Introduction to Photovoltaics

Solar Academy

What does SMA Solar Technology AG Stand For?

> It is a German acronym that describes 3 different technology disciplines:

System Mess Anlagentechnik AktienGesellschaft System Computer Control Mess Instrumentation or Measuring technology Anlagentechnik Plant System technology

Introduction to Photovoltaics

1. PV History, Markets and Applications 2. Electricity Basics 3. Solar Energy Fundamentals 4. PV Module Fundamentals 5. PV System Mounting 6. PV System Components

Introduction to Photovoltaics

1. PV History, Markets and Applications

Definition of Photovoltaics

> Photovoltaics (PV) is the field of Physics and Technology related to the direct conversion of Sunlight into Electricity. > From the Greek word (phs) meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electric (from the name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta)

1839 Discovery of the Photovoltaic Effect

French Physicist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect. While experimenting with metal electrodes he discovered that conductance rises with illumination.

1954 : First silicon solar cell

Gerald Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller from AT&T Bell Labs develop the first silicon solar cell capable of converting light into Direct Current to run electrical devices. Efficiencies up to 6%.

AT&T Bell Labs

1954 : First solar module the solar battery

http://www.porticus.org/bell /images/solar_battery2.gif

1958 : Vanguard 1 Satellite, 0.5 Watt solar array

orbit.medphys.ucl.ac.uk/
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2009 International Space Station : 130,000 W Solar Array

NASA
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Applications of Photovoltaic Technology

> Grid Tied Systems > Off Grid Systems > Village Power Supply > Rural Electrification > Eco Resorts > Telecommunications > Disaster relief > Agriculture water pumping (direct coupled) > Stand Alone Devices: emergency phones, parking meters, traffic signs > Consumer products (device charging)

Utility Interactive or Grid Tied photovoltaic system

PV Array

Sunny Boy Inverter AC Breaker Meter

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First Generation Off Grid System

Charge Controller

DC Loads

Batteries

Inverter

AC Loads

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Grid Tied Battery Backup and Off Grid

Sunny Island 5000 WAC

> Creates microgrid when utility grid is lost > Sophisticated battery management > AC and DC coupled systems > Generator support > Does not need Sunny Boys to operate!

USA Solar, LLC

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Direct Coupled

> DC device powered directly by PV (no inverter needed) > Water pump > Greenhouse fans

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Stand Alone and Consumer Products

> Power for traffic signs > Power for mobile signals > Charging mobile devices directly

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Introduction to Photovoltaics

2. Electricity Basics

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Electricity Basics

> The three quantities used to describe electricity are > Voltage > Current > Resistance > Three important relationships > Ohms Law > Definition of electric power > Definition of energy

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Voltage

> Voltage is the electric potential or Electro Motive Force (EMF) > Measured in units of Volts (V), symbol is V > It is a difference in potential between two points > If not stated, ground or 0 V is the other point > Similar to water pressure

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Voltage = Electric Pressure

Water pressure causes water flow - Higher pressure causes stronger flow

Lower water pressure 150 ft

Higher water pressure 200 ft

House A 40 PSI

House B

60 PSI
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Current

> Current is the flow of electricity > Measured in units of Amps (A), symbol is I (for intensity) > Electrons moving is the mechanism of current flow > Current MUST have a complete (closed) path to flow > Voltage is needed to provide force for flow > If voltage is like water pressure, current is like water flow

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Direct Current (DC) Voltage

Voltage

1.5 VDC

Time
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Resistance

> Resistance describes opposition to the flow of electricity > Measured in units of Ohms (), symbol is R > Materials with low resistance are called conductors > Examples: Copper, gold, silver, aluminum > Materials with high resistance are called insulators > Examples: Rubber, wood

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Circuit Diagram

> A circuit diagram is a simple line drawing (below) that represents some real device like a flashlight (left).

> A battery (voltage source) is represented by lines with positive and negative sides shown. > The bulb (a load) is shown as a resistor, the sawtooth pattern. > Current flows from source through load and back to source.
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Ohms law

V=IxR

Voltage equals Current times Resistance

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Ohms law
V1 + _ R1 V2 R2

R3

V3

V = V1 + V2 + V 3

The voltage drop across the three loads in series is equal to the voltage of the source. The current through all elements in series is the same.

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DC Voltage

1 mile

Voltage

1.5 VDC

Distance

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Electric Power

P=VxI

Power equals Voltage times Current

P = 12 V x 12 A = 144 W
Volts x Amps = Watts
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Power and Energy

> Power is an instantaneous measure of the rate of energy use > Power = V x I > Units of Watts (W) > 1W=1Vx1A

> Energy is the total power used/generated over a given time period > Energy = Power x time > Units of Watt-hours (Wh) or kiloWatt-hours (kWh)

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kW Hours: Adding it up

100 Watt x 2 hour = 200 Watt hour

5 x 40 Watt x 1 hour = 200 Watt hour

10 x 100 Watts x 1 hour = 1000 Wh or 1kWh

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Power and Efficiency

> Efficiency is a ratio of power out to power in. > CFLs are more efficient than incandescent bulbs. They produce the same amount of light power out for less input electrical power. > For solar modules, the conversion efficiency is the percentage of power converted from absorbed light to electrical power
Maximum electrical power out (in W)

Input light irradiance (in W/m)

Surface area of the solar module (in m).

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Energy Comparison
> 100 W light bulb operating for 24 hours uses 2400 Wh or 2.4 kWh > Telsa Roadster electric car: 217 Wh/mile

> How far can Roadster go with energy from 100W bulb on for 24 hrs? > 2400 Wh/ 217 Wh/mile = 11 miles
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Alternating Voltage causes Alternating Current

AC outlet

Fluorescent Light Bulb

120 Voltage

60 times per second or 60 cycles per second or 60 Hz

Time
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- 120

Single phase 120 Volts 60 Hz AC sine wave

Voltage : 120 VAC Frequency: 60 Hz 1000 miles

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Transmission Grid

Dunlop, Photovoltaic Systems

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Circuit diagram of a flashlight > All elements are in series one after the other. > Any break in the circuit will prevent the flashlight from working.

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Can place sources in series. What is voltage from A to B?

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Key characteristics of series circuits: > Voltage adds > Current stays the same > Connect positive to negative, positive to negative > When PV modules placed in series, it is referred to as a string

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Can place loads in parallel. If break occurs on one branch, the other will still operate. This is how your house is wired.

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Can place sources in parallel. What is voltage from A to B?

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> Key characteristics of parallel circuits: > Current adds > Voltage stays the same > Connect all positives, connect all negatives

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> What is overall voltage and current? And total power?

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Series and Parallel Circuits

> What is overall voltage and current? And total power?

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One String of Five Modules

4 5

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Two Strings of Ten Modules

...
10

...
10

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36 Modules

4 Strings of 9 or 6 strings of 6?

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From PV Cell to PV Array

Cell

Module

String

Array
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Bypass Diodes
> If a module is constructed by placing cells in series, what happens if one cell fails or is shaded? > In theory, the whole module would fail, as would the string it was part of. > In practice, bypass diodes are used to separate out part of each module. Thus, current can be routed around failure, just losing voltage.

Cell

Module
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Bypass Diodes

Dunlop, Photovoltaic Systems

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Introduction to Photovoltaics

3. Solar Energy Fundamentals

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The Sun
> Power output : 385 billion billion megawatts. > Amount of Solar Energy reaching Earth in one second: Equivalent to 15,000 times the total worldwide energy demand. > Luminosity : 4 trillion trillion 100W light bulbs.

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Sunlight Electromagnetic Spectum

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Irradiance
> Irradiance is the power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area. > Irradiance reaching top of Earth atmosphere about 1366 W/m2 > Roughly 1000 W/m2 reaches surface at solar noon at sea level

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Insolation
> Insolation is a measure of solar radiation received on a given surface area in a given time.
1 Square Meter (10.7 Square feet)

> Units usually kilowatt-hours per square meter per day ( kWh/(m2day) )

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Average U.S. Annual Solar Radiation

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Peak Sun Hours

Dunlop, Photovoltaic Systems

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Average Insolation (10 year average) kWh/m2/day

Yearly average peak sun hours (psh)

June monthly average peak sun hours (psh)

5.4 kWh/(m2day) = 1000 W/m2 * 5.4 h/day So yearly average for LA is 5.4 psh This value is critical for system design!
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Earths Axial Tilt

23 Degrees

Orbital plane around sun

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Impact of Latitude on Irradiance

Solar Panel tilted at the angle of latitude

Solar Panel parallel to the horizontal plane

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Shading
> Shade is the enemy of solar! > Shade only occurs when there is an object between the module and the sun. > If we know where the sun will be, we can determine if there are shade issues. > The position of the sun in the sky can be described by two angles.

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Solar Azimuth and Solar Elevation

Solar azimuth is the angle from true north in a clockwise direction. Solar Elevation is the angle between the direction of the sun and the horizon.

Elevation

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Solar Path Chart

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Solar Pathfinder

www.solarpathfinder.com/
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Solar Pathfinder

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Solmetric SunEye

http://www.solmetric.com/

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Solmetric SunEye

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Magnetic Declination
> Easiest to measure direction with a compass > HOWEVER, compass points to magnetic north, not true (geographic) north > We want to orient array toward true south, not magnetic south. > Can use a compass to find true south, but must take a factor called magnetic declination into account

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Magnetic Declination
True North Magnetic North

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Roof Angle Finder

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Orientation Effects

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Annual Solar Insolation

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Introduction to Photovoltaics

4. PV Module Fundamentals

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The Solar Cell

Thickness Of Human Hair

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Photovoltaic Effect

N type Semiconductor P type Semiconductor

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Increasing the capture band of the solar spectrum

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Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell

> Silicon ingot is pulled as a single crystal. > The internal crystalline structure is completely homogenous. > Cells are sliced from ingot.

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Polycrystalline / Multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

> Crystalline structure of silicon where several crystals form in a mold. > Recognized by a visible grain (metal flake effect)

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Silicon PV Module Cross Section

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Silicon PV Module

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Silicon PV Module

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PV Module Connectors

Hosiden Corp

Amphenol

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Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell

> Made of multiple a-Si layers. > Silicon, but not crystalline > Low overall efficiency

> Advantages > Low manufacturing cost per watt (< $1/W) > Variety of substrates: glass, metals & fabrics > Better absorption at high temperature. > Superior performance under low light condition. > Ideal for BIPV (Building Integrated Photo Voltaic) applications.
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Second Generation Solar Cells

First Generation Cells > Silicon based, single junction cells > Processing expensive and slow > Approaching theoretical maximum efficiency of 33% > More than 80% of world market in 2009 Second Generation Cells New Materials > Cadmium telluride (CdTe) First Solar is the big producer > Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) Miasole, Nanosolar, others > Amorphous silicon and micromorphous silicon Alternative manufacturing techniques > Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) > Electroplating > Ultrasonic Nozzles
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Solyndra modules (CIGS)

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Solar Module Area required to produce 1000 peak AC Watts

16 to 20 m 14 to 18 m 2 2

11 to 13 m 2 8 to 11m 2

75 to 96 ft

7 to 9 m 2

Moncrystalline Polycrystalline

CIGS

CdTe

Amorphous Si
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Third Generation

> Multijunction photovoltaic cells (40+ % efficiency) > Use of thermal generation by UV light to enhance voltage or carrier collection > Use of the infrared spectrum for night-time operation.

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Multi Junction Solar Cell

US DOE
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I-V Curve

Dunlop, Photovoltaic Systems

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I-V Curve of a Solar Cell

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I-V Curve of a Solar Module

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Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

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Module Performance
> Module I-V curve created at Standard Test Conditions (STC) > irradiance of 1,000 W/m > module temperature at 25C (77 deg F not ambient) > solar spectrum of AM 1.5 > STC conditions are where nameplate power rating is determined > STC conditions not representative of most operating conditions > Temperature of module usually much hotter (voltage drops) > Irradiance often lower (current drops) > These combine to reduce power. > AC Watts out of inverter may be only 70 - 80% of DC nameplate.

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Introduction to Photovoltaics

5. PV System Mounting

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Solar Module Mounting Techniques

> Roof mount > Ground mount > Pole or tracker mount > BIPV

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Roof Mount
> Optimum roof pitch is 5:12 to 12:12 > Two types > Flush mount most common > Tilt up flat or low pitch roofs; seasonal variances > Flush mount modules tend to run hotter than other mounting methods because of lower air circulation

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Flush Mount Example on 8:12 pitch roof

8:12 pitch 30 modules Sanyo 200 6kW system

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Tilt Up Array Example

Credit : Advance Energy Systems

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Ground Mount
> Solution when: > Calculated PV design is larger than roof surface area. > Roof has significant shading problems. > Large Utility scale photovoltaic plants. > Modules run cooler because of increased air flow. > Adaptable to uneven terrain. > More susceptible to dirt and debris if low to the ground

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Ground Mount System

Inverter SB2100U 12 Sharp 180 modules

Courtesy: PowerTripEnergy.com
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Pole and Tracker Mount

> Pole mounts can be easily adjusted to compensate for the seasons > Tracker mounts move automatically > Motors subject to failure; will stick in one position until repaired > 20-30% more energy harvest than fixed mount

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Pole Mount
Single Arm Side Arm Top of Pole

Small Systems

Medium Systems

Large Systems

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Fixed tilt, Single Axis Tracker, Dual Axis Tracker

Up to 40% more energy harvest respect to fixed tilt

Up to 30% more energy harvest respect to fixed tilt

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Single Axis Tracker SunPower GPT-20

140 Acres 14 MW

Nellis AFB, outside Las Vegas, NV

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Dual Axis Tracker

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Solar Flairs

Lake Michigan Wind and Sun

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Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)

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BIPV: Translucent PV modules

Florian Solar Products

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Introduction to Photovoltaics

6. PV System Components

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PV System Components Grid Tied System

> Array > Modules > Racking, clamps, junction boxes > Inverter > Balance of System

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The Array

Modules

Racking, Clamp and Standoff

Conduit run from array off of roof

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Racking and Standoffs

GRID Alternatives
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Junction Box
Polaris lugs used to transition from array homerun wire to THWN-2 wire that runs inside conduit off of the roof Junction Box Conduit
Usually mounted to racking not laying on roof!!

PV positive and negative home runs from array

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Inverter and Balance of System (BOS)

Conduit from Roof

AC Disconnect

DC Disconnect Inverter

Utility Panel (In box)

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Inverter and Balance of System (BOS)

Utility Meter Main Service Breakers (240V split phase)

PV breaker

Inverter DC Disconnect

Ground bus bar (green wires)

Neutral bus bar (white wires)

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The Inverter

DC

AC L1

Inverter

L2

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Solar Estimators String Sizing and Energy Capture Models

> String Sizing : Sunny Design
http://www.sma-america.com/en_US/products/software/sunny-design.html

> PV Watts: Calculate how much energy you can produce per year
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/calculators/PVWATTS/version1/US/California/ > Clean Power Estimator: To calculate cost, gross cost, rebates and payback http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/renewables/estimator/index.html

> Solar Estimator: calculate cost, gross cost, rebates and payback http://www.solar-estimate.org/?page=solar-calculator

> Sunset, sunrise, sun-hours, insolation

http://www.gaisma.com/en/dir/us-country.html

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> Thank you!

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