Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

Technology development for municipal organic waste recycling for urban and peri-urban agriculture - A holistic approach
Pay Drechsel, Olufunke Cofie, icardo !"#$ue# and %eorge Danso UPA Project, International Water Management Institute, Ghana Office, c/o KNUST Kumasi, Ghana

&ntroduction
One of the challenges of rapid urbanization is how to make sufficient food available on a sustainable basis for the increasing urban population. According to projection made by United Nations, Africa s population will almost triple by !"#" and this will be primarily in the urban and peri$urban areas. %n &est Africa, it has been estimated that within !" years, two out of three &est Africans will live in urban centres supported by rural$urban migration. 'he related increase in urban food demand is giving way to intensive food production systems in and around cities often specialized on perishable crops or poultry, and also to e(port$oriented agriculture using the advantage of urban infrastructure )airports, agro$industry*. 'hese types of agriculture re+uire large amount of inputs, including plant nutrients. Once the food is consumed or processed in the city, related market and household refuse as well as human e(creta contribute to urban pollution due to the common lack of ade+uate sanitation services or end in landfills. %n both cases large amounts of nutrients are simply ,wasted )-ig. .*. 'his situation calls for an analysis of options for municipal organic waste recycling for the benefit of agricultural and environmental sustainability in the rural$ urban continuum )Allison et al , .//0, 1'231-A .///, 4rechsel and 5unze, !"".*.

'ackground
A related international workshop on )peri*$urban agriculture and nutrient recycling was organised for Africa in ./// by -AO and %678A9, where knowledge gaps in waste recycling were analysed and recommendations developed. 9any scientists, farmers and decision makers emphasized the need for more information on viable and acceptable options for the recycling of municipal and agro$industrial waste, especially for farmers in urban and peri$urban areas )4rechsel and 5unze, !"".*. 7ubse+uently, the :anadian donor %48: agreed to co$sponsor a corresponding project in three agro$ecological zones of &est Africa addressing variations in organic waste generation, +uality and availability. 'he project is an attempt to develop recycling strategies that should result in closing the rural$urban nutrient cycle as well as preserving the +uality of the urban environment

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

by reducing the )pollution effects of* waste accumulation. %t aims at decision support on viable, environmental friendly and location$specific composting technologies that fit into the )peri*urban conte(t and match the re+uirement and ability to pay of different )peri$*urban farming systems and other potential users. Our understanding of ,technology development has to go therefore far beyond the technical part of a compost station and can only be addressed through a more holistic ,multidisciplinary situation and stakeholder analysis )977A*. 'he analysis and its different components are described for the first time in this paper.

Import/ Export Food

Livestock Food crops and fodder plants

!onsumption/ &rocessing &roduction

!ontrolled and un" controlled disposal

Organic solid waste, sludge wastewater

!?

Soil nutrients

Fertili#er

$r%an areas

&eri"ur%an and rural areas

-ig .. Urban areas as nutrient sinks )4rechsel et al , .///; modified*

Approach()ethodology
Although municipal decision$makers are in need of city$specific recommendations, the methodological approach used for the 977A is generic. %n every city conte(t the 977A involves municipal authorities, especially the waste management departments, farmers, researchers, private sector, project staff, market sellers etc. %n total, we are currently collaborating on our project with about twelve different university departments of three national and two <uropean universities, which emphasizes the multidisciplinary nature of the study.

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

'he 977A approach being used involves the application of a close!"loo# concept )-ig. !* to solve the problem of nutrient mining in food production areas and environmental pollution in consumption areas. 'his means studying different segments of the loop which are= .. 'he supply of organic waste )+uality, +uantity, availability, etc.* !. 'he demand for waste compost )who, where, how much, perception, price* >. 'he process of waste collection and composting including the determination of optimal number, capacity, and location of compost stations per city and their economic viability ?. @egal, institutional and communal factors affecting the set$up of compost stations.

&aste generation in consumption areas (Supply)

@egal, institutional and communal settings

&aste re$ use in production areas (Demand)

&aste collection, transport and composting (Process)

-ig. !. 7egments of the nutrient recycling loop.

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

-or each of these segments, we tried to answer pertinent +uestions as summarized in -ig. > and described below. *+ The supply of organic waste 'he supply studies focus on the various types, amounts, +uality, present and potential uses, current value and availability of organic municipal waste for composting. Only major sources )markets, households, agro$industry, abattoirs, timber mills, public toilet systems, etc.* are considered although minor ones )e.g. bone meal producers* can become important additives. 'he key +uestion which has to be addressed in the waste supply conte(t is= Where within the rural$urban zone is which amount of waste of what kind of +uality when de facto availa le for composting )cf. -ig.>*. 'his information we mostly ac+uire via=

Secondary data on the amount, location and disposal of municipal waste from the waste management departments, N1Os or projects, and if available on its +uality. !uestionnaire surveys among organic waste producers using randomly selected sources from a stratified total per product. &e address breweries, wood3food3 fruit processing industries, poultry farms, etc. to +uantify the amount, kind and fate of waste generated in different periods of the year.

"a oratory analysis of the amount of nutrients in the waste as well as of potential contaminants including heavy metals and <. coli.

'o, *- Analysing the contribution of urban agriculture to food security As a research institution we are not only assessing the organic waste but are trying to +uantify the ,biomass )or food* flow, which generates the waste. 'hat means, we are not only analysing how much waste is produced, e.g. in our city markets but how much food enters3leaves the city and how much is consumed or processed )via market and household surveys etc.*. 'he results allow us to establish biomass and nutrient balances per city. As we ask +uestions on the origin of the food we can +ualify and +uantify the contribution of urban, peri-urban* and rural agriculture to urban food security, a much$discussed issue. 'his part of our current work uses the method of 9aterial -lu( Analysis )9-A*, an e(ample of which was given by 6elevi et al , !""".

'he consideration of ,peri$urban production re+uires the demarcation of the peri$urban area )cf. Adam, !"".*

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

.upply
&hat organic wastes are producedA &here are they produced3disposedA %s the waste treatedA BowA &hat are the current disposal costs and3or environmental3social e(ternalitiesA &hat is the +uality )potential soil fertility value* of the material and is the material contaminated or phytoto(icA Are there seasonal variations in its availability or +ualityA &ho owns the wasteA &hat is the current use of the wasteA )Are there competing uses in comparison with composting, for e(ample= as untreated fertilizer, livestock feed, fuel, or recycled for other manufacture or useA* &hat is the related market demand and economic waste valueA Bow much3which waste is unused and de facto available for compostingA Are there waste use3collection constraints related to health, handling, safety and environment which could be addressedA

Demand
&ho is interested in compost )urban and peri$ urban farming systems, real estate, landscape design, horticulture, etc.* A &hat is their e(perience and3or perception of the productA &hat are their re+uirements on the productA &hat are their ability and willingness$to$pay for the productA Are there special constraints to compost use related to cultural aspects )taboos*, gender, compost marketing, handlingA Bow high is the likely demand and how does it vary over the yearA

Processing
%s composting the most appropriate method to treat the waste for soil improvementA &hat should be the capacity of the compost production )comparing supply and demand* A &hich technologies appear appropriate )which technologies have been applied successfully in the subregion*A Are these technologies locally availableA %s appropriate maintenance of these technologies likely3possibleA Are there technical waste$use constraints related to separation3collection3transport and how could we address themA &hat is the transport capacity of the waste collectorsA &hat is the public perception towards source separation or compostingA &hat is the location of the waste sources and of the potential compost usersA Bow many compost stations are needed to keep transport costs lowA &hat would be the total establishment and running costsA &hich )economic* benefits for the society at large are possibleA :an these justify municipal subsidiesA &hat is the best mi(ture of waste from different sourcesA Bow to realize co$compostingA

&nstitutional, legal and communal framework

Are there constraints3support related to official plans, programmes, regulations, by$laws or policies and how could we make best use of themA Are there constraints to the set$up of compost stations related to land availabilityA &hat are the official attitudes and recommendations e.g. at institutional3 municipal3communal levelA :ould inter3intra$sectoral cooperations be improved )platform building*A Bow can local key groups3stakeholders become involved )community based stations*A &hat are the implication of composting for these groups and what kind of commitment3input would be necessary from themA &hat management settings and instruments )9C<, accounting, OC9, etc.* would be most appropriateA

-igure >. Duestions to be answered in the 977A for an appropriate establishment of municipal compost stations for )peri*urban agriculture and other uses )modified from Barris et al., !"".*

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

/+ The demand for 0waste1 compost 'he demand assessment involves first of all the characterization of all potential clients under consideration of increasing compost transport costs with increasing distance from the compost stations. 'his part of the 977A has to go beyond agricultural production. A major and financially powerful demand, especially in rapidly e(panding cities, comes from landscape design )horticulturists, parks and gardens* or real estate developers in general!. 'he demand analysis has to consider socio$cultural aspects, production economics, attitudes3perception of the use of waste compost )with or without nightsoilE*, actual demand and its likely development, as well as clients ability and willingness to pay. %t also should include the analysis of consumers market for food produced from compost. 5ey +uestions are again summarized in -ig. >. 9ethods used to answer these include= #dentification of the different UFA farming systems, estate developers, garden operators, landscape designers, if possible with and without compost e(perience. 'his is followed by stratification )in terms of company or farm size, crops grown, etc* of the various potential compost buyers for randomly selected individuals as representative samples for each group. Structured questionnaires consisting of both open$ended and closed +uestions are used. 'he open +uestions give the farmers3real estate developers etc. chance to e(press their views about the use of compost and other factors that will affect their willingness to pay for it )e.g. fertilizer availability and costs, tenure arrangements etc.*. 8epeated pre$testing of +uestionnaires reveals faults and allow for improvement in preparation for the actual survey. -or the assessment of the attitude and perception of farmers on the use of composted organic waste, we use individual interviews followed by focus $roup discussion )-14*. 'he latter comprises groups of G$." farmers )usually differentiated according to gender*, which still allows in$depth interviews and personal feedback in comparison with village meetings )common in our region*. 'he -14 usually e(clude community opinion leaders that could prevent other members to come out with their own ideas, problems and suggestions. 'he -14 is an informal F8A tool. Another F8A tool used in our studies is matri, ranking to compare advantages and disadvantages of different )demonstrated* nutrient sources )cf. 4rechsel et al , !"".* 8eal estate developers are only interviewed individually.
!

%n Accra, for e(ample, real estate developers show strong interest in large$scale and regular compost production.

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

-or the willingness to pay )&'F* for compost, contin$ent valuation method is used. 'his involves direct +uestioning of individuals in a survey to determine if and how much they are willing to pay for waste compost. 'his results in a bidding game, which helps to determine the ma(imum amount the consumers are willing to pay for the compost. )Nunan et al , !"""*. %t is assumed that certain variable like wealth, age, se(, e(perience with3without compost, level of education etc. will have influence on the individual willingness to pay. 'herefore, the multivariate probit model is used to analyse the impact of these variables on the &'F, as compared to a regression analysis. 'o give the &'F analysis a reality check, the different UFA farming systems are analysed for their farm finances and de facto ability$to$pay for further inputs. 2+ The process of waste collection and composting 'his part of the 977A compares supply and demand to estimate the re+uired3possible capacity of the compost production to decide about an appropriate technical approach and depending on the locations of supply and demand on the number of compost stations under consideration of transport costs. 'he methods used include= 'he development of different scenarios using conservative vs. optimistic )supply, demand* estimates, by using for e(ample the software tool on the economic feasibility of compost stations developed by 1'231-A ).///*. 7cenarios have to address different levels of technical sophistication and the actual and potential )but realistic* transport capacity of the city$specific waste collection system. Not all waste can be collected. A conservative scenario would build on the actual collection pattern and transport capacity and only re+uire different disposal sites )H the compost station)s** which might even be located at the landfill to minimize e(tra transport costs. !isit to related compost plants within the country and in neighbouring countries to observe, study, e(change and obtain information on the technical3operational and economic aspects of composting )cf. -ig > ,process part for typical +uestions*. %n this regard, we studied different composting plants which differ in scale and level of sophistication to allow us determine and recommend the most appropriate technology of composting facility for each city minimizing system cost and maintenance re+uirements as much as possible. 3ield testing of different options and combinations of organic waste composting and co$composting with nightsoil to give a safe )assured through laboratory tests* and rich

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

)assured through fertilization trials* product that is acceptable and safe for the farmer and consumer. %n case of high compost demand the possibility of organic waste separation at the household level ),source separation * should be e(plored. &e did so through household surveys with +uestionnaire distributed to !#"" urban families in collaboration with about ># junior secondary schools )I77* covering all parts of our cities. &e e(plained advantages of waste composting and asked the households for their perception of waste separation as well as on the incentives necessary to get source separation realized. 'he obtained information will provide a basis for further awareness campaigns and any pilot project. 'o, /- Consumption analysis 'he above mentioned +uestionnaire surveys in !#"" households was also used to study over one week food purchases and consumption in our cities as contribution to the 9aterial -lu( Analysis mentioned in 6o( .. 'he household information was used as comparison to the data provided through our market surveys. 6oth surveys addressed all major crops and food items and were carried out in two different seasons reflecting contrasting variation in food availability within a year. 'here was also a supplementary survey on street food consumption. A range of information has been collected from the households allowing us to differentiate consumption patters between cities, gender, age, income level, religion and e.g. cultural3tribal background.

4+

Analysis of legal, institutional and communal settings

'his part of the 977A targets the legal, institutional and administrative conte(t within which composting and use of compost could be feasible. %t involves an assessment of environmental and sanitation by$laws and policies as well as public awareness and the perception of authorities and other interest groups, especially :6Os and N1Os to work with or support organic waste recycling. 9ethods used include 7tudy of the legal framework, sanitation policies, medium term plans, project plans and other documents )literature review and interview of key persons*

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

5uestionnaires for surveying perceptions and anticipated problems of different stakeholders and related open interviews with municipal authorities, interest groups )N1Os, :6Os, projects, &orld 6ank, etc.* and private investors. 3ocus group discussions with community leaders and community members on environmental issues, waste management, and organic waste recycling discussing possible scenarios of community$based compost station )perception, options, by$laws, realization potential, etc.*.

6,pected esults
.. :omprehensive decision support for municipal authorities on realistic options for organic waste recycling in their city$conte(t. !. Faving the way for the production of alternative fertilizer )soil ameliorant* for the use of urban and peri$urban farmers. >. :apacity building at different levels, e.g. through the involvement of currently G" students. ?. 8esults on rural$urban food flows, consumption patterns, waste generation, compost demand , recycling options etc. from cities in different agro$ecological zones in &est Africa allowing data e(trapolation to other cities.

esources re$uired for the study

7uman resources- All described surveys etc. are being carried out through students in the frame of their 6.7c. and 9.7c. dissertations. 'his keeps personal costs low. Bowever, a major re+uirement is the availability of students3supervisors from various disciplines )planning, agro$ economics, geography, environment, etc.*. Operational costs- All described surveys etc. are being carried out through local students. 'his kept operational costs low. @ocal supervision was facilitated through the employment of project assistants located in each of the project cities. 6$uipment costs- No special e+uipment re+uired as the 977A is only providing decision support not actually setting up the compost stations. -or e(cellent communication between the cities and our coordination office, we supported local email access. 'o facilitate data processing, we supported the universities with personal computers. .oftware re$uirements- -or data analysis 6,cel and .P.. are being used. -or the 9-A S#%&'( was introduced by our 7wiss partners <A&A137AN4<: )cf. 6elevi et al , !"""*.

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

7%96OJ considers flows of food, fodder and wood and allows to assess the amount of nutrients that could be reintroduced into the nutrient cycle via solid waste and e(creta co$ composting. &ith the help of 9-A, major nutrient flu(es between urban, peri$urban and rural agriculture can be +uantified )-ig. ?*. -inally, 1%7 software )Arc!iew* is being used to visualized on city maps e.g. the location of major waste sources as well as of different clients )e.g. urban farming systems* to illustrate distances and to suggest possible locations of compost stations. Time re$uirements- 4epending on number of cities and +uantity and +uality of students and coordination, the whole study can be carried out in ! years )for three cities*, especially if the 9-A is e(cluded.

eferences
Adam, 9.1. !"".. 4efinition and boundaries of the peri$urban interface $ patterns in the patchwork. %n= 4rechsel, F. and 4. 5unze )eds.* &aste :omposting for Urban and Feri$ urban Agriculture $ :losing the rural$urban nutrient cycle in sub$7aharan Africa. %&9%3-AO3:A6%= &allingford )in press* Allison, 9., Barris, F.I.:., Bofny$:ollins, A.B. and 7tephens, &. .//0. A review of the use of urban waste in peri$urban interface production systems. 'he Benry 4oubleday 8esearch Association, :oventry, U5. >?p. 6elevi, B., @eitzinger, :., 6inder, :., 9ontangero, A., 7trauss, 9. and :. 2urbrKgg. !""". 9aterial -low Analysis. A Flanning 'ool for Organic &aste 9anagement in 5umasi, 1hana. Bealthy :ities :onference, to be held in Accra, 1hana, in !"". )submitted*. 4rechsel, F. and 4. 5unze )<ds.* !"".. &aste :omposting for Urban and Feri$urban Agriculture $ :losing the rural$urban nutrient cycle in sub$7aharan Africa. %&9%3-AO3:A6%= &allingford )in press* 4rechsel, F., :. Duansah and -. Fenning de Lries. .///. 7timulation of urban and peri$urban agriculture in &est Africa $ :haracteristics, challenges, and need for action. %n= O.6. 7mith )ed.* Ur$an agriculture in West Africa. %48:3:'A, Ottawa, &ageningen, page ./$?".

Drechsel, Cofie, Vazquez, Danso

4rechsel, F., Duansah, :. and 7. Asante$9ensah. !"".. 'ools for the assessment of farmers perception of organic wastes as nutrient source. %n= 4rechsel, F. and 4. 5unze )eds.* &aste :omposting for Urban and Feri$urban Agriculture $ :losing the rural$urban nutrient cycle in sub$7aharan Africa. %&9%3-AO3:A6%= &allingford )in press* 1'231-A .///. Utilization of organic waste in )peri$*urban centres. 7upraregional 7ectoral Froject. 1'2, <schborn3-rankfurt. )incl. software programme* Barris, F.I.:., 9. Allison, 1. 7mith, B.9. 5indness and I. 5elley. !"".. 'he potential use of waste stream products for soil amelioration in peri$urban interface agricultural production systems. %n= 4rechsel, F. and 4. 5unze )<ds.* &aste :omposting for Urban and Feri$urban Agriculture $ :losing the rural$urban nutrient cycle in sub$7aharan Africa. %678A93-AO3:A6%= &allingford )in press* Nunan, -., 5. 6ird, I. 6ishop, A. <dmundson, and 7.8. Nidagundi. !""". Laluing peri$urban natural resources= A guide for natural resource managers. 7chool of Fublic Folicy, University of 6irmingham