Conservative Power Theory CPT

Conservative Power Theory Conservative Power Theory
A theoretical background to understand energy issues of A theoretical background to understand energy issues of
electrical networks under non electrical networks under non--sinusoidal conditions sinusoidal conditions
UNICAMP UNICAMP UNESP Sorocaba UNESP Sorocaba
August 2012 August 2012
1
electrical networks under non electrical networks under non--sinusoidal conditions sinusoidal conditions
and and
to approach measurement, accountability and control to approach measurement, accountability and control
problems in smart grids problems in smart grids
Paolo Tenti
Department of Information Engineering
University of Padova, Italy
Seminar Outline Seminar Outline
1. Motivation of work
2. Mathematical and physical foundations of the theory
Mathematical operators and their properties
Instantaneous and average power & energy terms in poly-
phase networks
3. Definition of current and power terms in single-phase
2
networks under non-sinusoidal conditions
4. Extension to poly-phase domain: 3-wires / 4-wires
5. Sequence components under non-sinusoidal
conditions
6. Measurement & accountability issues
Describe physical phenomena
energy transfer,
energy storage,
rate of utilization of power sources and distribution
infrastructure,
unwanted voltage and current terms, .
Allow unambiguous measurement of quantities
1. Motivation of work 1. Motivation of work
Why do we need to define power terms Why do we need to define power terms
3
Allow unambiguous measurement of quantities
load and source characterization,
revenue metering,
Compensation
identify provisions which make the equipment or the
plant compliant with standards & regulations in terms
of symmetry, purity of waveforms, power factor
While the definition and meaning of instantaneous
power and its average value (active power) are
universally agreed, the situation is less clear with other
popular power terms
What is/means reactive power ?
What is/means distortion power ?
Few basic questions Few basic questions
4
What is/means distortion power ?
What is/means apparent power ?
These power terms are unambiguously defined when at
least the voltage supply is sinusoidal, but are matter of
controversial discussions (since nearly one century) in
case of distorted voltages and currents.
In the frequency domain In the frequency domain
Budeanu Budeanu (1927) (1927)
Sheperd Sheperd & & Zakikhani Zakikhani (1971) (1971)
Czarnecki Czarnecki (1984 ) (1984 )
In the time domain In the time domain
Fryze Fryze (1931) (1931)
Milestones of power theory history Milestones of power theory history
5
5
Kusters Kusters & Moore (1975) & Moore (1975)
Depenbrock Depenbrock (1993) (1993)
Akagi Akagi & & Nabae Nabae (1983) (1983)
No one of these theories was able to target all goals (characterization No one of these theories was able to target all goals (characterization
of physical phenomena, load & line identification, compensation). of physical phenomena, load & line identification, compensation).
The time The time--domain theory presented here domain theory presented here tries to target all goals at the tries to target all goals at the
same time. same time.
It represents an outcome of It represents an outcome of a long a long--standing cooperation between standing cooperation between
UNIPD, UNICAMP and UNESP. UNIPD, UNICAMP and UNESP.
In modern scenarios (e.g., micro-grids) where:
the grid is weak,
frequency may change,
voltages may be asymmetrical,
distortion may affect voltages and currents,
are the usual definitions of reactive, unbalance and
distortion power still valid ?
Need for a revision of power terms Need for a revision of power terms
6
distortion power still valid ?
Which is the physical meaning of such terms ?
Are they useful for compensation ?
To which extent are power measurements affected by
source non-ideality ?
It is possible to identify supply and load responsibility
on voltage distortion and asymmetry at a given network
port ?
Conservative Conservative
Power Theory Power Theory
Definition of mathematical operators and their
2. 2. Mathematical and physical foundations
7
Definition of mathematical operators and their
properties
Definition of instantaneous power and energy terms
Conservative quantities
Selection of voltage reference
Definition of average power terms and their physical
meaning in real networks
Let T be the period of variables x and y, we define:
Average value
Time derivative
Time integral
Mathematical operators for periodic Mathematical operators for periodic
scalar quantities scalar quantities
( )
= =
T
dt t x
T
x x
0
1
dt
x d
x=
(
( )
=
t
d x x
8
Time integral
Unbiased time integral
Internal product
Norm (rms value)
Orthogonality
( )
d x x
0

= x x x
)
dt y x
T
y x
T
=
0
1
,
x x x X , = =
0 , = y x
Let x and y be vector quantities of size N, we define:
Scalar product
Magnitude
Mathematical operators for periodic Mathematical operators for periodic
vector quantities vector quantities
n
N
n
n
y x y x

=
=
1
o
=
= =
N
n
n
x x x x
1
2
o
N
9
Internal product
Norm
Orthogonality
The vector norm is also called collective rms value
=
= =
N
n
n n
y x y x y x
1
, , o

= =
= = =
N
n
n
N
n
n n
X x x x
1
2
1
, X
0 , = y x
The above operators have the following properties:
Orthogonality
Equivalences
Properties of mathematical operators Properties of mathematical operators
(valid for scalar and vector quantities) (valid for scalar and vector quantities)
0 ,
0 ,
0 ,
0 ,
=
=
=
=
x x
x x
x x
x x
)
(
)
(
y x y x
y x y x
( (
( (
, ,
, ,
=
=
10
For sinusoidal quantities
y x y x y x
y x y x
y x y x
y x y x y x
y x y x
y x y x
( ) ) (
) )
( ) ) (
) )
, , ,
, ,
, ,
, , ,
, ,
, ,
= =
=
=
= =
=
=
x x x X
( )
1
= = =
cos , XY y x =

sen XY y x
1
, =
)
2
2
2
2 2 2 2
2X
x
x x x = + = +
(
)
Instantaneous power definitions Instantaneous power definitions
(for periodic variables) (for periodic variables)
Instantaneous (active) power:
= = =
N
n
N
n n
p i u i u p
Given the vectors of the N phase currents i
n
and voltages
u
n
measured at a generic network port we define:
11
Instantaneous reactive energy
(new definition):
Instantaneous (active) power:
= = n
n
n
n n
1 1
Both quantities do not depend on the voltage reference
Both quantities are conservative in every real network

= =
= = =
N
n
n
N
n
n n
w i u i u w
1 1
) )
Conservation of instantaneous Conservation of instantaneous
power and reactive energy power and reactive energy
For every real network , let u and i be the vectors of
the L branch voltages and currents, we claim that:
Branch voltages, their time derivative and unbiased
integral are consistent with network , i.e. they
comply with KLV (Kirchhoffs law for voltages)
12
Branch currents, their time derivative and unbiased
integral are consistent with network , i.e. they
comply with KLC (Kirchhoffs law for currents)
Thus, according to
Tellegens Theorem all
quantities shown here are
conservative
0
0
0
= =
= =
= = =
i u i u
i u i u
i u i u i u
(
(
)
)
)
(
(
)
Average power definitions Average power definitions
(valid for periodic quantities) (valid for periodic quantities)
Reactive energy:
P
i u A
i , u i , u w W
i , u p P
=
= =
= = =
= =
I U
)
)
Active power:
Apparent power:
Power factor:
13
A
= Power factor:
All quantities are defined in the time domain.
Reactive energy is a new definition, whose properties will be
analyzed in the following.
Active power and reactive energy are conservative
quantities which do not depend on the voltage reference.
Unlike P and W, apparent power A is non-conservative and
depends on the voltage reference.
Skip voltage reference
Selection of voltage reference (1) Selection of voltage reference (1)
The equal sign is
possible if:
1 , =
A
P
i u i u
Cauchy-Schwartz
inequality:
1 , = = i u i u i u
14
We select the voltage reference so as to ensure unity
power factor in case of symmetrical resistive load. This
gives a physical meaning to the apparent power, which
is the maximum active power that a supply line rated
for V
rms
Volts and I
rms
Amps can deliver to a (purely
resistive and symmetrical) load.
NN--phase systems without neutral wire phase systems without neutral wire
Thus, the voltage reference must be selected to comply

= =
= =
=
N
n
N
n
n n
u i
i R u
1 1
0 0
The proportionality condition
between phase voltages and
currents for symmetrical resistive
load determines voltage reference
15
Thus, the voltage reference must be selected to comply
with the zero-sum condition:
( )

= = =
= = =
N
n
n ref
N
n
u
ref n
N
n
n
measure
n
measure
u
N
u u u u
1 1 1
1
0 0
4 4 3 4 4 2 1
This choice minimizes the norm of the voltage vector
NN--phase systems without neutral wire phase systems without neutral wire
R
3
R
2
L
3
L
2
i
3
u
21
u
32
3
2
1
u
Sn
LOAD LINE SOURCE
Measurement of voltages and currents
16
R
1
L
1
i
1
u
1
L
Ln
R
Ln
n

{1,2,3}
=
N
j
j n n j n
u
N
u
1
1
= =
=
N
n
N
j
j n n j
u
N
u
1 1
2
2
2
1
N n u u
N
u
N
j
j n n j n
=
|
|
\
|
=

=
1 ,
1 2
1
2 2
Derivation of phase voltages
NN--phase systems with neutral wire phase systems with neutral wire
N n , i R u u u
n n o ref
= = = = 0 0
In case of symmetrical resistive load the proportionality
condition between phase voltages and currents holds only
if the voltage reference is set to the neural wire.
17
Unity power factor may occur only if the neutral current is
disregarded for apparent power computation (only phase
currents are considered). Thus:
|
|
\
|
=
|
|
\
|
= = = =

= = = =
N
n
n
N
n
n
N
n
n
N
n
n
I I U U P A
0
2
1
2
0
2
1
2
, I U I U
NN--phase systems with neutral wire phase systems with neutral wire
R3
R2
R
L3
L2
L
3
2
1
LOAD LINE
i1
i2
i3
SOURCE
Measurement of voltages and currents
18
R1 L1
u30 u20 u10 vSn
LLn RLn
n

{0,1,2,3}
i1
0

= =
= =
N
n
n
N
n
n
I U
1
2
1
2
I U
Collective rms voltage
and current
Homopolar voltage
and current

=
=
N
n
n
z
u
N
u
1
1
N
i
i
N
i
o
N
n
n
z
= =

=1
1
Resistor
u G i
i R u
=
=
Power terms in passive networks Power terms in passive networks
19
0 , ,
,
2 2
= = =
= = =
i i R i u W
i R u G i u P
R
R
)
)
u G i =
L
u
i
i L
dt
di
L u
)
(
=
= =
Inductor
20
L
2
, , 0 , , i L i i L i u W
L
u
u i u P
L L
= = = = = =
)
)
2 2
1
2
1
2
2
L
L L L
W
i L i L = = = =
Inductor Inductor
energy energy
C
i
u
u C
dt
du
C i
)
(
=
= =
Capacitor
21
C
2
, , 0 , , u C u C u i u W i
C
i
i u P
C C
= = = = = =
)
)
Capacitor Capacitor
energy energy
2 2
1
2
1
2
2
C
C C C
W
u C Cu = = = =
Active and reactive power absorption of a Active and reactive power absorption of a
linear passive network linear passive network
N resistors
M inductors
K capacitors
L=N+M+K

Remark: Whichever is
the origin of reactive
energy, including
active and nonlinear
loads, it can be
compensated by
reactive elements
22
Total active power and reactive energy
K capacitors

= =
= = =
N
n
R R
L
l
l l
tot n
P P i u P
1 1
,

= = = = =
= = + = =
M
m
C
K
k
L
M
m
K
k
C L C L
L
l
l l
tot tot k m k m
W W i u W
1 1 1 1 1
) ( 2 ) ( 2 ,
)
reactive elements
with proper energy
storage capability
phase networks
23
conditions
3. Definition of current and power terms in
single-phase networks under non-
sinusoidal conditions
24
Orthogonal current decomposition into active, reactive
and void terms
Physical meaning of current terms
Apparent power decomposition into active, reactive and
void terms
Physical meaning of power terms
Application examples
Current terms
Orthogonal current decomposition in Orthogonal current decomposition in
single single--phase networks phase networks
(voltage and current measured at a generic network port) (voltage and current measured at a generic network port)
43 42 1
v
i
g sr sa r a v r a
i i i i i i i i i + + + + = + + =
25
i
a
active current
i
r
reactive current
i
v
void current
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
g sr sa r a v r a
i i i i i i i i i + + + + = + + =
Orthogonality Orthogonality: all terms in the above equations are orthogonal : all terms in the above equations are orthogonal
i
sa
scattered active current
i
sr
scattered reactive current
i
g
generated current
Active current: the minimum current (i.e., with minimum
rms value) needed to convey the active power P flowing
through the port
u = port voltage
P
i u,
26
U = rms value of port voltage
G
e
= equivalent conductance
u G u
U
P
u
u
i u
i
e a
= = =
2 2
,
0 , ,
, ,
2
= = =
= = = =
u u G i u W
P U G u u G i u P
e a a
e e a a
) )
Active current conveys full
active power and zero
reactive energy
Reactive current: the minimum current needed to
convey the reactive energy Wflowing through the port
B
e
= equivalent reactivity
u B u
W
u
i u
i
e r
) )
)
)
)
)
= = =
2 2
,
27
B
e
= equivalent reactivity
W U B u u B i u W
u u B i u P
e e r r
e r r
= = = =
= = =
2
, ,
0 , ,
)
) ) )
)
Reactive current conveys full
reactive energy and no active
power
u B u
U
u
u
i
e r
)
)
= = =
2 2
0 , , = = u u B G i i
e e r a
) Active and reactive current
are orthogonal
Void current: is the remaining current component
r a v
i i i i =
Void current is not conveying active power or reactive energy
28
0 , , , ,
0 , , , ,
= = = =
= = = =
r a r a v v
r a r a v v
W W W i u i u i u i u W
P P P i u i u i u i u P
) ) ) )
0 , ,
0 , ,
= = =
= = =
v e v e r v
v e v e a v
W B u i B i i
P G u i G i i
)
Void current is orthogonal to active and reactive terms
Void current is not conveying active power or reactive energy
g sr sa v
i i i i + + =
The void current reflects the presence of scattered active,
scattered reactive and load-generated harmonic terms
29
g sr sa v
Scattered current terms:
Account for different values of
equivalent admittance at
different harmonics
Load-generated current
harmonics:
Harmonic terms that exist in
currents only, not in voltages
0 , , , = = =
g sr g sa sr sa
i i i i i i
Scattered and load-generated
harmonic currents are
orthogonal
Skip void current components
For For each each co co--existing existing harmonic harmonic components components of of voltage voltage
and and current current we we define define::
Harmonic active current terms Harmonic active current terms
k k k
k k
u G u
I
u
P
u
i u
i = = = =
cos
,
Scattered active current Scattered active current
30
k k k
k
k k
k
k
k
k
k
k k
ak
u G u
U
I
u
U
P
u
u
i u
i = = = =
cos
,
2 2
0 , = = = =

ha a
K k
k ha
W P P P P
( )
= =
K k
k e k a ha sa
u G G i i i
0 , 0 = = =
sa a ha sa
W P P P
=
K k
ak ha
i i
Total harmonic active current Total harmonic active current
Scattered active current Scattered active current
Scattered reactive current Scattered reactive current
For For each each co co--existing existing harmonic harmonic components components of of voltage voltage
and and current current we we define define::
Harmonic Harmonic reactive reactive current current terms terms
k k k
k k
u B u
I k
u
W
u
i u
i
) ) )
)
)
)
= = = =
sin
,
31
k k k
k
k k
k
k
k
k
k
k k
rk
u B u
U
I k
u
U
W
u
u
i u
i
) ) )
)
)
)
= = = =
sin
,
2 2
0 , = = = =

hr r
K k
k hr
P W W W W
( )
= =
K k
k e k r hr sr
u B B i i i
)
0 , 0 = = =
sr hr sr
P W W W
=
K k
rk hr
i i
Total harmonic reactive current Total harmonic reactive current
Scattered reactive current Scattered reactive current
a a
I U i u P = =
I U i u Q = =
Apparent power decomposition Apparent power decomposition in in
2 2 2
V Q P I U i u A + + = = =
Active power:
Reactive power:
32
Scattered active power:
Scattered reactive power:
Load-generated harmonic
power:
r r
I U i u Q = =
2 2 2
g r a v v
V S S I U i u V + + = = =
sr sr r
I U i u S = =
sa sa a
I U i u S = =
g g g
I U i u V = =
Reactive power:
Void power:
Reactive Power Reactive Power
( ) [ ]
2 2 2
1 u THD U U U U
f h f
+ = + =
( ) [ ]
2 2 2
1 u THD U U U U
f h f
)
) ) ) )
+ = + =
=
f f
U U
)
U and can be decomposed in
fundamental and harmonic
components
(THD means total harmonic distortion)
Recalling that:
33
Note that, unlike reactive energy W, REACTIVE POWER Q
IS NOT CONSERVATIVE. In fact, it depends on line
frequency and (local) voltage distortion.
Under sinusoidal conditions, the definition of Q
coincides with the conventional one
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
2
2
1
1
u THD
u THD
W W
U
U
I U Q
r
)
)
+
+
= = =
We have:
Void Power Terms Void Power Terms
Scattered active power: Scattered active power:
2 2 2
g r a v
V S S I U V + + = = Void Power: Void Power:
{ }
2
2
2 2
2
k
K k k
k
sa a
U
U
P
U
P
U I U S

|
|
\
|
= =
34
{ } K k k
U U
\
{ }
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
1
1
k
K k k
k
u
u
sr r
U
U
W
U
W
U
THD
THD
I U S
)
) )
)
)
|
|
\
|
+
+
= =
Scattered reactive power: Scattered reactive power:
Load Load--generated harmonic power: generated harmonic power:
g g
I U V =
Skip examples
Application Examples Application Examples
Example Example # ## ## ## # 11
Voltage Voltage and and Current Current : : Resistive Resistive Load Load
0.5
1
1.5

[
p
u
]0.5
1
1.5

[
p
u
]
u(t)
i(t)
u(t)
i(t)
35
Sinusoidal voltage Sinusoidal voltage
Non Non sinusoidal voltage sinusoidal voltage
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
u
P
C
C

i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
u
P
C
C

i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
i(t)
i(t)
Current = i
pu
(t)/2
Conservative Conservative Power Power Terms Terms: : Resistive Resistive Load Load
0
0.5
1
[
p
u
]
p(t) = u(t)i(t)
UIcos p P = =
0
0.5
1
[
p
u
]
p(t) = u(t)i(t) p P =
36
This example shows the This example shows the correspondences correspondences between the between the
CPT CPT theory theory and and conventional theory conventional theory
0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135
-0.5
0
Time [s]
q(t) = (t)i(t) UIsin (t) w Q = =
0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135
-0.5
0
Time [s]
q(t) = (t)i(t)
Q
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1 1 Single Single--phase phase
Current Current Terms Terms: : Resistive Resistive Load Load
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
a

[
p
u
]
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
a

[
p
u
]
Active
current
PCC
current
i
PCC
(t) = i
a
(t)
37
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
r

[
p
u
]
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
v

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-1
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
r

[
p
u
]
0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
v

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Sinusoidal voltage Sinusoidal voltage Non Non sinusoidal voltage sinusoidal voltage
Reactive
current
Void
current
current
i
r
(t)= 0
i
v
(t)= 0
Voltage Voltage and and Current Current : : Ohmic Ohmic--inductive Load inductive Load
0
0.5
1
1.5

i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
u(t)
i(t)
0
0.5
1
1.5

i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
u(t)
i(t)
38
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1.5
-1
-0.5
u
P
C
C

i
Time [s]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1.5
-1
-0.5
u
P
C
C

i
Time [s]
0.5
1
[
p
u
]
p(t) = u(t)i(t)
UIcos p P = =
Conservative Conservative Power Power Terms Terms: : Ohmic Ohmic--inductive Load inductive Load
0.5
1
[
p
u
]
p(t) = u(t)i(t)
p P =
39
0.3 0.305 0.31 0.315 0.32 0.325 0.33 0.335
0
Time [s]
q(t) = (t)i(t) UIsin w Q = =
This example shows the This example shows the correspondence correspondence between between CPT CPT
and and conventional conventional theory theory under sinusoidal conditions under sinusoidal conditions
0.3 0.305 0.31 0.315 0.32 0.325 0.33 0.335
0
Time [s]
q(t) = (t)i(t)
Q
Current Current Terms Terms: : Ohmic Ohmic--inductive Load inductive Load
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
a

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
a

[
p
u
]
Active
current
PCC
current
40
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
r

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
v

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
i
v
(t)= 0
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
r

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i
v

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
current
Reactive
current
Void
current
Physical meaning of void current Physical meaning of void current
Void Void Current Current Terms Terms: : Ohmic Ohmic--inductive Load inductive Load
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
i
v

[
p
u
]
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
i
s
a

[
p
u
]
Void current
Scattered active current
41
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.2
-0.1
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
i
s
r

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
i
g

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Load-generated
harmonic current
Scattered reactive current
Example Example # ## ## ## # 3 3
Voltage Voltage and and Current Current
Distorting Distorting Load Load
Conservative Conservative Power Power Terms Terms
Distorting Distorting Load Load
0.5
1
[
p
u
]
p P = w Q =
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
P
C
C

i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
u(t)
i(t)
42
0.3 0.305 0.31 0.315 0.32 0.325 0.33 0.335
0
Time [s]
p(t) = u(t)i(t) q(t) = (t)i(t)
0.3 0.305 0.31 0.315 0.32 0.325 0.33 0.335
-1.5
-1
-0.5
u
P
Time [s]
PCC current
Active current
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
P
C
C

[
p
u
]
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
a

[
p
u
]
43
Void current
Reactive current
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
r

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i
v

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Void current
Scattered active current
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
i
v

[
p
u
]
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
i
s
a

[
p
u
]
44
Load-generated
harmonic current
Scattered reactive current
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.8
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
i
s
r

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.8
-0.4
0
0.4
0.8
i
g

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
phase networks
45
conditions
4. Extension to poly-phase domain:
3-wires / 4-wires
46
Orthogonal current decomposition into active, reactive,
unbalance and void terms
Physical meaning of current terms
Active power decomposition into active, reactive,
unbalance and void terms
Physical meaning of power terms
Orthogonal current decomposition Orthogonal current decomposition
Extension to poly Extension to poly--phase: 3 phase: 3--wires / 4 wires / 4--wires wires
In poly-phase systems, the current components (active,
reactive and void) can be defined for each phase:
N n u G u
U
P
u
u
i u
i
n n n
n
n
n
n
n n
an
= = = = 1 ,
,
2 2
Active current
P i u
i u W
P i u P
a
a
a
a
=
= =
= =
I U
0 ,
,
)
G = equivalent phase conductance
47
Reactive current
Void current
N n u B u
U
W
u
u
i u
i
n n n
n
n
n
n
n n
rn
= = = = 1 ,
,
2 2
) )
)
)
)
)
N n i i i i
rn an n vn
= = 1 ,
P i u
a
a
= I U
W i u
W i u W
i u P
r
r
r
r
r
r
=
= =
= =
)
)
)
I U
,
0 ,
G
n
= equivalent phase conductance
B
n
= equivalent phase reactivity
0
0 , , 0 ,
>
= = = =
v
v
r
v
v
i u W i u P
I U
)
Active and reactive current terms can also be defined
collectively, i.e., by making reference to an equivalent
balanced load absorbing the same active power and
reactive energy of actual load:
Balanced Active currents: minimum collective
currents needed to convey active power P
48
currents needed to convey active power P
Balanced Reactive currents: Balanced Reactive currents: minimum collective
currents needed to convey reactive energy W
u G u
P
u
u
i u
i
b b
a
= = =
2 2
,
U
0 , = = =
b
a
b
a
b
a
Q P i u I U
u B u
W
u
u
i u
i
b b
r
) )
)
)
)
)
= = =
2 2
,
U
0 , = = =
b
r
b
r
b
r
P W i u
)
)
I U
G
b
= equivalent balanced conductance
B
b
= equivalent balanced reactivity
Unbalanced Unbalanced Active Active currents currents
Unbalanced currents Unbalanced currents account for the asymmetrical account for the asymmetrical
behavior of the various phases behavior of the various phases
( ) N n u G G i i i i
n
b
n
u
an
b
a a
u
a
= = = 1 , 0 = =
b
a a
u
a
P P P
49
Unbalanced Unbalanced Reactive Reactive currents currents
( )
n n an
a a a
( ) N n u B B i i i i
n
b
n
u
rn
b
r r
u
r
= = = 1 ,
)
0 =
u
a
a a a
W
0
0
= =
=
b
r r
u
r
u
r
W W W
P
Void currents: as for single-phase systems, they
reflect the presence of scattered active, scattered
reactive and generated terms.
g
s
r
s
a r a v
i i i i i i i + + = =
50
0
0
= =
= =
r a v
r a v
W W W W
P P P P
Scattered current terms:
Account for different values of
equivalent admittance at
different harmonics
Load-generated harmonic
current:
Harmonic terms that exist in
currents only, not in voltages
Summary of current decomposition
i
a
active currents
i
a
b
balanced active currents
g
s
r
s
a
u
r
b
r
u
a
b
a v r a
i i i i i i i i i i i + + + + + + = + + =
51
i
a
balanced active currents
i
a
u
unbalanced active currents
i
r
reactive currents
i
r
b
balanced reactive currents
i
r
u
unbalanced reactive currents
i
v
void currents
i
a
s
scattered active currents
i
r
s
scattered reactive currents
i
g
load-generated harmonic currents
43 42 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
v
r a
i
g
s
r
s
a
i
u
r
b
r
i
u
a
b
a v r a
i i i i i i i i i i i + + + + + + = + + =
Summary of current decomposition Summary of current decomposition
Each current component has a precise Each current component has a precise
52
Moreover, all current terms defined in the above equation Moreover, all current terms defined in the above equation
are are ORTHOGONAL ORTHOGONAL, thus: , thus:
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
g
s
r
s
a
u
r
b
r
u
a
b
a v r a
i i i i i i i i i i i + + + + + + = + + =
Each current component has a precise Each current component has a precise
PHISICAL MEANING PHISICAL MEANING and is computed in the time domain and is computed in the time domain
Apparent power decomposition Apparent power decomposition in in
poly poly--phase: 3 phase: 3--wires / 4 wires / 4--wires wires
2 2 2 2
V N Q P i u A + + + = = = I U
Active power: Active power:
b
a
b
a
i u P = = I U
53
Reactive power: Reactive power:
Unbalance Unbalance power power::
Void power: Void power:
b
r
b
r
i u Q = = I U
2 2 2
g r a
v
v
V S S i u V + + = = = I U
2 2
r a
u
N N i u N + = = =
u
I U
Unbalance Unbalance Power Terms Power Terms
Unbalance Unbalance power power::
Unbalance Active Power
2 2
r a
N N N + =
=
= = =
N
n n
n
u
a
u
a a
P
U
P
i u N
1
2
2
2
U
U I U
54
Unbalance Reactive Power
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
U
U I U
) )
)
W
U
W
u THD
u THD
N
N
n n
n
u
r r

+
+
= =

=
= n n
U
1
U
Unbalance active and reactive power vanish
if the load is balanced
Skip examples
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1 1 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire Balanced Balanced load load
(Resistive)
1
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
1
1.5

[
p
u
]
u
a
u
c
i
a
i
a
i
b
u
b
55
Current = i
pu
(t)/2
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
0
0.5
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
u

P
C
C

&

i

P
C
C

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
i
a
i
a
i
b
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ba
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

br

n

[
p
u
]
Balanced active currents
Balanced reactive currents
i
r
(t)= 0
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1 1 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire Balanced Balanced load load
(Resistive)
56
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ua
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ur

n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

v
n

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Void currents
i
v
(t)= 0
Unbalanced active currents
i
u
a
(t)= 0
Unbalanced reactive currents
i
u
r
(t)= 0
0.5
1
1.5
C
C

[
p
u
]
u
b
u
a
u
c
i
a
i
a
i
0.5
1
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1 1 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire Unbalanced Unbalanced load load
(resistor connected between two phases)
57
Current = i
pu
(t)/2
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
u

P
C
C

&

i

P
C
Time [s]
i
b
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
0
0.5
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ba
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

br

n

[
p
u
]
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1 1 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire Unbalanced Unbalanced load load
(resistor connected between two phases)
i
r
(t)= 0
58
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ua
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ur

n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

v
n

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Void currents
i
v
(t)= 0
Example Example # ## ## ## # 3 3 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire
Three Three--phase RL + Single phase RL + Single--phase R load phase R load
0.5
1
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
Conservative Conservative Power Power Terms Terms Voltage Voltage and and Current Current
0
0.5
1
1.5

&

i

P
C
C

[
p
u
]
u
a
u
c
i
a
i
a
i
b
u
a
59
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
0
p
(
t
)

&

P
;

w
(
t
)

&

W

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Symmetrical non Symmetrical non--sinusoidal voltage sinusoidal voltage
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
u

P
C
C

&

i

Time [s]
Example Example # ## ## ## # 3 3 : 3 : 3--phase 3 phase 3--wire wire
Three Three--phase phase RL + RL + Single Single--phase phase R load R load
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
i

ba
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i

br

n

[
p
u
]
0.25
0.5
60
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
i

ua
n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i

ur

n

[
p
u
]
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
i

v
n

[
p
u
]
Time [s]
Void currents
Symmetrical non Symmetrical non--sinusoidal voltage sinusoidal voltage
Orthogonal current Orthogonal current terms terms::
43 42 1
3 2 1 3 2 1
v
r a
i
i i i
i
i i
i
i i i i i i
g sr sa
u
r
b
r
u
a
b
a v r a
+ + + + + + = + + =
Each current component has Each current component has
Sharing of compensation duties Sharing of compensation duties
61
Each current component has Each current component has
a precise a precise PHYSICAL MEANING PHYSICAL MEANING
Balanced Active currents Balanced Active currents convey active power P convey active power P
Balanced Reactive currents Balanced Reactive currents convey reactive power Q
Unbalanced Active and Reactive currents Unbalanced Active and Reactive currents account for account for
asymmetrical behavior of the various phases asymmetrical behavior of the various phases
Void currents Void currents reflect the presence of different behavior at reflect the presence of different behavior at
different different frequencies and/or generated frequencies and/or generated current harmonics current harmonics
i = i
a
+ i
r
+ i
v
= i
a
b
+ i
r
b
+ i
a
u
+ i
r
u
+ i
v
Reactive
compensation
Unbalance
compensation
requires controllable
Harmonic
compensation
Sharing of compensation duties Sharing of compensation duties
62
compensation
requires controllable
reactances (extended
Steinmetz approach)
compensation
requires high-
frequency response
Passive filters &
Switching Power
Compensators
(SPC=APF+SPI)
Quasi-
Stactionary
Compensators
(SVC)
Stationary Compensators
(reactive impedances)
&
Quasi-Stationary
Compensators (SVC,
Static VAR Compensators)
Effect of compensation on Effect of compensation on
power terms power terms
Active power (balanced) Active power (balanced)::
Reactive power (balanced) Reactive power (balanced)::
Unbalance power Unbalance power::
b
a
P I U =
b
r
Q I U
)
=
2 2
u u u
N I I U I U + = =
0
SVC
0
SVC
Compensation
63
APPARENT APPARENT POWER POWER
2 2 2 2
V N Q P A + + + = = I U
Unbalance power Unbalance power::
Void power Void power::
2 2
u
r
u
a
u
N I I U I U + = =
X X X P A
b
a
SPC , SVC
= = I U
0
SVC
0
SPC
v
V I U =
phase networks
64
conditions
5. 5. Sequence components under non-
65
1. Problem statement
2. Goal of decomposition
3. Derivation of generalized symmetrical components in
the time domain (extension of Fortescues approach)
4. Analysis of generalized symmetrical components in
the frequency domain
5. Orthogonality of sequence components
6. Application examples
Skip
Symmetrical components are very useful to
simplify the analysis of three-phase networks
under sinusoidal conditions
11. . Problem Problem statement (1) statement (1)
66
It is important to extend the definition and
application of symmetrical components to
non-sinusoidal periodic operation
11. . Problem Problem statement (2) statement (2)
Given periodic three-phase variables f
a
(t), f
b
(t), f
c
(t) of
period T we define the following symmetry
properties:
Homopolarity (zero symmetry)
( ) ( ) ( ) t f t f t f
c b a
= =
67
Positive (direct) symmetry
Negative (inverse) symmetry
( )
|
\
|
+ =
|
\
|
+ =
3
2
3
T
t f
T
t f t f
c b a
( )
|
\
|
=
|
\
|
=
3
2
3
T
t f
T
t f t f
c b a
c b a
2. 2. Goal of decomposition Goal of decomposition
Given a set of generic three-phase variables:
we decompose them in the orthogonal form:
( )
( )
( ) t f
t f
t f
f
c
b
a
=
68
where:
f
z
are zero-sequence (homopolar) components
f
h
are non-zero sequence (heteropolar) components
f
p
are positive-sequence components
f
n
are negative-sequence components
f
r
are residual components
r n p z h z
f f f f f f f + + + = + =
3. Derivation of generalized 3. Derivation of generalized
symmetrical components symmetrical components
Zero sequence (homopolar) component
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3
1
1
1
t f t f t f
t f t f f
c b a z z z
+ +
= =
69
Heteropolar components
3
1
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t f t f
t f t f
t f t f
t f
t f
t f
f f f
z
c
z
b
z
a
h
c
h
b
h
a
z h
= = =
Positive sequence component
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
|
=
|
|
|
= =
(
\
|
+ +
|
\
|
+ + =
2
, ,
3
2
3 3
1
T
t f t f
T
t f t f t f t f
T
t f
T
t f t f t f
p p p p p p
h
c
h
b
h
a
p
70
Negative sequence component
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
\
|
=
|
\
|
= =
3
2
,
3
,
T
t f t f
T
t f t f t f t f
p p
c
p p
b
p p
a
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
|
\
|
+ =
|
\
|
+ = =
(
\
|
+
|
\
|
+ =
3
2
,
3
,
3
2
3 3
1
T
t f t f
T
t f t f t f t f
T
t f
T
t f t f t f
n n
c
n n
b
n n
a
h
c
h
b
h
a
n
Residual components
( )
( )
( )
2
3
3
2
3
| | | |
|
\
|
+
|
\
|
+
T T
T
t f
T
t f t f
h h h
h
a
h
a
h
a
r
71
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
2
3
3
3
2
3
|
\
|
+
|
\
|
+
|
\
|
+
|
\
|
+
= =
T
t f
T
t f t f
T
t f
T
t f t f
t f
t f
t f
f
h
c
h
c
h
c
h
b
h
b
h
b
r
c
r
b
r
a
r
Note: these components are computed independently
for each phase and vanish in sinusoidal operation
Resulting decomposition
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t f t f t f t f
t f
r
a
n p z
a
+ + +
72
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t f
T
t f
T
t f t f
t f
T
t f
T
t f t f
t f
t f
t f
f
r
c
n p z
r
b
n p z
c
b
a
+
|
\
|
+ +
|
\
|
+
+
|
\
|
+ +
|
\
|
+ = =
3
2
3
2
3 3
4. Analysis in the frequency domain 4. Analysis in the frequency domain
Expressing variables f
a
(t), f
b
(t), f
c
(t) in Fourier series:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

=
+ = =
+ = =
1 1
sin 2
sin 2
bk bk bk b
k
ak ak
k
ak a
t k F t f t f
t k F t f t f

73
we can determine, for each harmonic, the zero, positive,
and negative components f
z
k
(t), f
p
k
(t), f
n
k
(t). Instead,
residual harmonic components are zero because
harmonic quantities are sinusoidal.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

=
= =
+ = =
+ = =
1 1
1 1
sin 2
sin 2
k
ck ck
k
ck c
k
bk bk
k
bk b
t k F t f t f
t k F t f t f

Contribution of harmonic sequence components to
generalized sequence components
[ ]
z z
k n
n
k p
p
k
m m k order Harmonic
f f f f f f
+ =
, ,
, 0 1 3 :
4. Analysis in the frequency domain 4. Analysis in the frequency domain
74
[ ]
[ ]
z z
k
r n
k
r p
k
z
z
k
p n
k
n p
k
f f f f f f
f f f f f f

=

+ =
, ,
, 0 3 :
, ,
, 0 2 3 :
5. Orthogonality of components 5. Orthogonality of components
Given two sets of three-phase quantities f and g,
their sequence components obey the following
general rules:
Scalar product
0 = = = =
r z n z p z h z
g f g f g f g f o o o o
75
Internal product
Norm
0 = = = = g f g f g f g f o o o o
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
r n p z h z
f f f f f f f + + + = + =
r r n n p p z z h h z z
r n r p n p
g f g f g f g f g f g f g f
g f g f g f
, , , , , , ,
0 , , ,
+ + + = + =
= = =
; ) t sin( ) t sin( ) t sin( ) t sin( ) t ( v
c
b
a
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =

6. Application Example 6. Application Example
Line to Neutral Voltages
76
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Line to Neutral Voltages
ms
V
Generalized Zero Sequence Voltages
c
b
a
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =

77
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Generalized Zero Sequence Voltages
ms
V
Generalized Direct Sequence Voltages
c
b
a
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =

78
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Generalized Direct Sequence Voltages
ms
V
Generalized Inverse Sequence Voltages
c
b
a
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =

79
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Generalized Inverse Sequence Voltages
ms
V
Residual Voltages
c
b
a
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
3
2
5
5
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
2
10
1
10
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
+ + + + + + =
+ + + + + =
+ + + + =

80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Residual Voltages
ms
V
9. 9. Summary Summary -- 1 1
An extension of the sequence components in case of
non-sinusoidal periodic operation has been proposed.
It has been shown that three-phase currents (or
voltages) cannot always be derived from generalized
positive sequence, generalized negative sequence and
generalized zero-sequence components. A residual
component may be required.
81
component may be required.
To compute the generalized positive and negative
sequence components, the zero-sequence components
should first be subtracted from the phase quantities, in
contrast with the sinusoidal case where this is not
necessary.
In the sinusoidal case the residual component is absent
and the other components reduce to the classical
symmetrical components.
The generalized positive sequence, negative sequence,
and zero-sequence components have complete phase
symmetry. This implies that the three-phase analysis can
be reduced to a single-phase analysis.
The residual components do not have the same
symmetry, and the corresponding three-phase analysis
9. Summary 9. Summary -- 2 2
82
symmetry, and the corresponding three-phase analysis
cannot be reduced to single-phase analysis. It
corresponds to a periodic time function in each of the
three phases with a period which is 1/3 of the line period;
this simplifies the analysis because only 1/3 of the period
must be studied.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Derivation of
homopolar
component
0
0.5
1
1.5
Voltage
phase a
Voltage
phase b
Homopolar
V
ms
83
component
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Voltage
phase c
Homopolar
component
V
ms
ms
V
.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0.5
1
1.5
Derivation of
heteropolar
component
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0.5
1
1.5
Opposite of the
homopolar
component
Voltage
phase a
V
V
ms ms
Opposite of the
homopolar
component
84
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
component
.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Voltage
phase b
Voltage
phase c
V
V
V
V
ms
ms
ms
ms
Opposite of the
homopolar
component
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Derivation of positive
sequence component
(phase a)
Voltage
phase a
VV
ms
ms
85
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
(phase a)
Voltage
phase b
Voltage
phase c
Positive
sequence component
V
V
V
V
ms
ms
ms
ms
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Derivation of negative
sequence component
(phase a) 0
0.5
1
1.5
Voltage
phase a
V
V
ms ms
86
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
(phase a)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Voltage
phase b
Voltage
phase c
Negative
sequence component
V
V
V
V
ms
ms ms
ms
Derivation of residual
component (phase a)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Opposite of the
homopolar comp.
Opposite of the positive
sequence comp.
VV
ms ms
87
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Opposite of the negative
sequence comp.
Residual component
V
V
V
V
ms
ms
ms
ms
3. Instantaneous and average power & energy terms in
poly-phase networks
88
conditions
7. Measurement & accountability issues (basic
approach)
Measurement & accountability issues Measurement & accountability issues
Active and reactive current (and power) terms are
affected by the presence of negative-sequence, zero-
sequence and harmonic voltages
A proper accountability approach must be adopted to
depurate the power and current terms from the effects
of voltage non-idealities, which are not under load
responsibility
89
responsibility

p
f
p
f
n
p
f
p
f n
U
n
U
U
U n U U
3
3 1 ,
3 3 1 ,
= = =
= = =
U
U
) )
If we assume that the supply voltages are sinusoidal
and symmetrical with positive sequence, we have:
Assuming that the equivalent phase resistance
remains the same irrespective of supply conditions, we
can express the active current and power accountable
to the load in each phase as:
Phase current and power terms Phase current and power terms
2
2
,
p
f
n n a
p
fn n
p
fn n n a
U
U
P i u P u G i = = =
l l l

=
=
3
2
1
n
p
a
P
U
l l
I
90
Similarly, if the equivalent phase reactivity remains the
same irrespective of supply conditions, we can
express the reactive current and power accountable to
the load in each phase are:
2
2
,
n
p
f
n n r
p
fn n
p
fn n n r
U
U
W i u W u B i )
)
) )
l l l
= = =
2
n
n n a fn n fn n n a
U
l l l

=1 n
p
f
U
=
=
3
1
2
1
n
n
p
f
r
Q
U
l l
I
The total power terms accountable to the load are:
Balanced current and power terms Balanced current and power terms
2
3
1 3
p
f
b
n
n
U
P
G P P
l
l l l
= =
=
2 2
3
1 3 3
p
f
p
f
b
n
n
U
Q
U
W
B W W
l l
l l l
)
= = =

=
91
The balanced current terms accountable to the load
are:
p
f
p
f
b
r
p
fn
b
b
r
U
Q
U
W
u B i
l l
l l l
)
)
3
1
3
1
= = = I
p
f
b
a
p
f
b
b
a
U
P
u G i
l
l l l
3
1
= = I
The unbalanced active current and power
accountable to the load are :
Unbalanced current and power terms Unbalanced current and power terms
( )
p
n f
b
n
b
n a n a
u
n a
u G G i i i
l l l l
= =
( )
3
1
2
3
1
2
2
3
1
2
l
l l l
P
P
U
U G G
n
n
p
f
p
f
n
b
n
u
a
= =
= = I
92
The unbalanced reactive current and power
accountable to the load are :
( )
p
fn
b
n
b
n r n r
u
n r
u B B i i i
)
l l l l
= =
3
1 1
U
n
f
n = =
( )
3
1
2
3
1
2
2
3
1
2
l
l l l
)
Q
Q
U
U B B
n
n
p
f
p
f
n
b
n
u
r
= =

= =
I
Void current and power Void current and power
The void currents satisfy the condition:
0 , , 0 ,
0 , , 0 ,
= + + + =
= + + + =
v h
z
f
n
f v
p
f v
v h
z
f
n
f v
p
f v
i u u u i u i u
i u u u i u i u
) ) ) ) )
The void current terms which can be accounted
93
The void current terms which can be accounted
to the load are therefore given by:
p
f
p
f
v
p
f
p
f
p
f
v
p
f
v v
u
U
i u
u
U
i u
i i
)
)
)
l
2 2
3
,
3
,
=
In fact, the fundamental component of the void
current has been already accounted for in the
active and reactive current terms.
Currents terms accountable to the load Currents terms accountable to the load
l l l l l l l l l v
u
r
u
a
b
r
b
a v r a
i i i i i i i i i + + + + = + + =
All current terms are orthogonal, thus: All current terms are orthogonal, thus:
Summary of current decomposition Summary of current decomposition
94
2 2 2 2 2
l l l l l l v
u
r
u
a
b
r
b
a
I I I I I I + + + + =
Apparent power accountable to the load Apparent power accountable to the load
2 2 2 2 2
2
l l l l l l l
43 42 1
l
V N N Q P A
N
r a
p
f
+ + + + = = I U
Case I: Symmetrical sinusoidal voltages Case I: Symmetrical sinusoidal voltages
Case II: Asymmetrical sinusoidal voltages Case II: Asymmetrical sinusoidal voltages
Case III: Symmetrical non Case III: Symmetrical non--sinusoidal voltages sinusoidal voltages
Case IV: Asymmetrical non Case IV: Asymmetrical non--sinusoidal voltages sinusoidal voltages
Application Examples: 3 Application Examples: 3- -phase 3 phase 3--wire wire
Case I Case II
U
1
= 127 0 Vrms U
1
= 127 0 Vrms
U
2
= 127 -120 Vrms U
2
= 113 -104,4 Vrms
U
3
= 127 120 Vrms U
3
= 147,49 144 Vrms
95
Balanced Balanced Load Load
L
3
L
2
L1
i3
i
1
u21
u
32
3
2
1
uSn
LLn RLn
LOAD PCC LINE SOURCE
n {1,2,3}
R C
Distorting Load Distorting Load
U
3
= 127 120 Vrms U
3
= 147,49 144 Vrms
cases III and IV are the same of
cases I and II with the addition
of 10% of 5
th
and 7
th
harmonics
The line parameters are : R
L1
= R
L2
= R
L3
= 1m and L
L0
= L
L1
= L
L2
= L
L3
= 10 H.
CASE I CASE I CASE II CASE II CASE III CASE III CASE IV CASE IV
PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD
AA
1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 0,9634 0,9634 1,0000 0,9840 0,9840 1,0000 0,9538 0,9538
PP
0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7693 0,7693 0,7913 0,7758 0,7758 0,7945 0,7556 0,7556
QQ
0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,5800 0,5800 0,6023 0,5962 0,5962 0,6022 0,5770 0,5770
Example Example # ## ## ## # 1: 1: Balanced Balanced Load Load
96
QQ
0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,6020 0,5800 0,5800 0,6023 0,5962 0,5962 0,6022 0,5770 0,5770
NN
0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0002 0,0002 0,0002 0,0056 0,0061 0,0061
VV
0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,1054 0,1038 0,1038 0,0782 0,0760 0,0760

0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7985 0,7913 0,7885 0,7945 0,7922
The load is accounted for less active, reactive and void
power than the PCC
CASE I CASE I CASE II CASE II CASE III CASE III CASE IV CASE IV
PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD PCC PCC LOAD LOAD
AA
1,0000 1,0009 1,0000 0,9050 1,0000 0,9832 0,9832 1,0000 0,8973
PP
0,8275 0,8280 0,8841 0,7668 0,8254 0,8098 0,8098 0,8808 0,7570
QQ
0,2432 0,2451 0,2135 0,2245 0,2245 0,2422 0,2417 0,2417 0,2135 0,2232 0,2232
Example Example # ## ## ## # 2: 2: Distorting l Distorting load oad
97
QQ
0,2432 0,2451 0,2135 0,2245 0,2245 0,2422 0,2417 0,2417 0,2135 0,2232 0,2232
NN
0,5060 0,5060 0,4156 0,4250 0,4250 0,5055 0,4980 0,4980 0,4185 0,4231 0,4231
VV
0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 0,0674 0,0666 0,0666 0,0581 0,0566

0,8275 0,8273 0,8841 0,8473 0,8254 0,8237 0,8808 0,8437
Again the apparent and active power accounted to the
load are always lower than those computed at PCC due
to the depuration of the effects of voltage asymmetry
and distortion
Defects of proposed accountability Defects of proposed accountability
approach approach
The equivalent phase conductance and reactivity are The equivalent phase conductance and reactivity are
computed by computed by considering the effect of fundamental and considering the effect of fundamental and
harmonic supply voltages as a whole harmonic supply voltages as a whole. In practice, the . In practice, the
load can have different response to fundamental and load can have different response to fundamental and
harmonic voltages. harmonic voltages.
98
harmonic voltages. harmonic voltages.
The The void currents are not orthogonal void currents are not orthogonal to supply voltages to supply voltages
if these latter become sinusoidal. if these latter become sinusoidal.
Only the load impedance is modeled, while Only the load impedance is modeled, while supply supply
impedance is not estimated impedance is not estimated and enters the computation and enters the computation
process indirectly, in a way that does not allow to fully process indirectly, in a way that does not allow to fully
analyze its effect. analyze its effect.
3. Instantaneous and average power & energy terms in
poly-phase networks
99
conditions
7. Measurement & accountability issues (extended
approach)
Extended approach to accountability Extended approach to accountability
Both load and supply are modeled based on
measurements made at PCC
Load modeling is done under sinusoidal conditions
o This makes the load model more reliable, since harmonic effects
are depurated
o Moreover, the harmonic currents generated by the load are
represented separately and their effect can directly be accounted
for accountability purposes
100
for accountability purposes
Supply modeling is made for three-phase symmetrical
systems and allows estimation of no-load supply
voltages and line impedances
The extended accountability approach is more reliable
than the basic one, and possibly avoids under- and over-
penalization of the loads.
Of course, better results can be achieved if a more
accurate modeling of the load is available.
The passive parameters of the equivalent circuit are computed to suit
the circuit performance at fundamental frequency, i.e.:
Load modeling (3 Load modeling (3--phase 4 phase 4--wire) wire) -- 11
Single-phase equivalent
circuit of 3-phase load seen
from PCC
101
the circuit performance at fundamental frequency, i.e.:
= = =
= = =
+ =
f
m
f
m
m
m
f
m
f
m
f
m
f
m
f
m
f
m
m
m
f
m f
m
f
m
f
m
m
f
m
m
f
m f
m
W
U
L
L
U
i , u
W
P
U
R
R
U
i , u P
L
u
R
u
i
2
2
2 2
With this assumption current j
m
is purely harmonic. In fact:
f
m
h
m
f
m
h
m h
m
f
m
h
m
f
m
f
m
h
m
f
m h
m
f
m
f
m
m
f
m
m
m m
L
u
R
u
i
L
u u
R
u u
i i
L
u
R
u
i j
) ) ) )
=
+
+
+ = =
For the validity of the model we must assume that the
equivalent circuit parameters remain the same within
Load modeling (3 Load modeling (3--phase 4 phase 4--wire) wire) -- 22
from PCC
102
equivalent circuit parameters remain the same within
reasonable variations of the voltage supply, both in terms
of asymmetry and distortion.
This is only approximately true in real networks, but it
makes possible an accountability approach based on
measurement at the load terminals, without requiring a
precise knowledge of the load itself.
The passive parameters of the equivalent circuit are the same for all
phases, due to supply lines symmetry. The circuit equations are:
Supply modeling (3 Supply modeling (3--phase 4 phase 4--wire) wire) -- 11
Single-phase equivalent circuit
of 3-phase supply seen from
PCC
103
phases, due to supply lines symmetry. The circuit equations are:
dt
d
L R
S S
i
i u e + + =
Due to its linearity, this equation can be applied separately to the
fundamental positive-sequence voltage and current terms (index p)
and the remaining terms (index n), which represent the unwanted
current and voltage components.
+ + =
+ + =
dt
d
L R
dt
d
L R
n
S
n
S
n n
p
S
p
S
p p
i
i u e
i
i u e
The passive parameters of the equivalent circuit are selected so as to
PCC
104
The passive parameters of the equivalent circuit are selected so as to
minimize the unwanted components of the supply voltages e
n
, i.e., the
function:
dt
d
L , L , R
dt
d
L R
e , e
n
S
n
S
n n
S
n
S
n
S
n
M
m
n
m
n
m
n
i
u i u
i
i u
e
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
+ + + + =
= = =

=
The result is expressed as a function of the quantities measured at
PCC in the form:
PCC
105
PCC in the form:
2
2
0
0
dt
d
dt
d
, L
L
, R
R
n n
n
S
S
n n n
S
S
i i
u
i i u
= =

= =

Obviously, only positive solutions are acceptable for R
S
and L
S
. In
case of negative solution, the corresponding parameter is set to
zero.
Given R
S
and L
S
, we may compute the positive-sequence supply
PCC
106
Given R
S
and L
S
, we may compute the positive-sequence supply
voltages to be included in the equivalent circuit :
dt
d
L R
p
S
p
S
p p
i
i u e + + =
Note that e
p
, u
p
, i
p
are the fundamental positive sequence
components of the related voltages and currents, while e
n
, u
n
, i
n
are
calculated by difference from the original voltages and currents.
1. From the voltages and currents measured at PCC we estimate the
phase parameters R and L and the current source j of the
Accountability Accountability Procedure (1) Procedure (1)
from PCC
107
phase parameters R
m
and L
m
and the current source j
m
of the
equivalent circuit.
f
m
f
m
m
f
m
f
m
m
W
U
L
P
U
R
2 2
= =
f
m
h
m
f
m
h
m h
m m
L
u
R
u
i j
)
=
PCC
2. From the voltages and currents measured at PCC we estimate the
supply line parameters R and L and the fundamental positive-
108
supply line parameters R
S
and L
S
and the fundamental positive-
sequence supply voltages e
p
2
2
dt
d
dt
d
, L , R
n n
n
S
n n n
S
i i
u i i u = =
dt
d
L R
p
S
p
S
p p
i
i u e + + =
Equivalent circuit for the
computation of fundamental
voltages at PCC
4. Applying now the positive-sequence supply voltages at the input
terminals of the equivalent circuit, we may determine the
109
terminals of the equivalent circuit, we may determine the
fundamental phase currents absorbed by the load under these
supply conditions and the corresponding fundamental phase
voltages appearing at the PCC terminals.
Note that the currents and voltages at PCC may result
asymmetrical due to load unbalance. This non-ideality must
obviously be ascribed to the load, since the voltage supply and
distribution lines are symmetrical
f
l
i
f
l
u
5. Finally, the load voltages and currents at PCC, which are
accountable to the load are given by:
We can now compute all power terms accountable to the load and
h f
h f
l l l
l l l
i i i
u u u
+ =
+ =
110
We can now compute all power terms accountable to the load and
the corresponding performance factors.
v
u
r
u
a
b
r
b
a
b b
r a m m
r a
M
m
m
M
m
m
m m m m m m
,
, , B , G
, , B , G
V
N N
W W P P
i , u W i , u P
l
l l
l l l l
l l l l
l
l l
l l l l
l l l l l l
K K
)
I
I I
I I
I I
= =
= =
= =

= = 1 1
Distortion factor:
Performance factors Performance factors
2
2 2 2
2
2
1
A
N Q P
A
V
D
+ +
= =
Unbalance factor:
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
1
N Q P
Q P
N Q P
N
N
+ +
+
=
+ +
=
111
Reactivity factor:
2 2
2
1
Q P
Q
Q
+
=
Power factor:
D N Q
r a
D N N Q P
P
A
P
=
+ + + +
= =
2 2 2 2 2
Load circuits Load circuits
A. Unbalanced
linear load
112
Line parameters: R
L1
= R
L2
= R
L3
= 10.9 m - L
L1
= L
L2
= L
L3
= 38.5 H
B. Unbalanced
nonlinear load
Supply conditions Supply conditions
Case 1: Symmetrical sinusoidal voltages Case 1: Symmetrical sinusoidal voltages
Case 2: Symmetrical non Case 2: Symmetrical non--sinusoidal voltages sinusoidal voltages
Application Examples: 3 Application Examples: 3--phase 4 phase 4--wire wire
Case 1 Case 2
1
= 1270 Vrms
1
= +
1
Vrms
113
1
= 1270 Vrms
1
= +
1
Vrms

2
= 127120 Vrms
2
= +
2
Vrms

3
= 127120 Vrms
3
= +
3
Vrms

In case 2 the terms called H represent the harmonic contents of the
phase voltages.
Each phase voltage includes 2% of 3
rd
harmonic, 2% of 5
th
harmonic.
The phase angle of each harmonic term is the phase angle of the
fundamental voltage (as in Case 1) multiplied by the harmonic order.
Case A Case A: : Unb Unbalanced linear load alanced linear load
Case A.1 Case A.2

PCC Load PCC Load
A [KVA]
95.522 98.722 95.263 96.571
P [KW] 65.224 67.862 65.231 65.089
Q [KVA] 67.698 69.813 67.729 69.597
N [KVA] 15.158 16.334 15.163 15.582
D [KVA] 0.017 0. 074 1.627 1. 649
114
The load is penalized for its unbalance, especially in case A.1
(sinusoidal and symmetrical supply voltages)
D [KVA] 0.017 0. 074 1.627 1. 649
0.6828 0.6874 0.6847 0.6740

Q
0.6938 0.6970 0.6937 0.6831

N
0.9872 0.9862 0.9872 0.9869

D
1.0000 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999

Case B.1 Case B.2
PCC Load PCC Load
A [KVA] 93.267 94.007 89.494 91.207
P [KW] 63.909 63.334 62.738 62.763
Q [KVA] 33.274 35.376 33.599 36.159
N [KVA] 20.873 21.143 20.619 21.296
D [KVA] 55.421 55.916 50.190 51.171
Case B Case B: : Unb Unbalanced nonlinear load alanced nonlinear load
115
The apparent, reactive and unbalance power
accounted to the load are higher than those computed
at PCC
D [KVA] 55.421 55.916 50.190 51.171
0.6852 0.6737 0.7010 0.6881

Q
0.8870 0.8730 0.8815 0.8665

N
0.9605 0.9601 0.9605 0.9594

D
0.8043 0.8039 0.8279 0.8278

Conservative Power Theory CPT

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conservative Power Theory CPT

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conservative Power Theory Conservative Power Theory

You might also like