Landform, whether large or small result from the interaction of certain forces, they accomplish their work by various

means of processes, which may be described as geologic, Climatic and biologic and these processes bring about the changes in the Earths surface which may be Classified as (I) Long eriod Changes (!an Is unable to notice this change) and (II) short period Changes" #he forces which affect the crust of the earth are broadly classified in two types

E$%&'E$E#IC (&)CE*&)I'I$+#E, ()&! -I#.I$ #.E E+)#. E/&'E$E#IC (&)CE*&)'I$+#E, ()&! -I#.&0#,&) 1E2&$% #.E E+)#.

ENDOGENETIC FORCES
#he forces coming from within the earth are called as Endogenetic forces which causes two types of movement in the earth vi3 (I) .ori3ontal movements (II) 4ertical movements" #hese forces derive their energy from changes such as radioactivity, chemical recombination, e5pansion or contraction or displacement of molten materials which &ccurs in the interior of the earth" #his group of forces may be called as #ectonic forces which manifests through rocesses Called%iastrophism and 4olcanism" #he origin of Endogenetic forces and related hori3ontal and vertical movements are caused due to contraction and e5pansion of rocks because of varying thermal conditions and temperatures inside the earth" 4olcanic eruptions and seismic events are also e5pressions of Endogenetic forces" #he displacement and read6ustment of geomaterials sometimes take place so rapidly that earths movements are caused below the crust" &n the basis of intensity the Endogenetic forces and movements are divided in to two ma6or Categories 1.,0%%E$ (&)CE,

2.%I+,#)&

.IC (&)CE,

SUDDEN FORCES AND MOVEMENT

,udden and become disastrous -hen they occur in densely populated localities" #hese forces work very 7uickly and their results are seen within minutes" !ovements, caused by sudden*Endogenetic forces coming from deep within the earth cause sudden and rapid events that cause massive destructions at and below the earths surfaces" ,uch events like volcanic eruptions and earth7uakes, are called 8E/#)E!E E4E$#, and become disastrous ha3ards when they occur in densely populated localities" #hese forces work very 7uickly and their results are seen within minutes" 8It is important to note that these forces are the result of long period reparation" &nly their cumulative effects on the earths surface are 7uick and sudden" 'eologically, these sudden forces are termed as 8constructive forces because these create certain relief features on the earths surface" (or e5ample, volcanic eruptions result in the formation of volcanic cones and mountains while fissure flows of lavas form e5tensive lava plateau and lava plains Earth7uakes create faults, fractures, lakes etc"

(igure 9 %eccan lateau in India

(igure : Columbia lateau in 0,+

Diastrophic Forces and Movements

%iastrophic forces include both vertical and hori3ontal movements which are caused due to forces deep within the earth" #hese diastrophic forces operate very slowly and their effects become discernible after thousands and millions of years" #hese forces are also termed as constructive forces, affect large areas of earth and produce meso*level reliefs such as mountains, lains, lateaus, lakes, big faults etc" #hese diastrophic forces and movements further subdivided in to

1.E

EI)&'E$E#IC !&4E!E$#,

2.&)&'E$E#IC !&4E!E$#,

EPEIROGENETIC MOVEMENTS
Epeirogenetic movement causes upliftment and subsidence of continents masses through upward and downward movements respectively" 1oth, the movements are in fact vertical movements" #hese are further divided in to

1.0pward !ovement 2.%ownward !ovement

Upward Movement
0pward movement causes upliftment of continental masses in two ways 9"#he upliftment of whole continent or part there of 2.#he upliftment of Coastal land of the continents and such type of upliftment is called E!E)'E$CE

Downward Movement
%ownward movement causes subsidence of continent in two ways 9"#he subsidence of the land area 2.+lternatively, the land area near the sea coast is moved downwards or subsided below sea level and is thus submerged under seawater and such type of downward movement is called ,01!E)'E$CE

OROGENETIC MOVEMENTS
&rogenetic movements results in the formation of mountains which are caused due to the Endogenetic forces working in a hori3ontal manner" #he hori3ontal forces and the resultant movements are also called as 8tangential forces" #hese forces work in two ways and they are

Tensional Force
#hese forces operate in opposite direction and thus create ruptures, cracks, fractures and faults in the crustal parts of the earth" ,uch type of forces and movements are also Called as %I4E)'E$# forces and movements"

Compressional Force
#hese forces operate towards each other or face to face and they cause crustal bending leading to the formation of folds or crustal warping leading to the local rise or subsidence of crustal arts" #hey are also called as C&$4E)'E$# forces"

Crustal 1ending

-hen hori3ontal forces work face to face the crustal rocks are bent due to the resultant Compressional and tangential force, the crustal rocks undergo the process of 8crustal bending in two ways

1.-arping 2.(olding
#he process of crustal warping affects larger areas of the crust where in crustal parts are warped upward or downward" #he upward rise of the crustal part due to the compressive force resulting in the Convergent hori3ontal movement is called0 -+) I$' while bending of the Crustal parts downward in the form of a basin or depression is called %&-$-+) I$'" -hen the process of upwarping and downwarping affects larger areas, the resultant mechanism is called1)&+%-+) I$'" -hen the compressive hori3ontal forces and the resulting convergent movements cause buckling and ,7uee3ing of crustal rocks, the resultant mechanisms is called folding which causes several types of folds"

(olds
-ave like bends are formed in crustal rocks due to the tangential compressive force resulting from

hori3ontal movement caused by the Endogenetic force originating deep within the earth" ,uch bends are Called 8folds -here in ,ome parts are bent up and some parts are bent down"

(igure ; %ifferent Components of fold #he up folded rock strata in arch*like form are called 8anticlines while the down folded feature forming trough*like feature is called 8synclines" #he two sides of the fold are called limbs of the fold" #he limb which is shared between an anticline and its companion syncline is called middle limb" #he lanes which bisects the angle between the two limbs of the anticline or middle limb of like syncline is called the a5is of fold or a5ial plane" &n the basis of anticline and syncline these a5ial planes are called as a5is of anticline and a5is of synclinerespectively"

(igure < +nticlines and ,ynclines

Dip
#he inclination of the rock beds with respect to the hori3ontal lane is termed as 8dip" #wo information are derived from the dip 9"#he direction of ma5imum slope down a bedding lane :"#he angle between the ma5imum slope and the hori3ontal plane #he direction of the dip is measured by its true bearing in relation to east or west of north e"g" =>?$E@ while the angle of dip is measured with an instrument calledclinometer"

Strike
#he ,trike of an inclined bed is the direction of any hori3ontal line along the bedding plane" #he direction of the dip is always at right angle to the strike"

(igure A %ip and ,trike

Antic ines

#he unfolded rock beds are called anticlines" In simple fold the rock strata of both the limbs dip in opposite directions" ,ometimes, folding becomes so acute that the dip angle of the anticline is accentuated and the fold becomes almost vertical" -hen the slopes of both the (limbs or the sides) of the anticline are uniform, the anticline is called 8symmetrical anticline but when the slopes are une7ual, the anticline is called as 8asymmetrical anticline" +nticlines are divided in to two types on the basis of dip angle

1.'entle anticline when the dip angle is less than <>? , sometimes 9?or:? 2.,teep anticline when the dip angle ranges between <>? and B>?
S!nc ines

#he %own folded rock beds due to compressive forces caused by hori3ontal tangential forces are called synclines" #hese are trough like form in which beds on either side 8incline together towards the middle part" If folded intensely, the synclines assume the form of a canoe"
Antic inori"m

+nticlinorium refers to those folded structures in the regions of folded mountains where there are series of minor anticlines and synclines with one e5tensive anticline" #hey are formed when the hori3ontal compressive tangential forces do not wok regularly" ,uch type of fold is also called as fan fold"

(igure = Illustration of +nticlinorium and synclinorium

S!nc inori"m

,ynclinorium represents such folded structure which includes an e5tensive syncline having numerous minor anticlines and synclines which formed due to irregular folding of irregular compressive forces"

T!pes o# #o ds
#he $ature of the folds depends on various factors such as the nature of rocks, the nature and the intensity of compressive forces, duration of the operation of the compressive forces etc" 1ased on the inclinations of the limbs the folds are classified in to A types"

(igure C #ypes of folds 9",ymmetrical folds :"+symmetrical folds ;"!onoclinal folds <"Isoclinal folds A")ecumbent folds
S!mmetrica #o ds

If both the limbs incline uniformly then they are called as symmetrical folds" #hese folds are an e5ample of open folds and are formed when Compressive forces work regularly but with moderate intensity"
As!mmetrica #o ds

#hese are characteri3ed by une7ual irregular limbs which incline at different angles" &ne limb is relatively larger and the inclination is moderate and regular while the other limb is relatively shorter with ,teep inclination"
Monoc ina #o ds

#hese are the folds in which one limb inclines moderately with regular slope while the other limb inclines steeply at right angle and the slope is almost vertical"
Isoc ina s #o ds

#hese folds are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the fold become parallel but not hori3ontal"
Rec"m$ent #o ds

#hese folds are formed when compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the folds become parallel as well as hori3ontal"
Overt"rned #o ds

#he folds in which one limb of the fold is thrust upon the another fold due to intense compressive forces" Limbs are season hori3ontal"
% "n&e #o ds

-hen the a5is of the fold instead of being parallel to the hori3ontal plane becomes tilted and forms plunge angle which is the angle between the a5is and the hori3ontal plane"
Fan #o ds

#hey represent an e5tensive broad fold consisting of several minor anticlines and synclines which resembles a fan" ,uch feature also called as +nticlinorium and synclinorium"

Open #o ds

#he folds in which the angle between the two limbs of the fold is more than B>? but less than 9D>? (obtuse angle)" #hese open folds are formed due to wave like folding because of moderate nature compressive forces"

(igure D &pen (olds

C osed #o ds

#he folds in which the angle between the limbs is acute then they are called as closed folds and are formed due to intense Compressive forces"

(igure B Closed (olds

Nappes

$appes are the result of comple5 folding mechanism caused by intense hori3ontal movement and resultant compressive forces" 1oth the limbs of the recumbent fold are parallel and hori3ontal" %ue to further increase in the continued compressive force one limb of the recumbent folds slides forward and overrides the &ther fold #his process is called 8thrust8 and the lane along which one art of the fold is thrust is called 8thrust plane" #he upthrust part of the fold is called 8&verthrust fold" -hen the compressive forces become so acute that it crosses the limit of elasticity of the rock beds, the limbs of the fold are so acutely folded that these break at the a5is of the fold and the lower rock beds come upward" #hus the resultant structure becomes reverse to the normal structure" %ue to continued hori3ontal movement and compressive force the broken limb of the fold is thrown several kilometers away from the original structure and overrides the rock beds of the distant lace" ,uch type of structure becomes unconformal to the original structure of the place where the broken limb of the fold of other place overrides the rock beds" ,uch broken limb of the fold is called 8napple8"

(igure 9> (ormation of $appes ,everal e5amples of nappes are traceable in the present folded mountains" #he nappes of the +lps have been systematically studies and divided in to four ma6or groups from below upward they are 9".elvetic nappe :" ennine nappe ;"+ustride nappe <"%inaride nappe

In most of the localities the overriding nappes have been eroded away because of dynamic wheels of denudation processes and thus buried basic structure has been e5posed" -hen the ortion of lower nappe is seen because of the denudation of overriding nappe, the resultant open ,tructure is called 8structural window" ,everal e5amples of 8complete window have been discovered in eastern +lps" + few e5amples of nappes have also been traced out in .imalayas" -hen the broken limb of a fold overrides the other fold near the broken fold, the resultant nappe is called 8+utochthonous $appe" &n the other hand, when the limb of a fold, after being broken, overrides the other fold at a distant place, the resultant nappe is called 8e5otic nappe"

Cr stal Fract re
Crustal fracture refers to displacement of rocks along a plane due to tensional and Compressional forces acting either hori3ontally or vertically or sometimes even in both ways" Crustal fracture depends on the

strength of the rocks and intensity of tensional forces" #he crustal rocks suffer only cracks when the tensional force is moderate but when the rocks are sub6ected to intense tensional force, the rock beds are sub6ected to dislocation and displacement resulting in to the formation of faults" 'enerally fractures are divided in to : types 9"Eoints :"(aults

!oints
+ 6oint is defined as a fracture in the crustal rocks wherein no appreciable movement of rocks takes place"

Fa lts
-hen the crustal rocks are displaced, due to tensional movement caused by the Endogenetic forces, along a plane, the resultant structure is called fault" #he lane along which the rock blocks are displaced is called fault plane" + fault lane may be vertical, >r inclined, or hori3ontal, or curved or of any type and form" #he movement responsible for the formation of a fault may operate in vertical or hori3ontal or in any direction"

(igure 99 %ifferent Components of a (ault

(ault lane
#he plane along which the rock blocks are displaced by tensional and Compressional forces acting vertically and hori3ontally to form a fault, fault plane may be vertical, inclined, hori3ontal, curved or of any other form"

(ault dip
#he angle between the fault plane and the hori3ontal plane

0pthrown side
)epresents the uppermost block of a fault

%ownthrown ,ide
)epresents the lowermost block of a fault

.anging -all
#he upper wall of the fault

(oot wall
#he lower wall of the fault

(ault scrap
#he steep wall like slope caused by faulting of the crustal rocks, ,ometimes the fault scarp is so steep that is resembles a cliff" ,carps are not formed by faulting alone and it may form due to erosion also, but whenever these are formed by faulting they are called 8fault scraps8"

T"pes o# Fa lts
in two directions

#he different types of faulting of the crustal rocks are determined by the direction of the motion along the fracture plane" 'enerally, the relative movement or displacement of the rock blocks occurs appro5imately

1.#o the direction of the dip*%ip slip movements 2.#o the direction of the strike*,trike slip movements
#hus on the basis of the direction of slip or displacement faults are divided into

1.%ip*slip faults 2.,trike Fslip faults

$ormal (aults
If the displacement of the rock blocks is down to the direction of the dip then the resultant fault is called $ormal fault" $ormal faults are formed due to the displacement of both the rock blocks in opposite directions due to tensional force" #he fault plane is usually between <A? and vertical" #he ,teep scrap resulting from the normal fault is called fault*scarp or fault*line scarp the height of which ranges between a few metres to hundreds of metres"

)everse (aults

)everse faults are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock blocks towards each other" #he fault lane, in a reverse fault is usually inclined of an angle between <>? and hori3ontal >? "#he vertical ,tress is minimum while the hori3ontal stress is ma5imum" In reverse faults the rock beds on the upper side are displaced up the fault plane relatively to the rock beds below "It is apparent that reverse faults results in the shortening of the faulted area while normal faults cause e5tension of the faulted area" It is thus, also obvious that some sort of compression is also involved in the formation of reverse faults" )everse faults are also called of thrust faults" ,ince reverse faults is formed due to compressive force resulting from hori3ontal movement and hence this is also called as Compressional fault" -hen the compressive force e5ceeds the strength of the rocks , one block of the fault overrides the other block and the resultant fault is called as &verthrust fault where in the fault plane becomes almost hori3ontal"

(igure 9: (+) $ormal fault and (1) )everse (ault

Lateral or ,trike ,trip (aults

#his type of faults are formed -hen the rock beds are displaced hori3ontally along the fault plane due to hori3ontal movement #hese are called left*lateral or sinistral faults when the displacement of rocks occurs to the left on the far side of the fault and right lateral or de5tral faults when the displacement of rock blocks takes place to the right on the far side of the fault"

(igure 9; (ormation of ,trike *slip or transcurrent faults

,tep (aults

-hen a series of faults occur in any area in such a way that the slopes of all fault planes are in the same direction the resultant faults are called step faults" It is a prere7uisite condition for the formation of step faults that the downward displacement of all the downthrown blocks must occur in the same direction"

(igure 9< Illustration of ,tep faults

)ift 4alley and 'raben

)ift valley is a ma6or relief feature resulting from faulting activities" It represents a trough, depression or basin between two crustal arts" )ift valleys are formed due to displacement of crustal arts and subsidence of middle portion between two normal faults by hori3ontal and vertical movements motored by Endogenetic forces )ift valley are generally also called as 8graben which is a 'erman word which means trough*like depression" + rift valley may be formed in two ways vi3 -hen the middle portion of the crust between two normal faults is dropped downward while the two blocks on the either side of the down dropped block remain stable -hen the middle portion between two normal remains stable and the two side blocks on the either side of the middle position are raised upward

(igure 9A Illustration of rift valleys and graben

)hine rift valley is the best e5ample rift valley" #he one side of the rift valley is bounded by 4osges and .ardt mountains (block mountains*horst) while the other side is bordered by 1lack forest and odenwald mountains" ,ome of the other rift valleys are Eordan )iver valley, %eath 4alley of southern Californian and %ead ,ea in +sia" #he rift valleys are not only confined to continental crustal surfaces but they are also found on the sea floor" #he deepest grabens are found in the form of8ocean deeps and trenches"

(igure 9= )hine )ift 4alley

(igure 9C )hine and %eath 4alley of California

Ori&in o# ri#t va e!s

#he hypothesis regarding the origin of rift valleys are generally grouped in to two categories 9"#ensional hypothesis*based on tensional forces :"Compressional hypothesis*based on compressional forces 1oth these hypothesis have lot of limitations and was not able to solve many of the intricate problems of the origin of rift valley"
'!pothesis o# E(C )" ard

E"C" 1ullard, while conducting the gravity survey, postulated his new concept of the origin of the rift valleys and according to him the formation of rift valley is completed through a series of se7uential phases of compressional forces coming from both the sides of the land" #he hori3ontal compressive forces work face to face from both the sides of the land" #his lateral compression becomes so enormous that it e5ceeds the strength of the rocks@ a crack is developed at a place in the crustal rocks" #his crack is gradually enlarged due to continuous increase in the compressive force"

(igure 9D ,tage 9 ,econd stage, due to the formation of crack, one portion overrides the other ortion and this portion is called thrusting" &n the other hand, the second part is thrown downward relative to the first part" #his process is called down thrusting"

(igure 9B ,econd ,tage +*C part has gone upward because of over thrusting "%ue to the 0pthrusting of the side block (+*C) up to a height of few thousand metres the downthrust block(+*%) develops crack at a place (1) due to the resultant compressive force" #he place of the crack is located at the highest point of the downthrust block" #his newly formed crack continues to increase gradually"

(igure :> #hird ,tage #hird stage,the crack developed at downthrust block 1 place becomes enlarged due to increased compression with the result 1*% part of the downthrust block overrides its other part (+*1)"#hus, the position of downthrust +*1 part between the two upthrust blocks (+*C and 1*%) becomes rift valley"

E*OGENETIC FORCES
#he e5ogenetic forces or rocesses, also called as denudational processes, or 8destructional forces or

processes are originated from the atmosphere" #hese forces are continuously engaged in the destruction of the relief features created by Endogenetic forces through their weathering, erosional, depositional activities" %enudation includes both weathering and erosion where weathering being a static process includes the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ whereas erosion is dynamic process which includes both, removal of materials and their transportation to different destinations"

$E%T&ERING
-eathering is basically of three types 9" hysical or !echanical weathering :"Chemical weathering ;"1iological weathering #hese processes are very important for the biosphere ecosystem because weathering of parent rocks results in the formation of soils which are very essential for the sustenance of the biotic lives in the biosphere"

EROSION
#he erosional processes include running water or river, ground water, sea Fwaves, glaciers, periglacial processes and wind" #hese erosional processes erode the rocks, transport the eroded materials and deposit them in suitable places and thus form several types of erosional and depositional landforms of different magnitudes and dimensions"