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SECTION

1 - BASIC

INFORMATION

A.

Atomic

Structure

Beginning a profound

in change

the in time, one of the

decade the the

before manner general units.

1900, in view This

a series the

of

discoveries of matter

led

to was of

which

structure all matter

viewed. a

Up to

that of each

was that view,

consisted by John unit, consisted of different elements, The or more Dalton, called

combination that

or more

proposed indivisible material

assumed an atom

constituents

was a small A compound the

(Greek: combinations

atomos-indivisible). of atoms, These or to always fundamental the

of

chemical fundamental and

in

same proportion were all called matter. of

substances. formed, used to discovery and was form

substances of, of

elements was

were

constituents

term of

molecule the elements, The J. The basic atom negative fraction charges. embedded However, the the was the nucleus the it positive center soon basic J.

designate

a combination

atoms,

one

compounds. of the electron began to be of number atom new and measurement to reveal a very electrons of positive the must concept electron be associated of the a structure small, in light atoms of its properties the particle implied with that balance the positive electrons on the that atom. all of at it the the by atom. a others, determined within

Thomson electron negative must of also charges. the Thomson in a

charge. contain mass

The presence an equal of the a because

charges-to was so light, with atom-enough the charge

Moreover,

a large

proposed sea

of positive

charge from most

to balance scattering of the the

Ernest

Rutherford charge on the atom in that of positive element Because

showed atom

experiments mass)

(and

was concentrated Furthermore, represented charge of the of

of

the

a core-later the charge charge.

called of That the is,

nucleus.

recognized unit of other any nucleus. the

hydrogen the

nucleus positive

the of

was some integral of (Greek: the significance protos-first). and the particles sub-atomic showed

multiple of the

charge nucleus,

hydrogen was given The

hydrogen

name proton of that An in 1932. the

discovery showed entity.

electron, additional

subsequent existed. particle the

recognition The atom was discovered of

of was not

the an by

proton, indivisible James

"sub-atomic"

Chadwick

His

experiments

existence

a neutral

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-2 particle He that neutron, structure With to observe called this (no this particle proton the electrical particle charge) a with a mass In the classical about the his With the of same as a proton. experiments discovery indivisible showed of the atomic

neutron. in the

addition, picture

was contained and advent electron, of high

nucleus.

was abandoned. energy accelerators, investigation the nucleus have itself. have been of found fundamental extending of the So that, revealed the ability has the sub-

"sub-nuclear" levels in the of structure

reactions, within

nucleus even

revealed particles nuclear particles, are called Our has probe

nucleus

(neutrons

and protons)

certain

structures. made quarks. present up

Neutrons of different

and protons

to be composite units which

combinations

state a number It the

of understanding of changes is structure we make smallest symbol In than during

with the to also the of shown

respect past expect

to century, that

atomic

structure on by to future

experienced deeper

brought ability our

-increased understanding For structure. different naturally increased The in H; well the oxygen as their An electrons central, protons. but neutral. Ax, Z where
mass

technology. into of nuclear our An purposes, atom is

reasonable of nuclear will

as the

recesses

structure improve. following

increases,

use of unit is addition

features A listing 1.1. modern producing

of

atomic of are the 90 has

the

an element. in to Figure these,

elements occurring the

by chemical elements. to more usually (Figure symbol symbols of charged and the a of the which positive denoting gives 0;

There science

number are chart the

100 by artificially by their for of

elements. shown symbol as

elements periodic has

designated 1.1). etc.

chemical example, the elements G.

symbols, has the

Hydrogen, A listing

by name,

chemical consists provide

can be found a nucleus portion proton

in Appendix

atom to

surrounded neutrality. of are charge the atom,

by a sufficient The nucleus composed of the about is is the

number massive,

of and

electrical

positively The the proton A X number method is neutron has

of neutrons the is

particles and structure the element. of

same mass, electrically used A is is the in a

neutron which The

atomic symbol the of number

often

chemical

quantity and

protons

neutrons

1 H 3 Li 11 Na 19 K 37 Rb 55 cs 87 Fr

PERIODIC

CHART

OF THE ELEMENTS

l-l
6 7 N 15 P 8 0 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 PO 9 F 17 Cl 35 Br 53 I 85 At

I Hel
10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn

4
Be GMg 20 Ca 38 sr 56 Ba 88 Ra 21
SC

I I
5 B 22 Ti 40 Zr 72 Hf 23 V 41 Nb 73 Ta 24 Cr 42 MO 74 W 25 Mn 43 Tc 75 Re 26 Fe 44 Ru 76 0s 29 Cu 47 30 Zn 48 31 Ga 49

32 Ge 50

33 As 51 Sb

Ag Cd
79 Au 80 Hg

In
81 TI

Sn

82 ~ 83 Bi Pb

104) (105) (106)

58 Ce 90 Th

59 Pr 91 Pa

60 Nd 92 U

61 Pm 93 Np

62 Sm 94 Pu

63 Eu 95 Am

64 Gd 96 Cm

65 Tb 97 Bk

66 Dy 98 Cf

67 HO 99 Es

68 Er 100 Fm

Figure 1.1 Periodic Chart - Elements with a similar chemical properties are shown in the same column; elements of increasing atomic number Z are arranged in rows.

_-

_-

-^
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-_ - -- ~--

1-4 nucleus, of protons and Z is (or the positive atomic number charges) The number as the to of the the proton of atomic atomic weight. as well in meters, of in the the element, nucleus, in neutron the the which gives and nucleus each mass have number the the is the number of

number then

surrounding by unit integer neutron, The A-Z. mass

electrons. Inasmuch on

of neutrons and the weights,

given

approximately is also of that the

scale the

closest proton radius

See Appendix as for other is given

A for useful

mass by

and electron, nucleus,

constants.

approximately

r = 1.3

x 10-15A1/3.

1.1

The Almost nuclear mass

diameter the density The units divided reciprocal of 1

of entire

the

nucleus mass about mass One of 1017 of u, mass

is

less the

than atom is

l/10,000

that

of in

the the

atom nucleus.

itself. The

concentrated

is

kg/m3. an element physical any atom, number number u = 1.6606 N, may be expressed scale, in grams, x is 10-24 (6.022 (l/N,) x is l/12 is in of equal unified the to its atomic mass of a atomic

atomic (u). atom. by of u,

on the of

carbon-12 mass The s-s, kgThe expression:

The

Avogadro's Avogadro's i.e., 1

1O23 molecules/mole). equal g = to the mass, x in

1.6606

10-27

number

of

atoms

in

a certain

mass

of

an element

is

given

by the

1.2

where atoms

m is the in one gram

mass of the element of 238U is calculated

in grams. to be:

For

example,

the

number

of

N=Fa= k(6.022
The chemistry. which 238U is is gram-atomic These equal 238 to g weight quantities its of atomic 238U;

x 1023)

= 2.53

x lO*l

atoms.

or simply

gram-molecular mean a weight weight.

weight in

is grams

often of

used

in

an element weight called of a

or molecular a gram-molecular

A gram-atomic weight (often

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-5 mole) 6.022 molecules. Note, in 238U. by 1000 a that in SI units, weight. 1.2, the to theory He if A we the mole is of equal 238U to the number then then of molecules kg of of x Hz0 1O23 is 18 g. a A gram-atomic weight weight of an element 6.022 contains x 1O23

atoms;

gram-molecular

contains

kg-molecular In to equation express respect a

mole

would

be 0.238

express weight of based electrons

m in kg,

A must

be divided

gram-molecular the arrangement which that was

as kg-molecular electrons upon within the

weight. the atom, light the or Niels from central

With Bohr hydrogen nucleus orbits number remained no of light light stationary provided

observed around fixed,

atoms. in were n, in circular

assumed orbits. These have

revolved certain were from in

However, stationary integral orbit, light to the it

only orbits

quantized,

possible. which could

described 7. While

by a quantum an electron state from the states of and one the

values existed if would

1 to a definite electron in the

a stationary be to emitted. orbit

energy moved energy Moreover,

would emitted

However,

an

another,

be emitted.

amount

was related

difference

two orbits. The when orbits called describe mathematical interpretation standpoint, by atom a cloud provided The motion is orbits shells orbits, the of applied were 1. Bohr to also Two the theory other possible, more energy theory, of many atom electrons. by Bohr atom in may the Figure the are still be nucleus. 1.2. nucleus. called explained elements. and this spectra Arnold from hydrogen, another s, were addition, but was inadequate that elliptical number, to to completely of successful mechanics surrounded of the in atom, now Sommerfeld showed

introduced m and In

quantum needed the led the

quantum state by of use

numbers, an electron. of atomic

application

quantum properties.

mechanics, From of simple

other

quantum picture of

may be viewed Nevertheless, serves pictured

as consisting the a in

a nucleus

physical system case in of elliptical comprise The in the

as a useful as this

representation. electrons fluorine

planetary

about shown

An example, The electrons These energy of the

rotate

and circular a series of with of the the

about which and

well-defined or quantum shells, are

orbits levels. large

diameters

consequently

comparison

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-6

Figure 1.2 The stable fluorine atom (,9F). The nucleus contains 9 protons and 10 neutrons.

nuclear 0,

diameter.

The

shells (1,

are 2,

denoted 3, 4, 5,

by either 6, 7). The

a letter energy

(K, state

L, M, N, of each

P, Q) or quantum in (n, in the a 1, shell

number is

electron numbers electrons numbers possible where integral atom. The electrical which outer hold n

completely The Pauli

described Exclusion

by four Principle that limit of the the is, is shell,

independent states have all to given which that four the

quantum no two quantum number of on the

m, and s). one atom This in principal 1, 2,

any same.

can be identical, principle each level. quantum 3, 4, 5, sets This number 6, 7 for

an upper

limit

electrons is values the

by N, = 2n2, may take shell of

corresponding

electrons properties atoms aid

in of together in the

an

atom the in

influence atom. The outer

the

chemical, electrons In metals,

mechanical exert the

and forces bound

chemical of

compounds. electricity.

loosely

electrons

conduction

B.

Ionization

An

electron

can

be removed

fairly

easily

from

an atom

or molecule.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-7 One or more electrons may also be added to such entities. The resulting

component has an electric charge because the number of protons exceed the The term ion is used to define atoms or groups of number of electrons. an electric charge. The charge each ion carries depends atoms carrying upon the number of electrons which have been added (negative) or removed (positive). Ionization is a process whereby electrons may be removed from, or added to, a neutral atom or molecule. The removal of an electron from an atom or molecule (see Figure 1.3 for the process of electron removal and the positively from an atom) results in an ion pair: the free electron charged is the ground state of an atom, in which it is stable, is supplied to the atom, the atom is said to be in an If enough energy is added to remove electrons, the atom excited state. The electron binding energy, or work function, is the will be ionized. amount of energy needed to remove an electron from the atom. Ionization residue. The normal state. If energy

IONIZING

POSITIVE

Figure

1.3 The ionization

of an atom.

----__
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__--

-.-

-.

--

l-8 and excitation of interacting of light atoms with and return can to be the produced Excited ground state. directly atoms or lose indirectly energy through by

radiation emission

matter.

C.

Isotones. It was is atoms

Nuclides. mentioned characterized possessing place) atomic is

Isobars that by different used masses. of to over its 100 atomic masses. denote the elements atomic elements number. The with number the are known to man. Each may is number isotopes number exhibit of

element have

However, term the is isotope

an element (Greek:

topos-same but have neutrons similar The containing referred Appendix to G. There possess isobars properties. Some particles integration Within between are the different the

same atomic the but same, the Isotopes

Since protons may have

same vary. chemical term

number An element properties. nuclide and nucleons.

within

nucleus, isotopes.

one or more

is

used

to

generally The neutrons of the

designate and Nuclides

an atomic protons

species are often in

neutrons as

protons. The

Chart

can be found

are

nuclides atomic is

which numbers.

have

the These

same nuclides Isobars

atomic are have

mass

number, to

but as

different (Greek:

referred similar

baros-same are unstable,

weight).

nuclear

nuclides and/or called the protons,

releasing radiation

energy by a process

in of

the decay force,

form

of

electromagnetic radioactivity. nucleus, which a

or disexists forces

repulsive tends to push In

force, the which energy nucleons. each type

the nucleus there tend for

Coulomb apart. are very

Such

relatively forces Similar binding the of of

long-range between to energy relative these forces and protons the which

forces. the atomic holds

addition,

short-range the of nucleus is a nucleons The net or

attractive together. nuclear changes, effect ratio

nucleons binding the of determine

to hold electrons, number

there

As the of

effectiveness will is

force

varies.

whether

a certain

combination

neutrons

stable.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-9

The most number stability When all the Z>20, nuclides very

neutron

to except

proton for p, for the one lH.

ratio In nuclide excess

(n/p) the is

varies lighter

from

about

0.5 for

- 1.6 even For

for mass

nuclides, A, when is an

nuclides, stable. for stability. to

generally instability for

odd A, p.

found excess exhibit nuclear

n and are needed

one

excess

of neutrons instability, mass.

Above the effect

Z=84, of

generally

attributed

large

D.

Particle

Dvnamics

A change inertia. will in be the The and the cle

particle in its The the SI

has velocity. greater inertia,

the

property The mass

of of

inertia, a particle

that

is, is

a resistance a measure the The unit of

to this

the

resistance the

to a change mass of (kg). the

in particle.

velocity,

greater of mass kg to a

and thus is of the

system velocity must is given as the F

kilogram

Th ere

are

about

0.454

pound. a particle is a vector quantity of The the in which both (that of speed is, direction speed) is defined The product of force the be specified. in time which m/s in the of The magnitude SI system. change on velocity

acceleration

a parti-

rate acts

of velocity. is the defined object: in terms of the

a particle mass m of

acceleration

a and the

F - ma.

1.3

If

the

acceleration m(v F=

is

constant,
= mv - mv,

- vo> t

1.4

t as the impulse so that of change (N): of equation. The quantity the mv is magnitude of will force give called of a in to

This the force the

equation momentum from SI the

is of

known the time

particle, rate newton

one can measure the momentum. is the force

The unit which

system

is

the

a newton

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-10 one quantity rotating angular kg an mv at acceleration is a often radial (L), called distance of 1 the m/s2, linear that is 1N (p). point, = 1 kgm/s2. The is an

momentum a central

When a particle it will possess

r from

momentum

L = mvr.

1.5 concept in physics the is total Conservation momentum of Momentum. of the system When no remains

An external constant.

important force acts

on a system,

E.

Work

and Energy

Work distance

is

usually which

defined an object

as moves

the under

product the action

of

a force of the

F and the force:

d through

W=Fd.

1.6

The energy energy potential level. change table. will This its

term by is

energy virtue energy energy In its In order to

is of of

defined its to the For position;

as the position zero book if

capacity e.g., a

for book

doing of the its resting

work.

An object Potential floor

has has

and by virtue we consider energy might the done falls

motion. on the

equal give

floor

as a reference do work on it it the to on a book

potential we table,

we must pick it

position. raising be equal the to

example, to work if the

up and put energy it table to of that

book the

potential in off raising the

now work original Kinetic

we have the book

height. to

can be recovered position energy on the is energy

and returns

floor. of motion. It is given by the equation

Ek

1/hV2.

1.7

The newton

unit

of meters

work =

or

energy

in

the

SI system we have

is the

the book

joule on

(J). the

The joule= floor or

kgm2/s2.

When

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-11 table, kinetic potential energies to the its kinetic as it energy approaches However, be constant at will be zero. the floor. in to the If the book its flight, done falls, flight, the in it it will will the the gain lose two book

energy energy. will table. Another

During its work

any point

sum of raising

and equal

important done on the of energies

concept system the

in

physics

is system,

Conservation the in motion the mass sum of

of the

Energy. potential constant. of

If

no and In

work kinetic the

is

or by the of the reaction

system

objects sum of must of

remains

case

of

nuclear

reactions, the

and energy This

the is a

particles consequence Albert

before, of the

and after,

remain and

constant. energy

interchangeability

mass

as shown by

Einstein.

F.

Charged

Particles

If of in forces motion. motion. a

one

looks

at

the

forces

exerted upon is which

by charged whether the of force to

particles, charges are

two at

types or

may be noted, The charges The changing magnetic electrostatic at rest. moving

depending force charges,

rest

the

force

attraction is produced as an electric rise to

or repulsion by charges current, field

between in which produce

The electromagnetic we refer which

electric forces which electric r, is

field on other gives charges called

gives

a magnetic

can exert The

charges. force of of law attraction and is or repulsion and q1 expressed as: q2, magnitudes

expression two

the

between separated

by a distance

Coulomb's

F=

Kqlq2

1.8 r2 '

where

K is

a constant. which K are alike, upon repel; the units charges in which which are F, unlike, ql, q2 attract. and r

Charges The are constant expressed.

depends

-.Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-12 The terms exactly one the unit; meter proton it of unit of charge law: with a vacuum. is x 1018 in one a the SI system is of is that 9 x log of the coulomb which (C). will Stated repel in an

Coulomb's equal apart and takes charge in

coulomb force

charge

newtons the C.

when the

two are charge on

The magnitude 1.602 electrons x lo-l9

fundamental The to coulomb equal

electron 6.24

is

a large of

or protons connected
to

a charge (see Figure

one coulomb. When 1.4), on exists strength the a two negative other which E is will defined parallel charge plate. exert In plates appears the are a battery

on one plate between

and an equal the placed plates, in the

positive an electric field. in the 1.9 The

charge field field

region

a force force

on a charge exerted

by the andF=Eq

on a unit

charge

field:

E=F/q,

-------------k

-V -

E ++++++-I-+++++++

Figure

1.4

to the plates. (R.E.Lapp 1 H.L.Andrews, NUCLEAR RADIATION PHYSICS, 2/e 1954, ~18. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall,
The electric field

E is perpendicular

Inc.,Inglewood

C1iffqN.J)

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-13 The unit term charge potential done in difference, moving symbolized a charge from by V, one plate is defined to the as the other: work per

v= w Q
and so If the is W is W = Fd = Eqd V = Ed in joules field commonly the force In but radius and q in strength used coulombs, then V will be in volts. by V/d

l.lOa l.lOb 1.11 Note that This

electron a more In

E may also

be expressed

(volts/m).

designation. example, in of the field r from have rs. a the electric is the constant, electrodes, central central The wire expression field both the wire. of for In E is in uniform, direction field this type rl, field that and is not of and is

parallel-plate on a charge the varies one will of the case with

is,

the

magnitude. uniform, arrangement, an then: inner

cylindrical

radius

usually cylinder

radius the

E= where one as the V is the

V rMr2/rl> voltage across wire, the electrodes. so that the The force field gets 1.12 stronger increases as

approaches charge Devices

the nears used the

central wire. detect

on a charge

to electrode

radiation designs. to

have Parallel achieve

utilized plate

both chambers

parallel require The enough designs, voltages. difference

plate very latter energy high

and high occurs to field

cylindrical field when create the

strengths ions ions more

in formed before

order collection

gas amplification. radiation acquire cylindrical high potential

by interacting occurs. the related

In

strengths The velocity

can be reached of

without is

use

of very to the

an electron

by the

expression: Ve=$nv2 1.13

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-14 where velocity scattering electron will The ever, the by 1 a eV the electron potential = 1.6 x Ve is of of expressed the electron is electrons greater the SI above unit volt is the in joules. is much negligible l/10 energy that is This less (high of will the relationship than vacuum). light, not joule. the hold. In energy in is are: nuclear unit. physics, By definition, an electron to keV the = joule lo3 by: eV, 1 howthat of When the mass of is valid light speed the if of electron the the

and the

becomes increase and usual electron volt

than of

relationship (eV) amount of is used

as the done It

of work one volt. multiples

accelerating related 1

difference lo-l9 J.

Common eV. earlier,

MeV = lo6 As duces This Figure generator energy). electrons field force. pumped. one the voltage, the source. end, is a flow

eV and was current. can or This are applied, may One a

1 GeV = log out One occur be device flow loosely these say that which electrons may

pointed

the

movement

of is

a charged simply

particle of

procharge. (see as a

may say that between parallel by also bound electrons electrons is applied, to flow take

a current plates other in under

a flow to

connected voltage a wire. the In influence very energy

a battery (such electrical into

1.4)

induced which

some place move

source metals, of much of like

converts

mechanical

some outer the applied water is at

and can be easily

removed.

When an electric

can be pumped, produces flow of towards electrons to taken

The voltage, and the

a pressure the begins perform by the other from work flow

electrons equalize source

tend the various

end to the

pressure. moves

Generally, through For current this (I)

of to is

components the route

and returns of electrons

reason,

referred The It point: may

to be

as a circuit. in as the the wire charge is a measure unit of time the flow of electrons. a fixed expressed (Q) per which passes

I=t

9 1.14

The 1A =

unit 1

of C/s.

current The

is direction

the

ampere of the

(A), current

which is

is

one coulomb as the

per

second, in

defined

direction

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-15 which actually a positive be in Another resistance. flow. George to the factor The charge opposite which in that would move. Note that the flow of electrons will

direction. affects the circuit electron flow in a circuit is current called will

resistance found applied

influences the

how much current as Ohm's

Ohm the

in many materials, This is

was directly Law:

proportional

voltage.

expressed

IaV

or

1-E

1.15

in

which

1 is R and

the

constant

of proportionality, called impedes the plates,

and R is Ohms current. on

called (0): 1

the n =

re1 V/A.

sistance As is seen Going charges conducting has on the the

is back

measured Law, Figure to represent (the to is store directly

in

units 1.4,

from

Ohm's

resistance two gap). charge.

which

buildup

of

the

occur, surface ability plates

conducting This arrangement The amount to

surfaces defines of the charge applied

separated a capacitor, (Q) which voltage

by a nonwhich builds (V). up This

proportional

may be written

Q = CV, is of farad the constant (F), which

1.16

in volt

which of

C, is stored

called measured electricity. circuits

the

capacitance, in units

of proportionality. is the coulombs per

Capacitance

Complex and used together complete resistors contained transistors to control on

consist

of

combinations - made These

of from

resistors, silicon

capacitors or germaniumcan now be put

(semiconductor and small amplify piece

devices current). of silicon.

circuits

one

An integrated may

circuit contain

(IC) transistors,

is

electronic and in a silicon

circuit. capacitors, chip

These along as small with

circuits the of

interconnecting an inch square.

conductors,

as l/16

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-16 G. Relativistic Corrections

Among in his special

the

new concepts theory of relativity

which

Einstein are:

contributed

to modern

physics

1)

No

measured

velocity

can

exceed

the

speed

of

light

c in

vacuum.

2)

body upon

does its

not

have v:

a constant

mass

m. The mass

of

an object

depends

speed

m m=
\i 0

1.17 l/3* the rest are mass. interchangeable: E = (Am)c*, or, and m, is energy

where 3) for

/? = v/c, Mass our and

purposes,

E = mc*.

1.18 theory of its considers speed v. a rest From mass m, and a mass 2) and 3), m which we get

The an object

relativity has by virtue

statements

E = mc*

= moc2./

dm

1.19 energy energy = moc2. content content The of of an object the rest of mass of rest is the mass m, found object by

where moving setting is then:

represents a = 0, speed

the v.

total The E,

with v

namely,

kinetic

energy

Ek = E - E, = moc2 and the momentum is

1.20

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-17

1.21.

The be converted a

concept into very

that the large demonstrated

mass other, amount in

is

another means of energy. release

form that

of

energy,

and that amount of fission this

each

may

even

a small

of mass concept

contains has a one nuclei masses. energy very value to light lighter would heavier of the been nuclide) adds

The correctness of energy in

amply

the

(splitting nuclides). nucleus, the If all

and fusion up the (except The which masses hydrogen) difference is nuclides, at 7.6 about 8.5 MeV/nucleon (fusion) than as iron of heavy the about

(forming of the

one nuclide neutrons masses can

from

two smaller in the to a given

and protons less be for energy for This in than related most is mass

have in mass

sum of the

nucleon binding for this. the The two has a

nuclear However, than

8 MeV/nucleon the binding for will sum MeV/nucleon

nuclides. much numbers indicates smaller

light peaks about nuclei mass appear than

40-120 that nucleus

and decreases combining which

uranium. result of the

a new heavier masses. the in

original Combining results This be split

The mass mass of mass that

difference

released to the form

energy. uranium

two nuclides than the would sum be

a heavier

masses if the

two nuclides. nucleus could

indicates up (fission)

energy into

released nuclei.

two smaller

H.

Charged

Particle

in

a Magnetic

Field

A perience right the particle,

charged a angles force to field the force

particle acting the direction is acting

which upon it

moves if the

through magnetic of to the the will

a magnetic field particle. direction be: has In

field

will

exat if of the

a component particular,

of motion

entire

perpendicular on the particle

of motion

F = Bev,

1.22

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-18 where and (see v direction Figure In particle B its is the magnetic The and the field force particle strength, will will tend the e is be the charge on the to a circle force particle, the r

velocity. of v, 1.5). considering

perpendicular to move in

B and to of radius

circular given by

motion,

centrifugal

exerted

on the

of

mass m is F = mv2/r.

1.23
magnetic field, the field radius acting on a charged from particle moving at

Accordingly, right angles

for to the

r may be found

Bev = mv2/r

1.24

E.

r=

Be

1.25

\+

h\
+ + / f

+
+ F
+

r
//
,.-.,+ .a + *+ +

Figure

1.5

A charged

particle

traveling

perpendicular

to a magnetic

field

which

is directed

into the plane of the paper.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-19 For in B m. in The tesla tesla (T), is e in the coulombs, SI unit m in for kg and v in m/s, magnetic field r will be given 1T = lo4

strength,

Gauss.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Marion, J.B., GENERAL PHYSICS Sons, Inc., New York, NY (1979). Glasstone, Nostrand S., Company, SOURCEBOOK ON Inc., Princeton, WITH BIOSCIENCE ESSAYS, John Wiley &

2.

ATOMIC ENERGY, NJ (1967). H.D.,

3rd.

ed.,

D.

Van

3.

Sears, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1974). Cromer, A., PHYSICS York, NY (1980). Halliday, New York, Lapp, R.E. Prentice-Hall, IN SCIENCE

COLLEGE PHYSICS, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,

4th. New

4.

AND INDUSTRY,

5.

D. and Resnick, NY (1977).

R.,

PHYSICS,

3rd.

ed.,

John

Wiley

& Sons, 4th. ed.,

6.

and Andrews, H.L., NUCLEAR RADIATION Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1972). Elementary 84-95 (1985). Particles and Forces,

PHYSICS,

7.

Quigg,
252, No.

C., 4,

SCIENTIFIC

AMERICAN,

QUESTIONS 1.1 1.2 Where In What the does the nucleus AX, Z used reside to in an atom? an atom, what are A, Z and X?

method does (A-Z) times atom gram

denote

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

indicate? larger is the is the atom than its nucleus?

How many Upon What what is

unified

mass unit Gram molecular

u based? weight? atomic electron weight? shells?

atomic

weight? number

How is What State

Avogadro's the

related to

to

gram the

are

two methods exclusion

designate

Pauli's

principle.

_------.
Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

-- -

l-20 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 What What is is an ion? an isotope? due apart? Isobar? to electrical charge on the protons, Which tends to push are

What force, the nucleus

What are the units the same and why? What energy term indicates due to motion?

of work,

energy,

and force?

two units

1.14

(a)

the

energy

due to position?

and

(b)

the

1.15

Consider

the

formula

V2 F = K r2 What potential? oppositely charged, field greatest? concentric, cylindrical are its units?

what 1.16 1.17 What

does is

K represent? the unit of

At what electrodes What Assume directed is

point between is the electric rest mass?

1.18 1.19

that an observer toward him. In what front of In in what front

is

looking

into

a horizontal

magnetic

field

a>
b)
1.20

direction will a proton curve if it enters the the observer in a vertically downward direction? direction of the will observer an electron curve moving from right truck. The truck if to does it enters left? not move.

field

in

the

field

A person pushes done on the truck?

a stalled Why not?

Is

work

PROBLEMS

1.1

Compute

the

nuclear

radii

of c) 13'1 53 d) 238U 92

b) P
Answers: a) b) c> d) 1.30~10-~~ 1.87~10-~~ 6.60~10-~~ 8.06~10-'~

m m m m

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-21

1.2

Find

the

number

of

atoms

in

0.006

kg of

lead,

atomic

weight

207.

Answer: 1.3 Find

&Sod.

1.746~10~~ the gram The atomic

atoms weight H 1.00, (mole) S 32.06, of sulphuric 0 16.00. acid,

molecular weights are: g. kilograms

Answer: 1.4 Find weight Answer: 1.5 Find date the mass 232.

98.06 in

of

single

atom

of

thorium,

atomic

3.85~10-~~ number the

kg of electrons Pauli Exclusion that an N shell Principle. can accommo-

the maximum without violating 32

Answer: 1.6 The mass 1O-27 kg. the nuclear

of a 12C atom is experimentally Assuming the carbon nucleus density of 12C.

6

to

found to be 19.92637x be spherical, compute

Answer: 1.7 Find above Answer: 1.8 What cause Answer: 1.9 Assuming a to accelerate Answer: 1.10 the and

1.8~10~~ value of the definition 6.022

kg/m3 Avogadro's of unified x 1O23 mol/mole a helium ion, Ignore Einstein atomic mass, correction. 4.OOu, to number using mass unit. the mass of 12C given
6

force must be applied to it to accelerate 100 m/s2. 6.64~10-~~ constant a lithium 9.99x10-8 N. force ion s.

of

of lo-l5 6.0150 u,

N, how long would it from rest to lo4 m/s.

take

x 1O-27 kg) passes A neutron (m = 1.675 interval of 2~10~~ s. Assuming in a time tant, what is its kinetic energy in joules? Answer: 2.1~10-~~ J.

two points 10 m apart its speed is cons-

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-22

1.11

In the

the

formula

F = K -q1q2 it r2 ' K in the form

is

a standard K = 4AE0 the I

practice , of

to write where the co is permitivity called of

constant

the permitivity space. Answer: 1.12

EO

of

space.

Compute

value

= 8.84~10~~~

C2/N.m2

Find the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction between the proton and electron in the hydrogen atom. Assume the charge on proton to be 1.6x10-lg C and the charge on electron to be -1.6x10-lg C and the distance of separation, is 5.3 x lo-l1 m. Answer: -8.2~10-~ N. between two parallel field between the plates plates?

1.13

A potential separated Answer:

difference of 1000 V exists by 0.004 m. What is the electric 2.5~10~ V/m.

1.14

The inside diameter of a cylindrical Geiger-Mueller tube is 0.02 m and the diameter of the center electrode is 5~10~~ m. Find the electric field at a distance of 0.001 m from the centerline of the tube when the applied potential is 900 V. Answer: 2.44~10~ V/m. upon passing from one plate difference is 100 V. Assume 1.6x10-lg C and the mass to

1.15

Find the velocity gained by an electron to another between which the potential the charge on the electron to be be 9.11x1O-31 kg. Answer: 5.93x106 m/s electron 2.9979x108

1.16

The rest

rest mass of an energy in MeV? (Use 0.511 mass MeV? of MeV a

is 9.1O95x1O-31 m/s as the speed

kg. What of light.)

is

its

Answer: 1.17 The rest energy in Answer: 1.18 Express Answer:

proton

is

1.6726~10~~~

kg.

What

is

its

rest

938.3 1 u (unified 931.6

MeV mass unit) MeV in MeV.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

1-23 1.19 Using the relativistic correction due to Einstein, find the mass of a proton when it gains a velocity of 2x10* m/s from rest. Use 3x108 m/s as the speed of light and 1.6726~10~~~ kg as proton rest mass. Answer: 1.20 An electron 2.244~10-~~ is moving the kg of the speed of light. in kinetic formula energy and the calculated with non-relativistic

at l/10

a>
b)

What is Einstein's formula?

difference relativistic

What is the percent a) b) 19 eV < 1%

difference?

Answers: 1.21

Show that the binding Assume the following: deuteron proton neutron electron mass: mass: mass: mass:

energy

of a deuteron 2.014102

is approximately u kg kg kg

2.2 MeV.

1.672649x1O-27 1.674954x1O-27 9.1O9534x1O-31

1.22

An electron moving perpendicularly 0.05 T has a velocity of 6~10~ circular path of the electron? Answer: 6.83~10~~ m

through a magnetic field of m/s. What is the radius of the

-Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

l-24