Wavelet-based Texture Analysis

P. Scheunders, S. Livens, G. Van de Wouwer, P. Vautrot, D.Van Dyck

Vision Lab, Department of Physics, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium

To be published as an invited paper in International Journal Computer Science and Information management, dec. 1997.
In this paper, texture analysis based on wavelet transformations is elaborated. The paper is meant as a practical guideline through some aspects of a wavelet-based texture analysis task. The following aspects of the problem are discussed: discrete and continuous wavelet decompositions, texture features for grey-level textures, extensions to colour texture and rotation-invariant features, and classi cation, including supervised image classi cation and unsupervised texture segmentation tasks. For these di erent aspects, a theoretical and practical survey is given, experiments and real-world applications of the literature are reviewed and some small-scale demonstration experiments are included.

Abstract

Texture is an important cue for the analysis of many types of images. The term is used to point to intrinsic properties of surfaces, especially those that don't have a smoothly varying intensity. It includes intuitive properties like roughness, granulation and regularity. More formally, texture can be de ned as the set of local neighbourhood properties of the gray levels of an image region. Texture analysis is considered as a challenging task. The ability to e ectively classify and segment images based on textural features is of key importance in scene analysis, medical image analysis, remote sensing and many other application areas. A wide variety of texture analysis methods has been proposed in the past. For reviews, see e.g. 1 and 2 . All methods have in common that they extract the characteristics that are believed to be most important in particular texture characterisation problems. An important aspect of texture is scale. Psychovisual studies indicate that the human visual system processes images in a multiscale way 3 . The visual cortex has separate cells that respond to di erent frequencies and orientations. It has even been observed that the responses correspond to Gabor-like functions. This multiscale processing, which humans obviously apply successfully to texture perception, is a strong motivation for texture analysis methods based on these concepts 4 5 . Multiresolution techniques intend to transform images into a representation in which both spatial and frequency information is present. To accomplish this, a lot of related techniques were developed, including Gabor, Haar, Walsh-Hadamard expansions, Gaussian and Laplacian pyramids, subband ltering, scale space, ... . In the last decade, wavelet theory emerged and became a mathematical framework which provides a more formal, solid and uni ed approach to multiresolution representations 6 7 . This wavelet paradigm is now well established and has found many applications in signal and image processing. Since also some of its precursors can be reformulated into wavelet terminology, it has become a preferred tool for multiresolution analysis. Also in the eld of texture analysis, wavelet theory has been quite successful. In this paper three aspects of the matter are treated in detail. First of all we will discuss the wavelet decomposition, and the opportunities it o ers for texture analysis. Discrete as well as continuous decompositions will be considered. Secondly, the aspect of feature extraction is elaborated. We will start from the standard features for grey-level texture and discuss extensions to colour and rotation-invariant textures. Finally, the aspect of classi cation is treated. Here supervised texture image classi cation as well as unsupervised texture segmentation are discussed. We will treat these di erent aspects by explaining the matter, by referring to results in the literature, and by giving results of some small-scale demonstration experiments. 1

I. Introduction

In this section, the wavelet transform is explained brie y. A more thorough mathematical treatment is given in 6 . The continuous wavelet transform CWT of a 1-D signal f x is de ned as Z ? Waf b = f xa;b xdx 1 where the wavelet a;b is computed from the mother wavelet  by translation and dilation 1 x , b  x = p  
a;b

II. Wavelet decompositions

2

Under some mild assumptions, the mother wavelet  satis es the constraint of having zero mean. A. Discrete wavelet decomposition 1 can be discretised by restraining a and b to a discrete lattice a = 2n , b 2 Z . Typically it is imposed that the transform should be non-redundant, complete and constitutes a multiresolution representation of the original signal. Under these constraints an e cient real-space implementation of the transform using quadrature mirror lters exists 7 . The extension to the 2-D case is usually performed by using a product of 1-D lters. In practice the transform is computed by applying a separable lter bank to the image:
Ln ~ b = Hx Dn1 ~ b

Hy

 Ln,1 2;1 1;2 ~ b

3 4

5 6  denotes the convolution operator, 2;1 1;2 subsampling along the rows columns and L0 = I ~ x is the original image. H and G are a low and bandpass lter respectively. Ln is obtained by low pass ltering and is therefore referred to as the low resolution image at scale n. The Dni are obtained by bandpass ltering in a speci c direction and thus contain directional detail information at scale n; they are referred to as the detail images. The original image I is thus represented by a set of subimages at several scales; fLd; Dni ji = 1; 2; 3; n = 1::dg which is a multiscale representation of depth d of the image I . This decomposition is called "pyramidal wavelet transform" decomposition or discrete wavelet decomposition DWT and provides a representation that is easy to interpret. Every subimage contains information of a speci c scale and orientation. Spatial information is retained within the subimages. For this most straightforward case, where the images are dilated by a factor of two, the scheme is called "dyadic". Because of the e ciency and the elegance of the dyadic transform, it is used frequently for texture analysis. There are however important drawbacks. For a dyadic transform, the frequency splitting is rather coarse. The orientation orientational selectivity is even poorer, since it is represented with just three orientations per scale. It is instructive to observe the frequency splitting in the Fourier domain. In gure 1, a two-level dyadic DWT is depicted in the wavelet and in the Fourier domain. Another problem is that the subsampling steps in 3-6 make the decomposition translation-variant. For this reason, the subsampling is often omitted, at the expense of including redundancy.

 Gy  Ln,1 2;1 1;2 ~ b Dn2 ~ b = Gx  Hy  Ln,1 2;1 1;2 ~ b Dn3 ~ b = Gx  Gy  Ln,1 2;1 1;2 ~ b
=
Hx

B. Wavelet packet decomposition Several extensions to the DWT to improve the frequency selectivity have been proposed, and all deal with a ner discretization of the scale parameters. A complete representation which became popular performs a DWT on every obtained detail image Dni . This leads to a tree-structured or "wavelet packet" decomposition WPD 8 9 10 . The wavelet packet transform splits up the high and low frequencies in equal bands. This can remedy the coarseness, at the expense of leading to a worse spatial localization. This splitting is however still strongly orientation-dependent. Another solution to the coarse frequency sampling has been proposed by Wilson et al. in their "Multiresolution Fourier Transform", which incorporates Fourier analysis in a wavelet scheme 11 . An alternative frequency splitting scheme has been studied by Kacker et al. 12 to improve orientational selectivity. C. Continuous wavelet decomposition Finer frequency selectivity can be obtained from 1, when dropping the constraints of a complete orthogonal decomposition, at the expense of including redundancy. A complete description is usually required for a perfect reconstruction of the decomposed image, which is indispensable for compression purposes, but is not essential for classi cation tasks. In order to maintain reasonable complexity, a discretization has to take place, but a more exible design is possible. Let us look at this in more detail. The bandwidth of a wavelet in octave can be expressed as
B

= log2

 !
f1 f2

7

with f1 and f2 the frequencies corresponding to the half-peak magnitudes of the wavelet in the Fourier domain. A good choice for scale or frequency discretization and for the bandwidth would give a complete overlapping of the Fourier space while minimizing redundancy. Therefore the discretization is often performed such that two wavelets overlap each other for frequencies whose wavelet values are smaller than the half-peak magnitude. Due to the dilation properties of the wavelet transform, the bandwidth is constant on a logarithmic scale. The frequency discretization
f is then chosen to be constant on the same logarithmic scale. This means that the scale parameter a is a power of 2B . In the case of a DWT, we have B = 1 and an = 2n . When using a CWT, B and
f can be chosen more freely. One can extend 1 to 2-D by including directional information and introducing a rotational parameter in the following way 13 : 0 1 ZZ ~ 1 ~ x , b W fa ~ b = f ~ x ? @r  A d~ x 8 a a where r denotes the rotation operator: r x; y  = x cos  + y sin ; ,x sin  + y cos  9 In the following we will make a distinction between isotropic and anisotropic wavelets. We rst discuss isotropic wavelets. From 8, it can be seen that W f is essentially obtained by a convolution of f with a scaled version of the mother wavelet . Because of the convolution theorem, this becomes a multiplication in the Fourier domain: ^f a~ ^a~ ^~ W u = a uf u 10 And the power spectrum becomes: pW fa ~ u = a2p a~ upf ~ u 11 3

^~ ^u; 0 in polar coordinates. As a consequence, pW fa contains For isotropic wavelets one has:  u =  a circular symmetric frequency band of f . A rotation of f results in a rotation of pW fa this is only true if  is isotropic. Moreover, note that a translation of a function g leads to a phase shift in the imaginary component of g ^, but does not a ect pg . Thus 11 yields a translation-invariant multiscale representation of f , which is desirable for texture characterization. A possible choice for  is
 1 ^~  u = p exp ,2 2 2 u , F 2 12


We refer to it as the G-let. On the positive half of a cross section in the Fourier plane it is a gaussian, which is rotated to form an isotropic torus-like 2D function. F and control the position and the decay of the wavelet. The wavelets maximal value and bandwidth B can now easily be obtained from 7 and 12 and are controlled by F and 14 . The anisotropic wavelet we will describe is the 2D Morlet wavelet. Neglecting a small correction term to obtain a zero mean function, the well-known Gabor lter, sometimes called Gabor wavelet is obtained, whose expression in the Fourier space is given by:  ! 2 X 2 2 2 ^  ~ u = exp ,2 ui , Fi i 13
i=1

~ = F1 ; F2 = 0 the function is usually chosen to have its mean on the x-axis and ~ =  1; 2  Here F control the position and the decay of the wavelet. Applying 8 allows to generate oriented functions for di erent values of . In this case, the angle needs also to be discretized and an angular bandwidth has to be de ned, that determines the critical sampling rate of . For 13, can be de ned as being the angle between the two lines, passing through the origin an tangent to the curve of half-maxima ~ and ~ 14 . see Fig. 2. Again, one can tune B and according to the parameters F

A. Grey-level features To obtain features which re ect scale-dependent properties, a feature is extracted from each scale separately. An appropriate quantity is the energy.
E a =

III. Wavelet Texture Features

W fa~ b2 d~ b

14 15

Let us look at the energies of the DWT. The energy of a subimage Dni is given by Z Eni = Dni ~ b2d~ b

These wavelet energy signatures fEni gn=1::d;i=1;2;3 re ect the distribution of energy along the frequency axis over scale and orientation. The obtained feature set is shown to be an important characteristic for texture analysis 15 16 17 18 . Several studies investigate alternative measures, but no general conclusion in favor of a particular measure can be drawn from them. Laine and Fan compared energy and entropy features and found the latter to be less suitable 19 . Manjunath and Ma used absolute values and found that adding a second variance measure improves performance 20 . B. Colour features Wavelet texture analysis can be extended to colour texture. Colour images are typically represented by RGB tristimulus values which correspond to three colour bands. The most straightforward extension 4

of the wavelet energy signatures to colour images is to transform each colour plane separately; i.e. replace I by the R,G and B-plane consecutively in 3-6. Extending the de nition of energy features, let us de ne Z X X X X Cnij k = Dnij ~ bDnik ~ bd~ b 16 n Xj Xk oj;k=1;2;3; jk The set Cni are the covariance elements of the detail images. For j = k 16 gives the n=1::d;i=1;2;3 energies; the others represent the texture information between subimages in di erent colour planes. Features wwith equal variances are obtained by the correlation elements:
Xj Xk ~ni C =q

Cnij Cnij
X Xj

X Xk

Xk Xk Cni

17

A recent study by Van de Wouwer et al. reveals that using these colour features o ers substantially more discriminative information 21 . It is also shown that the choice of the colour space can lead to signi cant di erences in performance. Jain and Healey use opponent features computed from Gabor lter outputs and combine information across spectral bands at di erent scales 22 . Remark that the same arguments hold for multispectral images in general. C. Rotation-invariant features Because of Parseval's relation for the Fourier transform, and 14, the energy of a wavelet transformed image equals the zero-th order moment of the power spectrum of the transform pWa ~ u. Z E a = pWa ~ ud~ u 18 A logical extension to the energy features would include higher-order spectral moments. It is easy to show that all odd order moments of pWa ~ u vanish. The second order moments are given by: Z Qij a = ui uj pWa u1; u2du1 du2 i; j 2 f1; 2g 19 Because of the coarse frequency and orientational selectivity of the DWT, calculation of 19 leads to di culties. When employing an isotropic CWT, the energy is rotation-invariant. The second order moments approximate pWa ~ u by an ellips. By diagonalising the matrix Q, 2 rotation-invariant features can be obtained which express the degree of anisotropy of the power spectrum. Recently it has been demonstrated that including the second-order spectral moments improves rotation-invariant texture description 14 . A texture analysis task generally involves classi cation. Here, the generated features span a highdimensional feature space, which is subdivided into a set of classes. A feature vector is then assigned a class label according to its position in feature space. When labeled data is available a priori, the classi cation is called supervised, otherwise it is called unsupervised. A. Supervised image classi cation An important task is supervised textured image classi cation. Here, each image is represented by a single feature vector. A training set contains several labeled images. By applying classi cation on this set, texture classes are de ned according to the labels of the textures in the training set. 5
IV. Classification

Several classi cation techniques exist. An e cient and easy to implement one is the k-NN classi er. Here, an unknown datapoint is given the same class label as the majority of its k nearest neighbours from the training set. Other, more complex neural classi ers as Learning Vector Quantizers 23 , or Fuzzy interpreted classi ers 24 were employed for the problem of textured image classi cation. Training such a classi er requires a training set of reasonable size, which re ects all properties of the complete set of possible images. Testing the performance of the classi er requires an independent test set of labeled samples. It is common practice to use 2=3 of the samples for training and 1=3 for testing. In practical situations, a limited number of training samples is available. For an optimal use of the data, it is better to have a strategy in which all samples are used for learning. This is achieved with the leave-one-out technique 25 . A classi er is built with the use of all samples but one, which is used for testing. This is repeated for all samples. It is important to note that for classi ers which employ the Euclidian distance, all features over the complete training set need to be standardized such that variances of di erent features become comparable This can e.g. be done by subtracting the average feature values and dividing by the standard deviations. Omitting this step would lead some features the ones with largest variances to dominate the distance. Another way to solve this problem is using other distance measures such as the Mahalanobis distance. An important problem in wavelet texture analysis is that the number of features tends to become large. In the case of colour texture features, this number is multiplied by six using the correlation features, and by three in the case of rotation-invariant features using the second-order spectral moments. For saving computer time, it might be useful to reduce the number of features. There is however another important reason to do so. Although more features may carry more information, they make classi cation much more di cult. This phenomenon is well known in pattern recognition as "the curse of dimensionality". There exist general feature reduction methods for dealing with this. It can be advantageous to limit the number of features at the level of their generation, where the nature of the features can be taken into account. For a tree-structured transform, a criterion can be used to decide if a subimage needs to be decomposed further. This is known as "adaptive wavelet transform" and was proposed in general by Coifman and Wickerhauser, who used an entropy criterion 8 . An adaptive wavelet transform with a simple energy criterion is applied in 16 , which showed to be an essential step in the methodology. Pichler et al. investigated a variance criterion and conclude that it performs poorly 26 . More advanced criteria can be based on class separability. This has been investigated by Etemad and Chellappa 27 and by Fatemi-Ghomi et al. 28 . Other techniques directly select features from the complete set. Several selection techniques from the eld of pattern recognition are available. We mention one: the suboptimal technique of sequential forward oating selection FFFS 29 . This algorithm is initialized by taking the best feature "best" is de ned here as giving the best recognition performance. The selection then continues by adding or deleting a feature in each step, until the optimal recognition performance is obtained. B. Unsupervised texture segmentation In this section we discuss the problem of segmentation of one textured image, containing a number of di erent textures. The di erence with image classi cation is that here, each pixel needs to be classi ed separately so that features need to be calculated locally. Moreover, no labeling is available a priori, so that the classi cation task becomes unsupervised. As mentioned before, the local feature calculation is translation-variant. To overcome this subsampling is often omitted when using the DWT in segmentation tasks. One then obtains an overcomplete representation in which the redundancy improves robustness. Unser 18 and Laine and Fan 30 report on this. In general, omission of subsampling will improve results, but increase computation time. In 31 extensive studies on the e ects of this are reported. In segmentation it can be advantageous to include spatial information in the feature set. A simple 6

way to do this is to add the spatial pixel coordinates as extra features. This increases the segmentation performance. These spatial features should however be weighted i.e. high importance in the beginning of the training procedure and decreasing thereafter, otherwise clustering would tend to divide the image in equally sized regions. Note that feature standardization is not recommendable here. Because of the local nature of the features, this would cause the noise level to increase. It can however be applied after having removed all noisy features. The feature reduction step becomes even more important in segmentation, and needs to be performed unsupervised. Here, again adaptive wavelet techniques can be applied. Direct techniques include the popular Karhunen-Lo eve transform 14 . Again, the classi cation itself can be performed in several ways, the most simple ones just being clustering of the dataspace e.g. C-means clustering. In the following we will describe three small-scale experiments. These experiments do not intend to yield unquestionable conclusions. They merely serve as demonstration material for the practical application of the topics discussed in this paper. A. Experiment 1 The rst experiment deals with the wavelet decomposition itself. More particularly, we want to demonstrate the use of the wavelet decomposition for segmentation of a grey-level image composed of di erent Brodatz textures. In this experiment three di erent decompositions are applied: the DWT, the WPD and the CWT. The used features are energies. For the DWT and the WPD, decompositions to depth 4, respectively 3 were performed. This leads to 12 respectively 63 feature values the low-pass feature is omitted. For the CWT, a Gabor wavelet is applied. The frequency and angular bandwidths have been set respectively to B = 1 octave and = =4. Frequency discretization was performed with values equal to Fn=2; Fn =4; Fn =8 and Fn=16 where Fn is the Nyquist frequency. The orientation parameter has been discretized using 4 values ,=2; ,=4; 0; =4. This leads to 16 feature values. In order to improve robustness, subsampling is omitted. To reduce the number of features, we use a Karhunen-Lo eve transform while keeping the 6 most important eigenfeatures. For the classi cation the C-Means clustering procedure is applied. Experiments with and without spatial information were included. In Fig. 3a the texture composition shows 5 di erent textures, where 1 bottom left can be divided into 2 di erent orientations. Since the discrete decompositions cannot distinguish between the 2 orientations, 5 clusters were aimed at in the classi cation. Using CWT, results for classi cation to 5 and to 6 clusters are reported. The percentages of misclassi ed pixels are reported in Table I. Segmented images are shown in Fig. 3b, 3c and 3d. Here, no spatial information was included and the CWT-result was obtained after clustering to 6 clusters. A very profound study including large scale experiments can be found in 32 . B. Experiment 2 The second experiment describes colour texture classi cation. It demonstrates the usefulness of the energy-correlation features and the importance of the used colour space. 30 real-world 512x512 RGB colour-images 33 from di erent natural scenes were selected. From each image, 64 64x64 subimages were extracted and di erent feature sets were generated: 1 Intensity grey-level images were generated by averaging R, G and B components, hereby discarding colour information. A DWT of depth 4 was performed and energy features were computed for each of the 12 detail images. 2 Each R,G and B component undergoes a DWT depth 4 and energy features were computed from 7
V. Experiments and real-world applications

each detail image total of 36 features. 3 Correlation features were calculated using 17 total of 72 features. 4 Correlation features were computed for the Karhunen-Lo eve KL space. Classi cation is performed by a k-NN classi er with the leave-one-out method. Feature selection was performed using FFFS. Figure 4 shows the classi cation performances in function of the size of the reduced feature set, for all four cases. From the results it is clear that the use of the correlation features improves classi cation results. Transformation to other colour spaces improves classi cation performance. A detailed description of this experiment and a discussion on the results can be found in 21 . C. Experiment 3 In the last experiment, rotation-invariant texture classi cation is the issue. We will demonstrate the usefulness of the second-order spectral moments. 10 natural textured images from the Brodatz album which clearly exhibit anisotropy were chosen and are displayed in Fig. 5. All images were scanned 512x512 window at 150dpi 3 times under di erent angles 0 , 30 and 45 . They were not rotated digitally to simulate as close as possible the real life situation and to prevent any digital rotation errors. The mean grey-level was set equal for all images, so that it is impossible to characterize the textures by their mean intensity alone. 128x128 subimages were extracted from each texture. The isotropic G-let was performed 12 with bandwidth B = 0:5 and frequency discretization
f = 0:5. The energies and the second-order spectral moments were calculated by 18 and 19. Classi cation was performed using a k-NN classi er with the leave-one-out method. To circumvent the curse of dimensionality a feature selection technique FFFS was applied. Two di erent experiments were conducted: 1 The training data set was made to contain instances of all 3 orientations. Classi cation results are given for the set as a whole. 2 The training data set contained only instances of the 0 orientation. Classi cation results are given for the three orientations separately. Results are displayed in Table II. In row a, classi cation results are shown when both energy and second-order spectral moments are used, while in row b only energies are used. A drastic decrease of performance 15 -20  can be noticed. A thorough discussion including large scale experiments rotation-invariant texture classi cation and segmentation can be found in 14 . D. Practical Applications Apart from methodological work, which uses well controlled experiments, important experimental knowledge is coming from the application to real world problems. In a growing number of areas, wavelet based texture methods are being investigated. An online collection of ongoing work is being maintained by Livens 34 . The most widely use is found in the analysis of medical images. The topics are 2D and 3D multiresolution image segmentation. Other application include tissue characterisation 35 . An application of texture features for content-based searches in large image databases is shown by in 36 and in 20 . Combined colour and texture descriptions are expected to become very important for this area. Another successful area is remote sensing, where promising work was reported 37 38 . Other applications are found in material science, where characterisation of corrosion is reported 39 . An application of the segmentation of marble images has been carried out 40 . Although the amount of work on applications is growing fast, it is still relatively small and many opportunities for new research remain in this area. In this paper, some aspects of wavelet-based texture analysis are discussed. Several complete and redundant decompositions were described. The orthogonal descriptions are very convenient to use, but with a limited frequency and orientational selectivity. Continuous descriptions have the drawback of leading to redundancy but allow a more exible frequency and orientational selectivity. Feature 8
VI. Conclusions

extraction is discussed. Useful grey-level and colour texture features can be extracted from the discrete wavelet transform. Useful rotation-invariant features were found in continuous transforms. Texture analysis problems were described in the eld of supervised texture image classi cation and unsupervised texture segmentation. Some small-scale experiments demonstrated the practical usefulness of the wavelet-based texture features in classi cation and segmentation applications.

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10

FIGURE CAPTIONS Figure 1: a two-level DWT a: conventional arrangement of subsampled component images; b: their corresponding frequency responses in the Fourier space. Figure 2: the angular bandwidth for the Gabor wavelet. Figure 3: a: Composition of 5 textures; b: segmentation result using the DWT; c: using the WPD; d: using the CWT to 6 clusters. Table I: Misclassi ed pixel error rates in percentage for the composition of gure 2. Figure 4: Classi cation performance versus number of utilized features; 1 using intensity features;

33 VisTex, Color image database," http: www-white.media.mit.edu vismod imagery VisionTexture, 1995, MIT Media Lab. 34 S. Livens, Wavelets for texture analysis," http: www.ruca.ua.ac.be ~ VisionLab WTA.html, 1997. 35 N.D. Kim, V. Amin, D. Wilson, G. Rouse, and S. Udpa, Texture analysis using multiresolutional analysis for ultrasound tissue characterization," in Proc. of Review in Progress in QNDE. 1997, vol. 16, Plenum Publishing Company. 36 J.R. Smith and S. Chang, Transform features for texture classi cation and discrimination in large image databases," in IEEE Proc. Conf. Image Proc., 1994, vol. III, pp. 407 411. 37 M. Datcu, D. Luca, and K. Seidel, Multiresolution analysis of SAR images," in EUSAR'96: European Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar, Konigswinter, Germany. Mar. 1996, pp. 375 378, VDE Verlag GmbH. 38 D. A. Clausi, Texture Segmentation of SAR Sea Ice Imagery, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Waterloo, 1996. 39 S. Livens, P. Scheunders, G. Van de Wouwer, D. Van Dyck, H. Smets, J. Winkelmans, and W. Bogaerts, A texture analysis approach to corrosion image classi cation," Microscopy, Microanalysis, Microstructures, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 143 152, 1996. 40 F. lumbreras and J. Serrat, Wavelet ltering for the segmentation of marble images," Technical Report, vol. Univ. Autonoma de Madrid, 1996.

2 using energy features in RGB space; 3 using correlation features in RGB space; 4 using correlation features in Karhunen-Lo eve space. Figure 5: The 10 Brodatz textures which were used in the third experiment. Table II: Classi cation performances of experiment 3. Misclassi cation scores are given in percentage.

misclassified pixel error rates in percentage for the composition of figure 2.

TABLE I

without spatial inf. with spatial inf. DWT 5.02  2.46  WPD 5.48  3.07  CWT 5 clusters: 5.11  5 clusters: 2.23  6 clusters: 3.88  6 clusters: 2.32 

classification performances of experiment 3. Misclassification scores are given in percentage.

TABLE II

Exp. 1 Exp. 2 all 0 30 45 a 1.3  2.2  4.5  5.1  b 17.5  20.6  26.7  28.6