with the range of possible port numbers from 0
through 1023. The registered ports are associated with the range from 1024 through
49151. The private or dynamic ports are associated with the range from 49152
through 65535. When you open a dial-up connection to the Internet, and specify a
certain protocol, i.e. FTP, HTTP, Telnet, etc., you are automatically connected to the
correct port for that particular data type. Although the terms, “port” and “socket” are
often used interchangeably, a port is different from a socket. The port number
identifies the application associated with the data. A socket is the combination of an
IP address and a port number.
Acknowledgements are used to ensure the reliability of the data being transmitted.
For each packet sent, an acknowledgement of receipt is returned. Think of it as a
return receipt like the one you get from the Post Office when you want to be sure
that a package has been delivered.
Sliding windows are used to increase the speed of data transfer. This allows a
receiving machine to collect packets out of order and hold them in a buffer until
all packets in a specified group are received. Both machines have a sending and
receiving window to buffer the data flow. Transmission speed is increased by
sending a window of information at a time without having to get an
acknowledgment back for each packet. Both machines keep track of the data so
that any packets not received can be resent.
UDP
IP
Internet Protocol (IP) is the Network layer part of TCP/IP, which is responsible for
moving the data from its origination point to its destination point. IP is connectionless,
meaning that it establishes an end-to-end connection and starts transmitting without
swapping control information. TCP tells IP that the data has arrived at its destination. If
the transmission has not been successful, TCP will retransmit the data. IP merely routes
the data, inserting its own header into the datagram when it is received from TCP. The IP
header consists of the source and destination addresses, the protocol number, and a
ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol is part of the Internet layer. It is responsible for errors
and messages regarding delivery of IP datagrams.
ARP
The Address Resolution Protocol is responsible for keeping track of the mapping of IP
addresses to physical addresses. Each device on the network maintains an ARP cache.
This cache contains a list of all the devices with which it is communicating. The contents
of a cache can be displayed by using the ARP.exe command in Windows or the /sbin/arp
command under UNIX.
Other TCP/IP Protocols
In addition to the top five, TCP/IP uses several other protocols:
POP3
Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3) allows the client computer to retrieve E-mail from
a POP3 server using a temporary connection.
IMAP4
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is also a protocol for accessing email from
your local server. Your Internet server holds your incoming email until users logon and
download it. It is more advanced than POP3 because you can use folders and mailboxes
on the server, run searches, or access multiple mail servers.
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a server-to-server protocol that acts under the
control of the message transport system. SMTP is used to transfer E-mail between
computers, usually over the Internet. An easy way to think of it is SMTP stands for “Send
Mail To People.”
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is the Internet protocol that manages
nodes (individual computers) on an IP network. SNMP is not limited to TCP/IP.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a client-server protocol that allows a user to transfer files
from one computer to another over a TCP/IP network. The user accesses a special
directory hierarchy containing public access files, by typing in a user name, or the word
“anonymous.” The password is the user’s E-mail address. Files may then be uploaded or
downloaded between the computers.
HTTP
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a client-server protocol that is used on the World
Wide Web (www) to access HTML documents, such as web pages.
HTTPS
HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a Web protocol that encrypts and
decrypts, using SSL as a sub layer underneath HTTP, allowing access to a secure Web
server. It uses port 443, the secure SSL port instead of port 80, the HTTP port. HTTPS, as
well as SSL, allow for the use of X.509 digital certificates for authentication of a user.
Naming Systems
Naming conventions and addressing is a large part of networking and TCP/IP.
Remember, we are working in two worlds, the computer world of numbers and our world
of user-friendly names. Understanding the difference between these two worlds and how
to work in both of them is an important part of networking.
DNS
Domain Name Service (DNS) is a network service that translates hostnames to IP
addresses over a TCP/IP network. The network administrator defines and configures the
DNS settings using a standardized lookup table. DNS functions like a telephone
directory. The network administrator need only remember the host and domain names. A
domain name server is a computer that "remembers" the user-friendly names of the other
computers and their IP address numbers. For example, the domain bigcompany.com may
have an IP address of 192.49.238.33. This allows users to simply remember the user-
friendly name while the domain name server remembers the numbers used by the
network computers.
.biz Businesses
.pro Professional
WINS
In a Windows-based network, the Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) is used to
resolve NetBIOS computer names to their IP addresses. This is a dynamic service and
requires that the workstation register with the WINS server each time it logs on to the
network.
NETBIOS
NetBIOS defines a session-level interface and a session management/data transport
protocol so computers can converse in session mode or send messages without
connection in datagram mode, leaving the responsibility for error-checking up to the
application.
A NetBIOS name is a unique 16-byte address (only 15 can be used for the actual name)
used to identify a NetBIOS resource on a network. There are four node types: B-node
(broadcast), P-node (peer-peer), M-node (mixed – B and P) and H-node (hybrid – P and
B).
Notice that the IP addresses are leased. This means that they will expire after a specific
amount of time. This is to prevent one user from monopolizing the connection. A lease
can be renewed. When the term of the lease is at 50%, the client will send a request for
renewal. If the demand for connections is low (there are spaces available), the lease will
be renewed without interruption. If not renewed, the client will attempt to contact the
DHCP server that issued it the IP address directly about every 5 minutes until it reaches
87.5% of the lease, at which time the client will broadcast a request to obtain an address
from any available DHCP server. If all addresses are being used or a DHCP server does
not respond, the lease will expire and the address will be assigned to another user. In this
case, the original user will have to wait for an opening before getting another lease and a
new IP address.
BOOTP
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) is a protocol that is used by diskless workstations to obtain
their IP addresses (as well as the server’s address and its default gateway) from a BOOTP
server. BOOTP was the foundation of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
NAT
NAT (Network Address Translation) is the translation of an IP address used within an
organization internally (private IP address) to an IP seen by the Internet (public IP
address). It allows for use of one public IP address for many private IP addresses. NAT
also acts as a type of firewall, since it keeps the private IP addresses hidden from the
outside world. Actually, a NAT is just a device or program that translates one set of IP
addresses to another set of IP addresses, but it is most often used between a private
network and the networks public address or addresses.
IP Proxy Servers
Earlier, we talked about the client/server relationship in terms of the roles of various
users and servers. In the case of a proxy server, it serves many clients through only one
connection. The user is connecting to the Internet via a secondary source, i.e. the proxy
server. Compare this to a “he said-she said” scenario where an intermediary delivers the
message between two parties who do not speak directly to each other. The proxy server is
a liaison between the two parties, who think they are communicating directly with one
another. The proxy server is actually making a connection to another network or to the
Internet on behalf of the client. The proxy server may function in the role of the server or
the client, depending on the direction in which the communication is traveling at any
given time.
Proxy Server
ICS
ICS allows computers within a network, like a LAN, to share a single connection to the
Internet. It contains DHCP, NAT, and DNS. ICS allows multiple users to fully utilize that
connection by performing different tasks at the same time. It can also work in
conjunction with Routing and Remote access.
TCP/IP Addressing
IPv4
Enough talk about IP address names, let’s now take a look at IP address numbers.
Network computers require a unique IP address so that the other computers on the
network can identify them and be able to communicate with them. This IP address is a
32-bit binary number. A 32-bit binary number can represent (232) or 4,294,967,296 (4.2
billion) different numbers. Imagine how difficult it would be to have to remember a
combination of 32 1s and 0s for each address. Although that is easy for a computer, it is
not easy for us.
To simplify these addresses, they are broken down into four octets. An octet is a group of
eight binary digits and a period or “dot” separates these octets. Each of these octets
represents a number from 0-256. The result is called a dotted decimal number. A basic
knowledge of the binary numbering system is required to understand network addressing:
The 32-bit binary number: 00100001001001110000100011000010
Broken down into four octets: 00100001.00100111.00001000.11000010
Each octet represents a number between 0-256:
1st octet: 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Adding the values assigned to the “1” positions gives us a value of 33 for the first octet.
2nd octet: 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
The value of the 2nd octet is 39.
3rd octet: 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
-----------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
The value of the 3rd octet in our example is 8.
4th octet: 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
------------------------------------------------------------------
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
And finally the value of our 4th octet is 194.
If a network is internal and does not access the Internet, the administrator may assign an
IP address to each computer (as long as the number is unique). Internet IP addresses,
however, are assigned by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN) and these IP addresses are further divided into classes. It is important that the
networking professional have a basic understanding of these classes.
Note: The existing shortage of addresses has made it impossible to obtain a Class A
address for a long time.
All Zeros This Network This Node Default Route for RIP
CLASS A 1 - 126
In addition, there are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes:
Addresses that begin with 127 and 224 through 255 are used for testing purposes and for
multicasting and are not available for normal host addresses. (For example, the Network
ID of 127 designates the local node and allows that node to send a test packet to itself
without generating network traffic. This is the loopback address, specifically 127.0.0.1)
Class A - used by very large networks. All in use and no longer available.
Class B - used for medium-sized networks. Class B IP addresses are all in use and no
longer available.
Class C - used for smaller networks that do not exceed 254 hosts. Class C IP addresses
are still available.
AAAA:BBBB:0000:0000:0000:0081:FFFF:DDDD
AAAA:BBBB:0:0:0:81:FFFF:DDDD
Leading zeros can be taken out, but at least one must be left in each 16-bit field. You can
compact multiple fields of zero beyond the previous example. This happens to supercede
the rule about one zero having to be left in a field. A double colon can be used to
represent multiple contiguous fields of zeros.
0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000
0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0005
::
::5
You cannot, however, use the double colon more than once in an IPv6 address. It would
make it unclear as to what was represented.
Rather than having “classes” like IPv4, IPv6 uses format prefixes (FP), which are
variable-length fields that comprise the high-order bits, to define the address type. The
address types are Unicast, Anycast, and Multicast. Unicast is an address for a single host.
Here is an example of a Unicast address:
1070:0:0:0:7:777:300F:754B
Anycast is an address for a set of interfaces that typically belong to different hosts and is
delivered to the closest one. Multicast, which replaces broadcast, is an address for a
group of hosts within a scope and has a FF00::/8 prefix.
The Loopback address in IPv6 is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 or ::1, just like 127.0.0.1 with IPv4.
All in all, IPv6 allows for a multitude of IP address possibilities for the future of
networking.
Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of creating more than one private network from one public
network address by customizing your subnet mask. For example, a large university may
have a network spread over several buildings and perhaps remote campuses. By using
subnets, you can reduce the overall network traffic. In this example, all the traffic within
a building or campus will be kept locally except when it needs to go to another subnet.
Since a router connects each subnet, only the traffic that is not local will pass through.
By using a concept called anding, a router can determine which addresses are local and
which addresses are for other subnets within the network. Anding is the binary addition
that the router uses to make this determination.
Before looking at anding, lets look at subnet masks. A subnet mask is an IP address
(dotted-decimal number) in which all ones represent the network portion of the IP
address and all zeros represent the host portion of the IP address. For example:
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
or
255.255.0.0
In regard to classful addressing , a subnet mask can be 255.0.0.0 (Class A), 255.255.0.0
(Class B), or 225.255.255.0 (Class C). The number of 0s determines the maximum
number of available hosts within the sub-network.
Note: You cannot use IP addresses with all 1s or all 0s. You can use a subnet mask that
does not completely use all the bits in an octet. You must however, have all 1s to the left
and all 0s to the right. Subnet masks with full octets (255) are the default subnet mask.
The purpose of a subnet mask is to determine the network portion of the IP address,
separating it from the host portion of the address. This is done with binary addition
(anding), which uses a certain logic to determine the network portion of the address. If
you “and” the IP address to the subnet mask, the results will be the actual network
portion of that IP address (not necessarily the default network portion determined by its
class).
1+1=1
1+0=0
0+0=0
Now, using our previous example of 33.39.8.194, let’s and it to the subnet mask of
255.224.0.0.
00100001.00100111.00001000.11000010 (33.39.8.194)
11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000 (255.224.0.0)
equals
00100001.00100000.00000000.00000000 (33.32.0.0)
Noticing that all the places that have ones, and through leaving only the digits for the
network portion or 33.32.0.0, while the Host ID 0.7.8.194 is determined by the zeros in
the subnet mask. By using this method, a router can determine if a message is for a
destination on the local network or for a machine on a remote segment. Any local
addresses will not pass through, thus reducing the traffic on the rest of the network. It is
common in TCP/IP to omit the trailing octets in the Network ID and the leading octets in
the Host ID. Therefore in our example the Network ID is 33.32 and the Host ID is
7.8.194. Since the subnet mask only goes 3 bits into the second octet, it recognizes the
first 11 bits as the network portion of this address. Those 11 bits equal a network portion
of 33.32. The remaining 21 bits in the IP address is the host portion This equals 7.8.194.
The network and host portions do not break down neatly into octets since the subnet
mask does not take up a complete second octet. The following tables summarize IP
addresses and subnet masks:
The following table shows the subnet mask created by borrowing bits and how it will
affect our network.
255.255.192.0 2 0 N/A
255.255.224.0 3 6 8190
255.255.240.0 4 14 4096
255.255.248.0 5 30 2046
255.255.252.0 6 62 1022
255.255.255.192 10 1022 62
255.255.255.224 11 2046 30
255.255.255.240 12 4096 14
255.255.255.248 13 8190 6
255.255.255.252 14 16,382 2
255.255.255.192 2 0 N/A
255.255.255.224 3 6 30
255.255.255.240 4 14 14
255.255.255.248 5 30 6
255.255.255.252 6 62 2
To make this easy, you can use the scientific calculator supplied with any Windows
operating system. For this example, lets keep our network ID of 191.36 as assigned to us
by InterNIC. We already know that the first two octets will be 10111111 00100100 from
this ID, the question is how many bits of the third octet do we need to use?
After examining our network requirements, we determine that we will need 14 subnets to
meet our current needs. Just to be on the safe side, let’s add 4 more for future expansions,
giving us a total requirement of 18. Now we get out our Windows calculator. Make sure
that it is in scientific view (that’s the big calculator).
4. Count the number of binary digits (5). This will be the number of bits
required for the third octet.
This will actually allow us up to 30 subnets with 2,000 hosts each. Also notice that had
we chosen 14 (no allowance for growth), our answer would have been to use 4 bits and
we would have been limited to a maximum of 14 subnets. Had we needed to add a new
subnet, we would have had to reconfigure the entire network, instead of selecting the next
subnet on our list. For this example, the subnet mask would be 255.255.248.0.
Summary of Subnets
Subnet masks are used on TCP/IP networks to determine whether a message is for a
computer that resides on the local network, or one that is located on a remote network.
For example, on a Class A network the default subnet mask would be 255.0.0.0. This
indicates that the Network ID is located in the first octet of the network address. A Class
B network default subnet mask would be 255.255.0.0 and the default Class C subnet
mask would be 255.255.255.0, indicating that the Network ID is contained in the first two
or three octets respectively. The zeros indicate the location of the Host ID.
The sending computer checks the octets of the destination address against its own to
determine if the destination computer is on the local network or a remote network. (If the
sending computer and the destination computer have the same subnet mask, they are on
the same network. If it is different, the sending computer will send the message to a
router for delivery.)
IP Address
Here, you may specify a particular IP address, or click the radio button next to “Obtain an
IP address automatically,” and the computer will capture one from the DHCP server.
DNS
You can enable or disable DNS. Click the radio button to enable DNS, and enter the
information in the appropriate fields.
Default Gateway
Type the IP address of the gateway routers you have installed on your network. Use the
“New” and “Add” command buttons to add a new gateway to the list of installed
gateways. Whichever one appears first on the list is considered the default gateway. On
some screens, you will need to type in the specified default gateway.
DHCP
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
ARP
BOOTP
Class A IP Address
Class B IP Address
Class C IP Address
Default Gateway
DHCP
DNS
FTP
HOSTS file
HTTP
HTTPS
ICMP
ICS
IMAP4
IP
IP Address
LMHOSTS file
NAT
NetBIOS
Octet
Keyword Definition
POP3
Port Number
Proxy Server
SMTP
SNMP
Subnet Mask
Subnetting
TCP
UDP
WINS
2. How many primary protocols are used to make the TCP/IP Suite?
6. What is a domain?
10. What is the value of the leading bit (one on the far left) for a Class A IP address?
Class B? Class C?
11. Subnetting is the process of breaking an IP address into _________ and ________
groups.
IBM NetView
InterMapper (Macintosh)
NetMinder
Communities
Management Software
This is the primary software package that is used by the administrator. It is run on a
single computer and is used to access any SNMP devices and collect data. The data is
then compiled in a database called a MIB (Management Information Base). From the
database and the software interface, the administrator can create reports and charts that
define the status of the network.
An additional SNMP command is the trap. This command will capture any errors and
problems that occur on the agent device and send it to the manager.
Communities
Communities are logical groups consisting of at least one manager and agent (usually
several agents are assigned to one manager). The value of using communities is to limit
the number of managers and agents. A community can also restrict access, therefore
providing a level of security.
Validation Tools
TCP/IP provides several command-level tools that can be used to validate various
parameters within a network. These commands can be entered from a DOS prompt.
Event Viewer
Event Viewer is a Windows utility that will allow you to log any events and errors. This
includes critical system errors, and TCP/IP events and errors. Note in the graphic below
that an icon indicates that the event is critical (a stop occurred), serious (!), but did not
cause a stop, and normal (i).
ROUTE
The ROUTE command will show you the routing table and allow you to make edits to it.
NBTSTAT
This command will display NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics. Nbtstat -c provides the
remote name cache with the IP addresses. Nbtstat -n provides local NetBIOS names.
Nbtstat -r provides names resolved by both broadcast and the WINS service. Nbtstat -R
both purges and reloads the remote name cache table.
NETSTAT
This command will display all the TCP/IP protocol statistics. Netstat -a shows all
connections and listening ports. Netstat -e shows Ethernet statistics. Netstat -r shows the
content of the routing table. Netstat -s shows statistics on a per-protocol basis.
TRACERT
A Trace Route command-line utility, TRACERT, shows every router interface that a
TCP/IP packet passes through on its way to its destination.
TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLS
TCP/IP also provides several useful troubleshooting tools. The following three are the
most common and are covered in more detail in the next chapter.
IPCONFIG/WINIPCFG
These commands are the same, and will display the current configuration of a computer.
IPCONFIG is entered from a DOS prompt and WINIPCFG can be used from RUN on the
START menu.
IFCONFIG
IFCONFIG displays the status of the network interface configuration. You should use
this command when you want to verify a user’s configuration or if there are problems
reaching a remote host.
ARP
ARP will allow you to find the physical address (MAC address) of a computer by using
the IP address of that computer. For example, the IP of a host might be 192.168.12.1, and
you would use this IP to find its MAC address or its physical address, which might be 00-
00-05-67-FF-33. Arp -a displays the current ARP entries (resolved IP to MAC addresses)
on your client. Arp -s is used to change the IP address of a device.
RARP
RARP accomplishes the reverse of the ARP by using the known MAC address to find a
host’s IP address.
PING
The lowest level test to find out if you have connectivity to a remote host. Ping works at
the IP level, and will often respond even when higher-level TCP-based services cannot.
Ping -t performs a continuous ping and ping -n pings the IP address more than once.
NSLOOKUP
This command is used to troubleshoot DNS problems and can display the DNS entry for
a given IP address. NSLOOKUP -t shows all records of the type specified. NSLOOKUP -
a shows aliases of clients in the domain. NSLOOKUP -d shows all records for the
domain. NSLOOKUP -h shows CPU and operating system information for the domain.
NSLOOKUP -s lists well-known services of clients in the domain.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
ARP
Event Viewer
IFCONFIG
IPCONFIG
Management Software
NBTSTAT
NETSTAT
NSLOOKUP
PING
RARP
SNMP
TRACERT
2. In order for your new network management software to monitor the activities of the
entire network, each device will need to be _________ compliant.
3. TCP/IP provides several tools that you can use to validate statistics of your network.
List as many as you can.
There are a number of reasons for maintaining a secure network. Once a company’s files
have been set up for maximum access, unless safeguards are built in, anyone can get into
any file and do anything to it they want to do. Limiting access via passwords can prevent
an inexperienced user, motivated by curiosity, from wandering into unprotected areas and
inadvertently corrupting or deleting files.
Although corrupting and deleting files accidentally can cause serious problems, you must
also be prepared for the possibility of malicious intent. A disgruntled employee, or
anyone who has access to your network for that matter, can deliberately damage your
network, creating chaos and costing thousands, or even millions, of dollars.
The best time to set up your network security, or at least have your plan intact, is right up
front, before you set up the network. As you might have already deduced, the network
administrator has complete responsibility for anything that happens to the network.
Therefore, she must develop a plan that will meet the needs of her particular network. A
good plan will include the following considerations:
• Size of network
• Scope of network
User-level security requires the user to logon using a Username and password. A
verification method called “authentication” verifies the identity of a person or process. In
a manner similar to the signature on a document, authentication confirms that messages
received truly originated from their stated source.
User Logon
Share-level Security
With the share-level security model, passwords are assigned to network resources rather
than to users. Users can access a shared resource, such as a template or another type of
file. They can then copy the file to a local drive or a personal folder on the server. The
user can edit the file as necessary, while the original file remains intact. Information on
the shared drive cannot be changed by anyone other than the person who created the file.
However, the file can be accessed by anyone who has the password and knows how to
use it to access the shared resource.
The systems administrator should have an assistant or backup person who will have total
access to the system, should the administrator be unavailable at a time when
administrator access is required. A roadmap of all user names and passwords should be
kept in a secure place, where the administrator can easily retrieve it.
Password Security
Security Techniques
There are a number of techniques and practices that will enhance the security of your
network. Some will be more suitable to your system than others. Your security needs will
determine which techniques will best meet your system’s needs.
Firewalls
A firewall is designed to prevent access to your network from outside the company. It is
an important part of a network security plan. If you are accessing the Internet from your
network, you will most likely be using E-mail, at the very least. A firewall will need to be
part of your security plan in order to prevent unauthorized access from outside of your
network. Some firewalls will only allow E-mail to pass through, or they can be
configured to suit your specific security needs.
Firewalls can trace calls and locate the computer trying to break in, but they are not
particularly effective if your goal is to protect trade secrets or other types of proprietary
information. They can permit or deny traffic at a certain level, they can be host-based,
and work at the application level. Protocol-specific application proxy firewalls may
provide increased access control, or auditing, by forwarding application traffic through
the firewall. Gateway hosts (also called bastion hosts) create fortified areas in the
network’s security perimeter. As the system administrator, you will be responsible for
choosing the type of firewall that best meets your network’s needs.
Firewall
Blocking Port Numbers
You can block port numbers for security purposes on your firewall or router so as to
allow only specific traffic into your network. For example, if you wanted to block
Internet traffic from entering your intranet, you would block port 80.
Backing up Data
Another integral part of network security is your backup system. Files need to be backed
up daily, and even more often on larger networks. This needs to be handled in such a way
that production will not be interrupted, and your company’s files and directories will be
safe and available when you need them.
Most file server manufacturers recognize the need for data redundancy and thus, offer
server equipment with multiple hard drives that mirror each other. If anything happens to
one, the other can take over without compromising network operations. These multiple
disks are called disk arrays, and are more commonly known as RAID.
Another more common form of backup is to a tape drive. Although slower than RAID, it
is still a viable option.
Backup Options
Before we discuss the different RAID fault tolerance strategies, let’s discuss the various
backup methods that are available.
As a computer professional, you know how important a backup plan is to the safety of
your network’s data. Nothing will save you time and stress like an effective and thorough
backup strategy in case the worst happens and your system crashes.
While planning your backup strategy, you must answer important questions about what to
backup, where you will keep the backup information (on-site or off-site), and how often
backups will be performed. In addition, your plan will need to include information about
who will be in charge of performing the backups, how the backup information will be
tested, and the procedure to follow for recovery.
Remember, those who fail to plan, plan to fail, so make sure not to neglect this important
part of network security.
There are several options available, called the backup medium, for performing and
storing data backups:
Removable Disks
There are two categories of removable disks: Small-Capacity and Large-Capacity. As you
might guess, the small-capacity category includes the floppy disk. Floppy disk capacities
today, range from 1.44 MB for the standard floppy disk to up to 250 MB capacities for
ZIP disks. This backup medium is suitable for small companies.
Large-capacity disks include such options as the removable optical disk, which uses laser
technology to read and write information onto a removable disk that has capacities of 128
MB to 650 MBs.
Tape Backup
This is probably the oldest and most popular backup medium in use today. The tape
backup method is inexpensive and simple to implement. It also has large capacities of up
to 50 GB for some systems.
Back It Up
Backup Software
Software programs or utilities are available that make backing up data easier and more
efficient. Most operating systems come with a backup utility, but usually these won’t
have the features available on a third-party backup program.
Full, Differential, and Incremental Backups
There are three backup types available: Full, Differential and Incremental. The Full
backup, as its name implies, will backup all selected data on the network. This method
will take the largest amount of storage media, but will be the easiest to restore.. This type
of backup is usually performed weekly.
The Differential backup is used for backing up only the files that have changed since the
last full backup. An archive bit is used to identify the files that have changed. When
recovering from a failure, both the last differential backup tape copy and the last full
backup tape copies will need to be used.
The Incremental backup is used for daily backups. This will reduce the amount of time
needed to perform backups to the server, as only the data that has changed since the last
backup will be copied. This method also uses an archive bit to identify which files have
changed. To restore, the last full backup and all of the incremental backup tapes will be
needed.
Volumes
Volumes are a way to organize storage disks so that the network operating system can
store data on a disk. It is a named portion or chunk of disk space. A volume can be part of
a disk or an entire disk.
Fault Tolerance and RAID
The ability of a system or component to continue normal operations, despite the presence
of hardware or software failures, is called fault tolerance. This usually involves some
degree of redundancy, and utilizes different means of dealing with security issues at this
level.
RAID 3 - Parallel array with parity (disk striping with ECC stored as parity)
RAID 4 - Striped array with parity (disk striping with large blocks)
RAID 5 - Striped array with rotating parity (disk striping with parity)
NOTE: The acronym for RAID has also been referred to as: “Redundant Array of
Inexpensive Disks.”
Network-Attached Storage
Network-attached storage (NAS) is hard disk storage (RAID) like SAN, but it is treated
just like any node on the network and is subject to all the positives and negatives of that
identity. It is assigned an IP address and it is attached to a LAN. It functions faster, since
it is not dependent on another computer. It also has a bare-bones OS (microkernel) for
processing I/O requests.
Fault Tolerance and Power
You need to protect your network from data loss due to power surges and failures. There
are several tools on the market that will help prevent data loss from power fluctuations. In
this case, the best tools seem to be the more expensive ones. The equipment described
below is among the best available:
An Interactive UPS (also called an “intelligent UPS”) connects to the computer's serial
port and provides information, such as battery time remaining, allowing the computer to
shut down before complete loss of power.
Surge Protectors
Surge Protectors, also called surge suppressors, are power strips that provide protection
from voltage spikes, surges, and sags in the power supply.
Users working with sensitive information such as budgets, personnel records and other
confidential data should change their passwords at least every 30 days. Policies that spell
out password procedures should be given to all users so they will know what is expected
of them. This holds users accountable for their actions on the network, and discourages
them from wandering into unauthorized areas.
The most effective passwords are ones that are the maximum number of characters and
use a combination of letters, symbols, and numbers. Passwords should be changed more
frequently in high-security networks. Some “classified” networks require password
changes every day, but most networks can get by with changing their passwords every 30
days. So, an effective password policy is one in which passwords change on a regular
basis, include characters, numbers and symbols, but are easy enough that users can
remember them. Password security is compromised if a user writes his or her password
down where it might be seen by others.
The importance of users logging off and locking their workstations when they are not
physically using them cannot be stressed enough. No one, no matter who they are, should
be given the opportunity to look through another person’s desk while they are not there.
If the network administrator needs to use the workstation, he or she will know how to
accomplish the task. There is no reason for anyone other than the user to access the user’s
files, so why make them available by not cleaning off your electronic desktop when you
leave your workspace?
Many large companies implement a “clean desk policy.” What this means is that if the
employees leave their workstations (for any reason) they are required to clean off their
desks or workstations and lock documents, etc. away. In order for this policy to be
effective, management must randomly check to make sure that the policy is being
applied.
Evaluate your security policy on a regular basis to ensure that it is up to speed, and
troubleshoot before the trouble starts. This is known as a security audit.
Encryption
Data can be encoded at the sender’s end and decoded at the recipient’s end so that no one,
other than the person for whom the message was intended, can understand the message.
This practice is called cryptography and the system is called a cryptosystem. Encryption
converts regular text into ciphertext by combining the original data with one or more
“keys” known only to the sender and recipient. These keys are numbers or strings of
characters combined with the original text to create an algorithm.
Encryption is used to scramble passwords on an internal network so that they may not be
stolen during logon. It is also used to secure data over VPNs (Virtual Private Networks).
A VPN is a network that uses the Internet to connect remote users to an internal network.
Encryption is also used to encrypt E-mail transmissions, and is used extensively for
online commerce (e-commerce) and online banking.
Without encryption the Internet would be a hotbed for high-tech thieves who could tap
into it and steal information and credit card numbers. Even with encryption, the Internet
is not the most secure of environments.
DES (Data Encryption Standard) is the fastest and easiest method of sending an
encrypted message, because the sender and receiver use the same key to decrypt the data.
DES was developed by IBM and is now the most commonly used Private Key encryption
system used. This method uses a 56-bit private key.
RSA is a public-key cryptosystem for both encryption and authentication. It was invented
in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. The name comes from their
first initials. The entire security of RSA depends on the difficulty of factoring large prime
numbers. RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) uses both a public key and a private key. The
recipient’s public key is used by the sender to encrypt the message, and the recipient’s
private key is used to decrypt it.
Public Key encryption uses the Diffie-Hellman algorithm and is a one-way type of
encryption method. The sender encrypts the message using a public key and the receiver
decrypts it using a private key. If the receiver wishes to respond, the message is
encrypted using the original sender’s public key. The recipient of the response would
then use their private key to decrypt the message.
Symmetric Keys can also be used, but they are less secure. With this method of
encryption both parties have the same key, which is used to encrypt data and to decrypt it.
PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is based on Public Key encryption and was developed to
encrypt E-mail messages. As the name implies, it is not a completely secure encryption
method.
EES (Escrowed Encryption Standard) is known as skipjack and uses an 80-bit key. It is
similar to DES, but the use of the 80-bit key makes it much more complex. Skipjack was
originally designed to be integrated onto a chip known as a clipper chip.
Disaster Recovery
A disaster recovery plan (DRP) lays out how an organization or business is to deal with
disasters. It is designed to offset or minimize the effect of a potential disaster on the
business or organization. It should keep the mission-critical functions first and foremost,
so as to allow the business or organization to quickly resume their activities. Prevention
should also be addressed in the plan. Since the financial impact on a business can be
severe if even down for an hour, much less a day, it is imperative that all possible disaster
scenarios be addressed.
Ensuring the integrity of your network infrastructure to the best of your ability, both on
location and at backup sites, will ensure a much quicker recovery.
Viruses
Viruses are those nasty little programs that can wreak havoc on a computer and its data.
There are over 60,000 known viruses. The sole purpose of a virus is to replicate and make
life miserable for computer users. Many viruses are simple annoyances, but some of them
can cause irreparable harm to files. Most viruses are written by hackers who are trying to
show off.
Viruses can be spread by various sources including: shareware, files downloaded from
the Internet, software from unknown origins, and bulletin boards.
File Infectors: These attach themselves to executable files and spread to other files when
the program is run.
Boot Sector: These replace the master boot record (or boot sector on a floppy). They will
write themselves into memory any time the computer is booted.
Macro Virus: These attach themselves as executable code to documents and run when
the document is opened. (They can also attach to some kinds of E-mail). It used to be true
that you couldn’t get a virus from opening a document, just from running a program.
Unfortunately while macros are very valuable, they mean that when you open a document
you are running a program.
Unfortunately viruses have become a way of life in the computer world. With this in
mind, there are several measures you can take to prevent or at least minimize the damage:
Purchase an antivirus program—there are several good ones on the market. Make sure it
is compatible with all of the operating systems that you use.
If the computer has a BIOS setting that allows you to disable boot-sector writes,
(prevents applications from writing to the boot section of the hard disk), enable it! This
setting must be disabled before installing a new operating system.
Many viruses are transmitted by floppy disks. Be careful when reading floppies of
unknown origin or using your disk on unfamiliar machines.
These days, many viruses and macroviruses are transmitted over the Internet. Use
extreme caution when you download files, especially if they come from sources other
than a manufacturer’s Web site. The most secure protection against Internet-distributed
viruses is to make sure you have an antivirus program running at all times (or at least
when you’re downloading and first running new files).
Keep your anti-virus program updated. Hundreds of viruses are written each month.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Data Encryption
Differential Backup
Disaster Recovery
Disk Mirroring
Disk Striping
Firewall
Full Backup
Incremental Backup
NAS
Password Security
RAID
SAN
Volumes
Basic Troubleshooting
As mentioned, troubleshooting is more of an art form than a science. For some
technicians troubleshooting comes naturally, while for others it is a struggle. For those
who must endure the struggle, a habit of applying a methodical and determined approach
will soon result in it becoming second nature for you. Let’s take a look at an eight-part
approach that will lead to successful troubleshooting. The eight parts are as follows:
establish the symptoms, identify the affected area, establish what has changed, select the
most probable cause, implement a solution, test the result, recognize the potential effects
of the solution and document the solution. It is proper use of all the parts that will make
your next troubleshooting exercise easier.
The first step is the most critical and often the most ignored. Without a complete
understanding of the problem (the entire problem) you can spend a great deal of time
working on the symptoms instead of the cause. The only tools required for this phase are
a pad of paper, a pen (or pencil), and good listening skills.
Be sure to listen carefully to your client or co-worker. The user of the computer or
network is your best source of information. Don’t assume that just because you are the
expert, the operator doesn’t know what caused the problem. They may not know the
technical reason for the failure, but they often hold the keys to the problem. Remember,
Ask a few questions to help identify the problem and list the events as they occurred
before the failure. You may want to create a form with these questions (and others
specific to the situation) for taking notes:
Describe any changes in the computer (noise, screen changes, lights, and so forth).
The list of questions could go on forever. You will need to create your own list based on
the situation. With a little experience, you will be able to identify the best questions for
the situation.
Isolation of a problem requires a structured approach. It requires two simple steps, make
a plan and follow it.
Create a planned approach to isolate the problem based on your knowledge at this
point. Start with the most obvious or easiest solution to eliminate, and move
forward. Write down your plan!
The first step of any plan should be document and back up. Do not make any
assumptions. If you must make any assumptions, write them down. You may have
to refer back to them later.
In the case of a network problem, the first step in isolation is to separate a network
(hardware) problem from a workstation problem. For example, is the problem occurring
on more than one workstation or is it only on one? If you determine that the problem is
only on one workstation and the cabling and network card are working properly, then you
need to further isolate the problem to determine which program is experiencing difficulty.
If for example, you can “see” other computers in the network neighborhood, but you
cannot receive any E-mail, then you know for sure that the network is physically
working, but something must be wrong in the E-mail software or configuration.
The general procedure for isolating network problems is to start globally and work to
locally. Starting from the top, isolate the problem to:
A WAN or LAN
A segment of a LAN
A workgroup or domain
A server or workstation
A workstation or user
Once the search has been narrowed, start looking for specific hardware:
Routers
Hubs/Concentrator
Cabling or Connections
Adapters
Protocols
Authentications
As often as not, the problem may be caused by the operator, and not the hardware or the
system. In these cases, you must be careful as to how you resolve the problem while not
alienating the operator. Frustrated and confused operators can lead to further problems.
Here are a few suggestions for isolating the hardware/software from the operator:
Have another operator perform the same task on their own workstation, as well as the one
that is causing problems. It is important to use another operator. This will keep you
removed from the problem and eliminate the “it always works for the expert” syndrome.
Confirm that the operator is using standard operating procedures. This means to have the
operator duplicate the problem while you watch – do not tell them how.
Implement a solution
After locating or at least narrowing the problem to a few possibilities, either repair or
replace the defect. With hardware, repair or replacement is usually all that is needed.
However, if the problem is software or configuration related, it may require some
additional effort. To resolve these types of problems, you must do three things:
Formulate a correction (write down what you think will resolve the problem).
Note: If the problem is software-oriented, be sure to record the “before” and “after”
changes.
Wire Crimper
The wire crimper is a versatile tool that strips and cuts copper wire as well as crimping
solderless terminals. The narrow nose with its serrated jaws is used for pulling or coiling
wire.
Wire Crimper
The Multimeter
The name multimeter was derived from its ability to measure several different
parameters. You can test for AC and DC voltage, resistance, and continuity. Some meters
will let you test for current as well, but only low amounts (less than 10 amps). With it you
can test various electronic components, as well as the electrical power in the computer.
Most will consist of a digital or analog meter or display, a pair of wires with probes (one
black and one red), and a switch for adjusting the range of settings to be measured. The
red wire is the positive probe and the black wire is the negative or ground probe. When
working with network cabling, we will have to know how to test for continuity.
The purpose of continuity testing is to confirm a complete electrical circuit. For example,
it is to check to see that a wire is not broken. Most multimeters have a “continuity”
setting, which will indicate a complete circuit by either a light or a sound. When you
connect both leads of the meter to each end of the device you are testing, a positive test
(the light comes on or it makes a noise) means that the circuit is complete. If the test is
negative (no light or noise), the circuit is broken. If your meter does not have a continuity
setting, it is still possible to test for continuity. All you need to do is use the resistance
setting and test the device. In a wire for example, the resistance reading for continuity
would be zero – meaning that current is flowing without resistance. If the wire is broken,
the resistance reading will be infinity or maximum – meaning that no current is flowing.
Media Tester
Media testers are usually devices used to test the cabling, whether it be RJ-11 or RJ-45.
They can check for continuity and how the pin outs line up. These devices are generally
used when you make your own cabling.
Network Tester
Telephone and phone wiring companies use two tools, called tone generators and tone
locators, to find pairs of wires in a bundle. The tone generator is connected to the wires at
the known location (the room with the outlet). This applies a signal on the wires. The
tone locator is a receiver that is set to the frequency of the generator. When the receiver is
placed in close proximity to the wire that has the signal applied, it will emit a tone, thus
locating the wires. When used together, these tools are often called a fox and a hound.
Tone Generator
Test Cables
One method of isolating problems is to use a special cable to remove a workstation from
a network and simulate that it is still connected. Two such cables are the hardware
loopback and the crossover cable. A loopback cable is just what the name implies. It is a
single-ended cable that connects to a network card. It has the transmit and receive wires
connected. Any signal placed on the transmit wire will loopback to the receive wire, and
therefore back to the network card. If you are able to send a signal and have it return, you
will know that the network card and the protocol stack are functioning. A crossover cable
is similar to a loopback, but is double-ended. The transmit wire on one connector is
connected to the receive wire on the other (and vice versa). These cables can be used to
connect two computers into a single network eliminating any other network hardware. Be
careful when using a crossover cable, because they look just like patch cables but are not
interchangeable.
Protocol Analyzer
A protocol analyzer is used to monitor and analyze network traffic. Software analyzers,
also called packet sniffers, are usually a PC with a special network card. They will
monitor network traffic, capture packets and generate reports. Many protocol analyzers
will include a TDR as one of their functions.
Network Troubleshooting
Situation Probable Cause
A single workstation does not Usually these are authentication errors, but
connect to the network. can be caused by a disconnected cable.
Troubleshooting Scenarios
The following summarizes some possible scenarios that you may encounter and how to
provide a solution:
Misbehaving Protocols
You have just installed a new workstation and are unable to see any other workstations or
servers on the network. If you are using TCP/IP, you can confirm your hardware and
protocols by using the IPCONFIG, PING, and TRACERT commands to test the network.
These commands work from a command prompt. TRACERT allows you to trace the
“hops’ (routers encountered) that a packet takes to its destination. It also lets you know
the time that it takes. This comes in handy if you need to see where exactly on your
intranet or on the Internet your packet is going.
The first step is to PING the loopback address. This will test the protocol stack in the
computer. The loopback address is 127.0.0.1. Remember this address, because as a
network professional, you will use it often.
The next step is to use IPCONFIG to get details about your workstation. On a Windows
95/98 computer, you can use the WINIPCFG command from the RUN dialog box in the
START menu. This command will give the same results as IPCONFIG from DOS, but
looks better and includes the MAC address of the network adapter card. On a Macintosh
system, open the TCP/IP Control Panel to use these utilities.
If you are using Windows, WINIPCFG, your dialog box will look like the following.
This command is only for Windows 9x and ME and will not work on a Windows NT,
2000, XP, or 2003 system.
WINIPCFG
You can now PING that address to determine if the network card and protocol stack for
the computer are working properly.
PING 195.55.48.6
Continue the process by PINGing another workstation, the server, and so on. With each
step, you will be testing a larger portion of the network. If at any stage, you receive a
message like the following, you have encountered a problem.
If you are unable to reach a host computer, then there is a problem with the protocol.
Usually this means you have the wrong IP address, or the computer you are PINGing is
not using the TCP/IP protocol. It could simply mean that it is not logged on to the
network.
Replace any suspect drop or patch cables with a known good one.
Check the indicator lights on the adapter card. If present, they will let you know if the
card is working and if it can access the network.
NIC Indicator Lights
Many network cards have from one to three LED lights (green or yellow) next to the
cable connector. These lights can be seen from the back of the computer. The actual
function of each light will depend on the manufacturer and you may have to check the
documentation that came with the card for details. In general, they will indicate whether
or not the card can detect the presence of a network and when data is being transmitted. If
no lights are on, you can be sure that the network is not being detected, while green lights
indicate that all is well.
Name Resolution
You are testing a new workstation and are unable to see the workstation by its domain
name. You know that the IP connection is good because you can PING the IP address.
How do you determine the problem?
Another place to look for name resolution problems (on a local LAN) is in the HOSTS
and LMHOSTS files. These are text files that are used to statically map local and remote
hostnames and NetBIOS names to IP addresses, respectively. If these files are being used,
you can find them on the host in the systemroot\system32\driver directory. The difference
between HOSTS and LMHOSTS is that HOSTS is used in place of DNS and LMHOSTS
is used in place of WINS.
Performance
You think that your network is performing without problems, but are starting to get
complaints that “the network is slow.” What are you going to do?
These problems are often difficult to resolve because there are a vast number of
possibilities as to the cause. If there is a sudden change in performance, the first thing to
do is find out what has changed. Any new hardware or applications (including upgrades)
are always good candidates for the problem. Beyond that, we need to look at four limiting
factors on performance.
The performance of a network will only be as fast as the slowest link in the entire
system. Therefore, if any one component is performing poorly, it will affect the
entire network.
Latency
Small delays in packet movement that are caused by devices is called latency.
Routers and switches that connect any two segments of a network can cause these
delays. Latency delays, for the most part, are negligible, but can be measured and
will affect performance in large networks.
Application Efficiency
Any application that was not designed to work over a network will be unable to
take full advantage of network protocols. This can slow down data transfer. For
example, some network operating systems will allow for burst mode operation.
This means that for a small amount of time, it can send data at a faster than rated
speed. An application will have to be designed to take advantage of burst mode in
order to use it.
Server/Workstation Limits
Nothing will slow down a network more than a sluggish server. A server that is
operating its CPU at 100% will have to delay processing of each request until it
completes its current request. This may require the requestor to continue to resend
its request, adding to the network load. A server with a memory deficiency will
have to write information to a disk cache. Reading and writing from a disk is
much slower than from memory.
Resolving performance problems can be easy, after you identify the problem. The trick is
knowing how the network performed when it was good and how it performs now. The
answer lies in creating a performance baseline. A baseline is simply a record of
performance criteria at a given time. To create a baseline, you will need to run a series of
tests and record the performance. For example, if you are experiencing slow printing, you
can print the same document at different times throughout the day and record the time it
takes to print. From this information, you will know the high, slow, and average time to
print the document. Then, at a later date, you can re-test the printer performance under
the same conditions and determine if things have changed.
KEYWORDS Exercise
Define each of the following keywords. Hint: There’s a glossary in the back of this book.
Keyword Definition
Bandwidth
IPCONFIG
Latency
Media Tester
Multimeter
Performance Monitor
PING
TDR
Throughput
Tone Generator
Tone Locator
WINIPCFG
Wire Crimper
2. After repairing a problem, are you finished with the troubleshooting process?
3. You are troubleshooting a cable problem. You have found the cabinet with the patch
panel and hub, but need to know which of the 50 cables goes to the accounting office.
What would be the best tool to help you locate the cable in question?
4. You have located the cable in question #3, and think it might be shorted. What tool
would you need to find the short?
5. You are working with a TCP/IP network and want to confirm the protocol stack in a
specific workstation. What utility can you use to confirm that the protocol stack is
good?
7. You need to know the IP address of a workstation. What TCP/IP utility can you use
to find the IP address of the workstation?
8. You have just connected a workstation to the network. What is the easiest way to tell
if the network card can “see” the network?
10. You have a Windows 2000 network and received complaints that the server is
running slowly. What utility can you use to determine the performance of the server?
Conclusion
Remember, the best thing about a self-study course is that you are able to review it as
much, and as often, as you like. To measure your retention of these materials, start taking
the practice exams that are on the CD-ROM that was included with this course. After
taking a practice exam, be sure to review any areas that need improvement. When you are
consistently achieving scores in the 90% range, you are ready to sit for your certification
exam.
The following “Appendix A” is an excellent source of review material, and don’t forget
to use the Glossary. When you are ready to schedule your exam, be sure to refer back to
the beginning of this book for tips on what to expect at the exam site.
We love to hear from our students, so if you have any questions, or if you just want to let
us know how you are doing, we’d be happy to hear from you!
Remember, at Specialized Solutions, our success is directly tied to the success that our
students have with our training and certification products.
Thank you for allowing us to be your training partner and please let us know if we can
help with any of your future training needs.
5-4-3 Rule
When installing coaxial Ethernet cabling, you must conform to the 5-4-3 rule.
• Maximum of 5 segments in a series.
• Maximum of 4 repeaters.
• Only 3 segments can contain nodes.
Cable TV RG-59 75
ARCnet RG-62 93
Cable Description
RG-58 /U Solid copper core.
Ethernet Cabling
1 Two STP solid core 22 AWG wires – Connect between terminals and distribution
maximum length 101 meters (331 feet). boxes or between different wiring closets.
2 Six twisted pairs, two STP and four Same as type 1, but adds voice capability
UTP – maximum length 100 meters along with data.
(328 feet).
3 Four UTP with two twists per inch – 22 Lower cost alternative to type 1 or 2.
or 24 AWG wire –maximum cable Cannot be used for 16 Mbps Token Ring.
length is 45 meters (148 feet). Voice-grade cable.
4 Not Defined
7 Not Defined
802.1 Internetworking
IRQ Assignments
IRQ assignments can vary from computer to computer; however, there are some that are
always the same and some that can be changed. The following is a standard configuration
for IRQ settings:
0 System Timer No
1 Keyboard Controller No
6 Floppy Controller No
7 LPT1 Usually
8 Real-time Clock No
10 Available Yes
11 SCSI/available Yes
12 Available Yes
14 Primary IDE No
In addition to IRQs you may have to set the Base I/O address. The following are common
address assignments:
210 to 21F
220 to22F
240 to 24F
260 to 26F
280 to 28F
290 to 29F
2A0 to 2AF
2B0 to 2BF
2C0 to 2CF
2D0 to 2DF
330 to 33F
340 to 34F
350 to 35F
360 to 36F
380 to 38F
390 to 39F
3E0 to 3EF
OSI Model
7 Application Computers
6 Presentation
Gateways
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network Routers
Brouter
2 Data Link Bridges
Switches
1 Physical NICs, Hubs, Repeaters
Subnet Masking
Subnet masks are used to divide an IP address into its network address and host address.
Subnet masks are assigned according to the following three classes:
TCP/IP Ports
A port is a virtual outlet that can be opened on a network device. Common ports are as
follows:
Service Port
FTP 21
TELNET 23
SMTP 25
HTTP 80
POP3 110
TCP/IP Utilities
TCP/IP provides many tools for troubleshooting networks. Here are some command-line
utilities:
Topology Review
Transmission Media
Media Bandwidth Nodes/Segment Maximum Nodes Maximum Cable
(Mbps) per Network Length (meters)
Coaxial 10 30 90 185
Thinnet
Troubleshooting Tools
Hardware Uses
Software Uses
Novell
http://www.novell.com
ANSI
This is one of the most common standards in the computing industry, let alone the
networking industry. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is an
organization of industry and business groups who develop trade and communication
standards. In the computing industry, it is perhaps best known for the development of the
ASCII character set. This is a common code for basic characters and numbers. ANSI also
is the United States representative on several international organizations like ISO and
CCITT (see below).
CCITT
The CCITT (Comité Consultatif Internationale de Télégraphie et Téléphonie) is an
international organization also known as the International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee. As its name implies, it is responsible for establishing standards
for communication. Perhaps the most famous standards are the “V” standards for
modems and Faxes.
EIA
The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) is a group of American manufacturers of
electronic equipment. It is prominent in developing standards for the interface between
data processing equipment and communication equipment. Perhaps the most well known
standard is the RS-232 standard for serial communication via DB-9 and DB-25
connector.
IEEE
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.) publishes many
standards for electrical and electronic equipment. Since they cover a wide variety of
equipment, the IEEE is subdivided into committees. The one that is important to
networking professionals is called the IEEE 802.x committee. These standards are used
for equipment operating in the Physical and Data link layers of the OSI Model. See
Appendix A for a summary of the 802.x sub-committees.
ISO
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is responsible for establishing
international standards for all services and manufactured product. A major ISO
contribution to the network community was the development of the OSI (Open System
Interconnection) model. Be careful to not get ISO and OSI confused.
SAG
SAG or SQL Access Group is working in conjunction with ISO to develop
interoperability standards. As you may guess from its name, its emphasis is on SQL or
the Structured Query Language. This is a common platform for transferring data from
one database application to another. As long as both are SQL compliant, the data can be
smoothly transferred.
The test is available to anyone who wants to take the test. Payment is made at the time of
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subject to change without notice, and may be obtained by calling Prometric or VUE.
Appendix E – Glossary
Base I/O Port Address The channel through which data flows between a
computer’s hardware (such as a NIC) and the CPU.
Class C IP Address Class C IP addresses are used for smaller networks that
do not exceed 254 hosts.
Clocking The method used by the NIC to count and pace the
number of signals that it sends and receives.
CSU/DSU Changes the frame types between the LAN and WAN
Data Encryption Data that is encoded for security reasons, at the sender’s
level and then decoded at the recipient’s level.
Data Link Layer The Data Link layer is the second lowest layer in the
OSI model. It is the last stop before the data packets are
placed on the media for transmission. The Data Link
layer splits data into frames, which are large areas of
data that are split into smaller non-contiguous blocks,
for sending on the Physical layer. It also receives
acknowledgement frames. It performs error checking
and re-transmits frames that were not received correctly.
Default Gateway When you type the IP address of the gateway routers
you have installed on your network, whichever one
appears first on the list is considered the default
gateway.
Demand Priority This access method is designed for the 100 Mbps
Ethernet standard 100VG-AnyLAN
Disk Mirroring The use of two or more hard disks that “mirror” the
main one, so that one can take over for the other if it
fails.
Disk Striping Also called data striping, this is the dividing into
segments of logically sequential data, such as an
individual file, so that the segments can be written to
multiple disk drives, in a round-robin fashion. If the
processor is capable of reading or writing data faster
than a single disk can supply or accept it, the second
disk can locate the next segment while data is being
transferred from the first disk.
DMA (Direct Memory A limited form of bus mastering, DMA allows a device
Access) to read and write memory without intervention by the
CPU.
Event Viewer A Windows NT utility that will allow you to log any
events and errors.
HOSTS and LMHOSTS Text files that are used to look up and resolve names to
files IP addresses. HOSTS is used for DNS and LMHOSTS
is used for WINS.
IP Internet Protocol
IPCONFIG DOS command that tells you the IP address for your
computer.
Laser Transmissions A wireless network standard that uses laser beams for
the transmission of data.
Media Tester Tool used for testing the continuity and pin-outs of a
cable
Multistation Access Unit A type of hub. The actual ring in a Token Ring network
is in the hub.
Network Adapter Card Also known as a network interface card. Provides the
physical connection to the network cable.
Network Layer The hardware that is used to construct the network plays
an important role at this layer. The network layer
handles all the routing information as packets travel
from one network to another.
Patch Cable They extend the connection between the computer and
the hub or between two hubs.
Physical Layer The Physical layer is the lowest layer in the OSI Model.
This layer determines the interface hardware and the
medium that will be used to transmit the data from the
Data Link layer.
Plenum The space between the ceiling and the floor above; used
to circulate air through a building.
Proxy Server One that serves many clients through only one
connection; For example, the user is connecting to the
Internet via a secondary source, i.e. the proxy server.
Reflective Infrared The signal is beamed towards a central unit, which then
routes the signal appropriately.
RJ-11 Connector Connector used with standard telephone wire. Flat cable
with 2 or 4 conductors.
RJ-45 Connector Connector used with UTP and STP network cables. Will
hold up to 4 pairs of conductors.
Scatter Infrared Transmission rates are slower with this type, as the
signal is designed to bounce off of walls, ceilings, etc.
until it reaches the receiver. The effective distance of the
signal is limited to about 100 feet.
Shielded Twisted Pair A type of cable in which pairs of conductors are twisted
together to prevent possible cross-talk from nearby
wiring.
Tone Generator Connected to the wires at the known location (the room
with the outlet), this applies a signal on the wires. The
“fox.”
Unshielded Twisted Pair Twisted network cables that do not have any shielding.
Vampire Tap Connectors that utilize sharp teeth to pierce the cable
jacket to make the connection. Used on transceivers.
The following are the questions found at the end of each chapter along with the correct
answers.
1. What is the key difference between a local area network and a wide area network?
The “old fashioned” way computer users shared resources by taking a file on a floppy
disk to the computer that had the services they needed to use. Dragging a printer from
computer to computer for users to utilize is another form of a sneaker net.
Files are easily accessed by all users. Access can be denied to unauthorized users
(security), data backups can be more easily and routinely performed.
Simple to install, configure, and manage (each user manages their own computer) for
a small number of workstations (10 or less), inexpensive to install (no need to buy
expensive server).
Centralized location of resources (server). File and resource security available to limit
unauthorized access. Ease of data backups. Can be expanded as network grows.
Centralized administration. Increased performance on large networks.
Expensive to install (will need to purchase expensive server). More difficult to install
and configure, more difficult to manage (needs an administrator).
Physical topologies are the actual wires and hardware that we can see. They represent
what the topology looks like. Logical topologies represent the way that a networks
functions.
The access methods are CSMA/CD CSMA/CA, Token Passing, and Demand Priority.
1. What is the difference between an operating system and a network operating system?
Multitasking means that a computer has the ability to perform more than one task at a
time. Preemptive multitasking means that the operating system can take control of the
processor without a task’s permission. Non-preemptive multitasking is when the task
decides when it is done with the CPU.
The redirector (in Novell NetWare it is called the requester) forwards requests away
from the local bus, redirecting them to the server. The purpose of the redirector is to
make network resources look like local resources to the application.
5. What is NDS?
NDS (NetWare Directory Services) is the core of the NetWare operating system. It is
a hierarchically organized database that provides security, name service, messaging,
routing, web-publishing, management, and file and print services. Organization of
network resources such as users, groups, servers, and volumes is also handled with
NDS.
6. What are the minimum hardware requirements for installing Novell NetWare version
5?
Pentium Class or Higher CPU, 64 MB RAM, 550 MB of free hard drive space.
7. Define interoperability.
Windows NT combines the operating system and the network operating system into
one.
9. What is NTFS?
NTFS is the file system in Windows NT and it must be utilized in order to take full
advantage of NT’s security features.
11. What are the minimum hardware requirements for Windows NT Server?
12. Name some of the services and protocols that Microsoft included with Windows NT to
ensure interoperability with NetWare.
Linux
The Macintosh
15.What type of network would utilize Windows for Workgroups as an operating system?
Windows for Workgroups is a version of Windows 3.1 that includes the ability to run
a peer-to-peer network.
3. A network adapter card operates at the _______ layer of the OSI model
Network layer
Network Layer
Presentation layer
9. The ____________ layer is responsible for the mechanical and electrical functions of
transmitting data over a network.
Physical
The Presentation layer is the translator for the network. It translates data into a format
that is compatible with the network and back into a format that is compatible with the
computer.
11. Which OSI layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and ending connections?
The MAC address is another name for the 12-digit (6-byte) hexadecimal address that
is hardwired on the NIC by the manufacturer. It is a computer’s physical address.
D3-B4-01
16. The Data Link layer has been split into two sub-layers. What are they?
The Logical Link (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer
A gateway translates between two networks that use different protocols. A computer
with special software serves as a gateway and allows for communication between
completely dissimilar networks.
18. Which IEEE standard defines the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer?
802.2
They are Network Adapter Card interface specifications. They are incompatible with
each other. NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification) was co-developed by
Microsoft and 3Com, while ODI (Open Data Link Interface) was co-developed by
Novell and Apple. The purpose of these standards is to allow operating system
vendors to write multiple drivers for the same NIC. This way more than one protocol
can be bound to a single NIC.
In order to function, a protocol must be bound to the NIC. This binding process is
what links the protocol stacks to the NIC driver. It is possible to bind two protocols
the one NIC (such as TCP/IP and IPX/IPX) or to have two NICs with one protocol
bound to each one. The order in which these protocols are bound to the NIC
determines which one the network operating system will attempt to use first.
AppleTalk, DECnet, IPX/SPX, PPP, PPTP, SLIP, SMB, SNA, TCP/IP, UDP, X.25,
XNS
23.. You have expanded your NetBEUI network into two segments and are using an
intelligent router to optimize network traffic. Will this work? Why or Why not?
185 meters
500 meters
BNC connectors
They utilize sharp teeth that puncture the cable to make the connection.
Plenum grade cabling is used in the plenum (the space between the ceiling and the
floor above, which is used to circulate air in a building). Fire codes usually call for
special cable in this area because PVC cable gives off poisonous gas and fumes when
burned, which would end up being circulated throughout the building.
100 meters
Up to 100 Mbps
UTP is the less expensive of the twisted pair cable types. It is also flexible and easy to
install, making it the most popular cable type.
STP is insulated with a foil mesh between the wire pairs, which results in less
sensitivity to EMI and crosstalk.
RJ-45 connectors
Fiber-Optic cable is the ideal cable type for networking. However, it is the most
expensive and most difficult to install.
UTP is the least expensive of the cable types. It is also flexible and easy to install,
making it the most popular cable type.
American Wire Gauge (AWG) is the standard that describes wire thickness. The
AWG wire number decreases as the wire thickness increases.
Broadband allows two or more channels to share the bandwidth of the cable, making
the signal flow unidirectional.
18. What is the difference between simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex communication?
Simplex communication is one way, can receive but not send. For example, a pager.
Half-duplex communication can send or receive, but not at the same time. For
example, a CB radio. Full-duplex can send and receive signals at the same time. For
example, the telephone.
Network Adapter Cards or Network Interface Cards (NICs) are used to connect the
computer to the network. (They make the physical connection to the network.) NICs
translate the data that computers can understand into signals that can be transmitted
over the network medium and back again.
20. In Token Ring networks, what are the two ring speeds available?
In a Token Ring network if the correct ring speed is not selected a computer will not
be able to connect to the network. The two choices available are 4 Mbps and 16
Mbps.
22. What are some of the reasons you would need to install a wireless network?
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection and
CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance. Both
CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA listen to the network cable to determine if it is free
(Carrier Sense), if no data is traveling, a CSMA/CD computer will transmit. If there is
another computer on the network that transmitted at exactly the same time, a data
collision will occur, and both sets of data will be destroyed. CSMA/CD detects that a
collision has occurred and waits a specified amount of time before re-transmitting.
With CSMA/CA the process is much the same except that instead of just transmitting
when it senses that the cable is free, it will send a signal that it is about to transmit.
This will cause any other computer that was about to transmit to wait and so data
collisions are avoided. This extra step can slow down network traffic, so CSMA/CA
is not the most popular of the two contention methods.
A computer on a token passing access method network must possess the token in
order to transmit data. Therefore, only one computer at a time will transmit in this
kind of architecture, and so, no contention.
A token, which is a special kind of packet, is circulated around the ring from
computer to computer in a Token Ring network. A computer that wants to send data
onto the network waits until the token is passed to it and takes possession of it. The
transmitting computer encodes the token with the data that it wants to transmit, as
well as header and trailer information that contain the destination and source
addresses, as well as error control information. It then passes the token back out onto
the ring where it travels on until it reaches the destination computer. The destination
computer copies the data into its buffer and adds some acknowledgment information
(or re-transmittal information if it detected errors) and releases the frame back out
onto the network where it travels back to the source computer. Assuming that the data
was transmitted error-free, the source computer removes the “used” frame from the
network and creates a new “free” token to release back out onto the network.
5. What happens if two computers using the demand priority access method transmit at
exactly the same time?
If the hub receives two transmissions at exactly the same time the one with the
highest priority is processed first. If the two transmissions have the same priority
level, they are processed at the same time by alternating between the transmissions.
7. What is CRC and what part of the packet is it usually located in?
The header contains information such as an alert signal that announces that data is
being transmitted, the source and destination addresses and clocking information.
The first part indicates transmission speed (10 means it transmits at 10 Mbps), the
second part “Base” indicates that it uses baseband (single channel) technology and the
last part indicates the cabling type, or maximum segment length in the case of coaxial
cable. (“T” indicates Twisted-pair).
185 Meters. The “2” in this case means 2 times 100 meters, but in the case of Thinnet
coaxial cable the maximum segment length is 185 meters.
BNC connectors
Fiber-Optic
100VG-AnyLAN, also called 100BaseVG, VG, and AnyLAN. The VG stands for
Voice Grade. 100BaseX is sometimes called Fast Ethernet. It has different
specifications depending upon the type of cabling used (hence the “X” in the area that
indicates cable type).
17. How are data collisions avoided in the Token Ring architecture?
A computer must posses the token in order to transmit data. Since no other computer
can transmit while one computer has the token, data collisions are avoided.
The active monitor (which is the first computer to go online) is responsible for
monitoring network activity to make sure that frames are being sent and received
accurately. It also ensures that only one token is traveling the ring at a time and
investigates any frames that have traveled around the ring more than once. It does this
by transmitting a signal every seven seconds. This signal is called beaconing and it
travels from computer to computer. If a computer doesn’t receive an expected signal
from its upstream neighbor it will notify the monitor that a problem may exist.
Which way data travels in a Token Ring network is a matter of convention. IEEE
802.5 says it travels clockwise, while IBM says that it travels counter-clockwise. It
can be either depending upon how it is set up. The main thing is that data only travels
in one direction on a Token Ring network. It is more commonly set up to travel
clockwise, however.
SMAU stands for Smart Multistation Access Unit. This is a hub that has all of the
features of an active hub (regenerates or amplifies the signal) with additional
capabilities such as certain network management functions. A SMAU may have the
capability to shut down a connection that is producing errors thereby allowing the rest
of the network to function.
MIC (Media Interface Connectors) are connectors that have neither male nor female
ends. Any connector can be connected to another MIC connector. They are also
called hermaphrodite connectors.
AppleShare is the name of the file server on an AppleTalk network. It also provides a
print server.
Token-passing.
The token is passed around the network in numerical order. It first goes to computer
#1 and then #2, etc. It does this even if computer #1 is at the opposite end of the
network from computer #2.
All you need to start a network project is a pencil and some paper.
2. What are the two areas of concern when starting a network project?
You will need to consider the customer and the network goals.
3. What are the two most prominent reasons to choose a peer-to-peer network?
The best reasons for using peer-to-peer are its simplicity and low cost.
No, NetBEUI is a non-routable protocol and will not interface with routers.
6. Your client is installing a small Ethernet network and trying to save money at the same
time. However, he intends to expand the network in the future. Give one reason why you
should recommend that he spend a little more now and install CAT 6 cabling instead of
CAT 5.
It will be less costly to install CAT 6 now than to replace the CAT 5 later when the
network needs to be upgraded from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps to handle the higher traffic.
7. You are expanding your network and will need to invest in 50 to 100 new network
cards. Your accounting office found a really good deal on network cards, but they are not
all the same. Why should you refuse this offer?
First, you cannot be sure that they will meet the specifications of your network. Also,
having to maintain a variety of network cards will increase the workload of your IS
department – it is better to standardize network cards in a large network.
8. Your company just bought ten new computers and all are guaranteed to meet the
minimum requirements of Windows XP. Was this a good purchase?
No – the minimum requirements are just enough to run the NOS, but not enough to
run it efficiently.
9. How do you know if a new piece of hardware will work with Windows XP?
Hubs are used with Ethernet networks and MAUs are used with Token Ring
networks.
Active hubs are used to connect nodes and boost the signal strengths. An active hub
requires some input power. Passive hubs are used only to make connections.
Repeater - A repeater is a device that is used to extend the cable lengths of a network
segment. They do not translate or filter any information. They do however, amplify
the signal thereby compensating for signal loss due to long cables. Repeaters work in
the Physical layer of the OSI model.
Bridge - A bridge does the same things as a repeater but has one additional feature. A
bridge can be used to isolate segments on a LAN, thus reducing the traffic for each
segment. Bridges work in the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
Router - A router has all the features of a bridge, but it can switch packets across
multiple networks. They can also determine the best path for “routing” traffic and
filter broadcast traffic to the local segment. Not all network protocols will work with
a router. For example, NetBEUI is not routable.
T1
BAUD rate is the number in cycles per second of the carrier signal of a modem.
BAUD is limited to 2400 bps. A bps or bit per second is the actual data transmission
rate of a modem. In older modems, BAUD and bps were the same thing.
1. What are the four layers that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite?
The four layers of TCP/IP are: Application, Transport, Internet and Network
Interface.
2. How many primary protocols are used to make the TCP/IP Suite?
There are five primary protocols: they are – TCP, UDP, IP, ICMP, and ARP.
The Domain Name System is used to resolve host names into IP addresses.
6. What is a domain?
WINS
32
10. What is the value of the leading bit (one on the far left) for a Class A IP address?
Class B? Class C?
groups.
Reduce network traffic by limiting broadcast and local traffic to a single segment
1. You are the manager of a large network and have been getting complaints about the
system being slow. What kind of software package can you purchase to help analyze your
network?
Network Management Software is used to analyze network traffic and network status.
2. In order for your new network management software to monitor the activities of the
entire network, each device will need to be _________ compliant.
3. TCP/IP provides several tools that you can use to validate the statistics of your
network. List as many as you can.
Resources
A firewall is used to prevent unauthorized access to your network from outside via
the Internet. It can also be configured to prevent unauthorized transmissions from
leaving your network.
The three steps to troubleshooting are: Define the Problem, Isolate the Problem, and
Repair the Problem.
2. After repairing a problem, are you finished with the troubleshooting process?
NO – You still need to confirm the repair and document the problem and solution.
3. You are troubleshooting a cable problem. You have found the cabinet with the patch
panel and hub, but need to know which of the 50 cables goes to the accounting office.
What would be the best tool to help you locate the cable in question?
The best tool for isolating a single cable from many is the tone generator or tone
locator. The fox and hound.
4. You have located the cable in question #3, and think it might be shorted. What tool
would you need to find the short?
5. You are working with a TCP/IP network and want to confirm the protocol stack in a
specific workstation. What utility can you use to confirm the protocol stack is good?
127.0.0.1
7. You need to know the IP address of a workstation. What TCP/IP utility can you use to
find the IP address of the workstation?
You can use IPCONFIG from a DOS prompt or if using Windows, WINIPCFG from
the RUN command.
8. You have just connected a workstation to the network. What is the easiest way to tell if
the network card can “see” the network?
If the network card has indicator lights, you should see the green light that indicates
that the network card has detected the presence of a network.
Bandwidth is the amount of traffic that a network can handle at a given time.
Throughput is the maximum speed that a message can be transmitted.
10. You have a Windows 2000 network and received complaints that the server is running
slow. What utility can you use to determine the performance of the server?
Performance Monitor
Index
Broadband Optical Telepoint, 117
1 brouter, 79
100BaseX, 136 C
100VG-AnyLAN, 136
10Base2, 135 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
10Base5, 135 Collision Detection (CSMA/CD,
10BaseFL, 135 38,128
10BaseT, 135 Carriers, 180
Category 3, 80
A Category 5,136
Cellular Networking, 118
access method, 128 Change, 57
Active Directory, 59 Circuit-switched, 184
active hubs, 41 Class A, 215
Address Resolution Protocol, 87 Class B, 215
Analog, 109 Class C, 215
AppleShare, 142 client software, 52
AppleTalk, 142 Client Software, 52
Application Layer, 68 clients, 31
application server, 31 Clocking, 109
ARCNet, 143 cloud, 88
ARP, 87 coaxial cable, 97
ATM, 186 Computer compatibility, 171
attenuation,78 connection-oriented, 83
attributes, 54 continuity, 263
AUI connector, 87 CSMA/CD, 38,80
AWG, 106 CSNW, 59
CSU/DSU, 181
B Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC), 139
backbone, 33 D
backup utility, 246
Bandwidth, 106 Data Link Layer, 58
Banyan VINES, 60 Data Protection, 40
base 106 DECnet, 85
Beaconing, 139 demand priority, 129
binding, 83 DES (Data Encryption Standard), 250
BNC, 97 Differential backup, 246
Boot Prom’s, 300 Digital, 97
Boot Sector, 251 Direct Memory Access (DMA), 99
BOOTP, 211 DLC, 88
BRI, 186 DMA, 110
bridge, 78 domain, 58
Broadband, 106 domain controller, 58
E I
G K
gateway, 79 Kerberos, 193
gateways, 79
Gateways, 179 L
Gigabit Ethernet, 136
ground probe, 263 L2TP, 193
Group policies, 59 LAN, 30
GSNW, 59 Laser, 116,245
LAT, 88
H Layer Two Tunneling Protocol, 193
Linux, 60
Half-Duplex, 106,304 LLC, 71
headers, 132 LMHOSTS, 211
Headers, 132 LocalTalk, 142
W wireless network, 36
Wireless NICs, 112
WAN, 30
U U
workstation, 31
Windows 2000, 50
Windows 95/98, 49 X
Windows for Workgroups, 137
WINS, 210 X.25, 88
Wire Crimper, 262 XDR, 90
Wireless, 19, 36 XNS, 88